TRANSFORMERS azahar.ahmed786@gmail.

com 1

CHAPTER-Iii

TRANSFORMERS

SYLLABUS;

Principle of operation of Single-Phase Transformer – EMF equation - Losses and

efficiency of transformer- Regulation of transformer- OC and SC tests on single
phase transformer- Predetermination of efficiency and regulation -Simple Problems.

By MD AZAHAR AHMED
EEE DEPARTMENT
SRKR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 2

Definition: Transformer is a Static device, which transfers the electrical power or

energy from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in
voltage or current and without any change in the frequency.
Or
Transformer is a Static device which step up or step down the voltage
without any change in the frequency. Transformer used to increase the voltage is
called “STEP UP” Transformer, which that used to decrease the voltage is called “STEP
DOWN” Transformer.

Working Principle of a Transformer: Transformer works on the principle of

electromagnetic induction and mutual induction between the two coils.
• Transformer mainly consists of two windings wounded on a core as shown in below figure.

Fig: Elementary Transformer

It consists of two windings electrically separated but linked by a common
magnetic circuit of low reluctance formed by a laminated core.
The winding which is connected to the supply is known as “Primary
Winding” and the other winding on which the load is connected is called “Secondary
Winding”.
• When the 1-  AC Supply is given to the Primary Winding a current flows
through it and produces alternating flux(  ) in core as shown in figure.
• The flux produced at primary links with both primary and secondary winding
following the path of low Reluctance core.
• The flux linking with primary winding induces an emf known as self-induced
emf (E1) and flux linking with secondary winding induces emf known as
mutually induced emf (E2) according to Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic
induction.
• If the Secondary winding connected across the load, the mutually induced emf
circulates a current to the load. Thus the electrical energy is transferred from
primary to secondary without any change in frequency.
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H.V and L.V Winding: The winding connected to High voltage side called High
voltage or H.V Winding while that connected to Low voltage called Low voltage or
L.V Winding.
In Step up Transformer: L.V Winding is primary; (H.V) Secondary
In Step down Transformer: H.V winding is primary; (L.V) Secondary
TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD:
In Practical Transformer, core losses such as Hysteresis and Eddy current
losses occur due to alternating flux in core.
When an AC Supply given the primary of a Transformer and no load on
secondary i.e., secondary open circuited (I2=0).The Primary will draws a very small
amount of current as shown in fig (a).
The No-load current which is 2 to 5% of full load current which produces
a flux (  ) in the core. A part of No-load current used for supply iron losses in core
and a small amount copper loss I02 R1 in primary winding and no secondary winding
losses as I2=0.

Fig (a): circuit diagram Fig (b): Phasor diagram

The No-load current ‘I0’ taken by the primary consists of two components.
i. Reactive or Magnetic component, IM producing flux and hence in phase with
flux.
ii. Active (or) working component, IW supplying the iron losses and negligible
copper losses in primary winding.
Hence IW is in phase with supply voltage (V1).
So, I̅0 =I̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
M +IW Phasor addition
2 2
From fig (b) phasor diagram, No load current I0=√IM + IW
No load power factor is cos  0 where I0 lags V1 by  0
Active component IW= I0 cos  0 and Reactive component IM= I0sin  0
No load power input W0=V1I0 cos  0 = V1 IW Watts
As Copper losses are negligible hence no load input power equals to Core loss
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 4

TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
When Transformer is loaded, the secondary current I2 flows through secondary
winding. Due to current I2 it produces a flux ‘  2’ in the core which opposes the main
flux ‘  ’ produced by primary as per Lenz’s law.
• Due to decrease in main field (  ) flux there by decrease in the self-induced
emf (E1) in primary winding which causes the increase in primary as
transformer is a constant power device.
• The increase in current in primary winding produces a flux (  2 )such that it
neutralizes the flux of the secondary (  2) produced by I2 and thus the flux
remains the same from no-load to full load condition.
The circuit diagram for transformer on load shown below.

From figure initially I0 is the no-load current before the transformer loaded and  be
the total flux produced under No-load.
• As the load connected across secondary it allows the current I2 and produces a
flux  2 in the secondary winding which appears main flux (  ) hence there
will be decrease in flux from decrease in flux No-load to Full-load. In order to
maintain constant flux primary will drawn extra current I̅2 along with the I0
collectively called as primary current to neutralize the flux produced by
secondary and produces a flux from which is equal and opposite to  2
Hence the main flux (  ) remains same from No-load to Full-load.
From Figure I̅2 =load component of primary current
N 2 I 2= N1 I 2

N2
I2 = I2
N1

I2 = K I2

Where K -voltage transformation ratio

TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 5

The primary current (I1) will have two components

i. No-load current (I0)
ii. Load component of primary current ( I 2 )
I̅1 =I̅0 +I̅2 1

Operation of Transformer on DC Supply:

A Transformer cannot be operated on DC supply when a DC supply is
applied to primary of a Transformer a flux will be produced will not vary with
time. As the flux remains constant hence the magnitude of emf induced will be
zero.
i.e., No emf induced in primary and secondary winding.
According to Faraday’s law E=I2/I1
For Φconstant ; E=0
If no self-induced emf in primary winding to oppose the applied supply
voltage as per Lenz’s law. Therefore heavy current will flow through primary
which may results in damage of winding.
Hence for this reason “DC Supply” never be applied to Transformer.

EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

As Transformer is a single excited AC device the primary winding of a Transformer
is excited by alternating voltage. As the flux depends upon the current hence an
alternating flux is produced as shown in below figure.

Let Φ m = Maximum value of flux in Weber’s

f= supply frequency in Hertz
T=time period for one complete cycle in seconds
According to Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic induction
Average value of emf induced per turn = Average Rate of change of flux
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dΦ
Emf per turn= ...............................................(1)
dt

Consider a part of the flux (  ) wave. i.e., ¼ of cycle

The flux wave reaches maximum value from o to Φ m in ¼ cycles
Change in flux ( dΦ ) = Φ m ...............................................(2)
Time taken to reach maximum value ( dt ) = 1/4f ............................................... (3)
From (1),(2) and (3) equations.
dΦ Φ m
Average emf per turn E= = =4f Φ m volts
dt 1/4f
Since flux varies sinusoid ally with time, so emf induced will also be sinusoidal.
RMS value
For sinusoidal wave, Form factor = =1.11
Average value

Therefore RMS value of emf induced per turn =1.11*Average value

=1.11*4f Φ m
Therefore RMS value of emf turn = 4.44f Φ m volts
If the number of primary and secondary winding turns are N 1 and N2 respectively,
then
RMS value of emf in Primary winding E1= 4.44f Φ m N1 volts
RMS value of emf in Secondary winding E2= 4.44f Φ m N2 volts
If Bm-maximum value of flux density in wb/m2 and A-Area of crossection of the core
then Φ m =Bm A

E1= 4.44Bm f N1A volts

E2= 4.44Bm f N2A volts

Now consider E1= 4.44Bm f N1A volts….(i)

E2= 4.44Bm f N2A volts…..(ii)
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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer is quite helpful in predetermining the
behaviour of the transformer under various condition of operation shown below the
equivalent circuit with ‘ZL’ as load impedance

Fig: Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Where R1 and R2 are resistance of primary and secondary winding
respectively of practical transformer and X1 and X2 is leakage reactance of primary
and secondary windings due to leakage flux respectively.
No-load current I0 given as I̅0 =I̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
M +IW

Where ‘IM ’ reactive component of no-load current (or) magnetising current taken by
no load leakage reactance (X0) and ‘IW ’ Active component of no-load current or
working component taken by no-load resistance (R0)
i.e., from equivalent circuit as R0, X0 parallel with ‘Z1’
E1
R 0= ; X 0= E1
IW IM

IW= I0 cos  0 ; IM= I0sin  0

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i. Equivalent circuit referred to Primary side:

Equivalent Circuit referred to primary is defined as transferring all the values
from secondary to primary in order to make the calculations easier.
• While transferring as the no-load current ‘I0’ is only 2 to 5 percent of full load
current, hence neglected.
• Hence the shunt branch R0,X0 can be neglected to make it as
Approximate equivalent circuit.

Fig (1): Approximate equivalent circuit

The Equivalent Circuit referred to primary can be done by transferring

secondary resistance and reactance to primary side as shown in fig (2)

Fig(2): Equivalent Circuit referred to

From figure R21, X21 are the transferred resistance and reactance from secondary
side to primary side respectively and R1, X1 are primary resistance and
reactance respectively.
V2 , I21 are the secondary voltage and secondary current transferred to primary.
1

Now
Power loss before transfer in resistance R2 due to I2 = power loss after transfer
in resistance R21 due to I1.
I22 R2= I12 R21
R21= (I2/I1)2 R2
R21=1/K2 R2
Similarly X21=X2/K2

Where K=voltage transformation ratio=V2/V1=N2/N1=E2/E1=I1/I2

Primary equivalent of secondary terminal voltage V21=V2/K and secondary load
impedance ZL=ZL/K2
From figure (3)
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R01, X01 is defined as equivalent resistance and reactance referred to primary.

R01=R1+ R21=R1+ R2/K2

X01=X1+ X21=X1+ X2/K2

Here, while transferring resistance and reactance from secondary to primary the
transferred resistance and reactance should be multiplied with (1/K2) and voltage
should be divided with (K) or multiplied with (1/K).
Where K= N2/N1= I1/I2 =V2/V1

ii. Equivalent circuit referred to secondary side:

Transferring the primary values such as resistance, reactance, voltage and
current to secondary side in order to make the calculations easier.
From figure R11, X11 are the transferred resistance and reactance from
primary to secondary side respectively.

Power loss in R1 due to I1 = Power loss in R11 due to I2

(Before transfer) (After transfer)
I1 R1= I2 R11
2 2

R11= (I1/I2)2 R1
R11=K2 R1
Similarly R11=K2 R1 where ‘K’ is voltage transformation ratio.
From figure (b) R02 and X02 are the equivalent resistance and reactance from primary
to secondary side.

R02=R2+ R11=R2+ K2R1

X02=X2+ X11=X2+ K2X1
Hence, while transferring the resistance and reactance from primary to secondary side
it should be multiple (K2).
Where K= N2/N1= I1/I2 =V2/V1
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 10

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
As the transformer is a static device and therefore no rotational losses i.e., friction
and windage losses. So, that its efficiency is much higher than that of rotating
machines. Various losses that occur in a transformer as given below

Total losses

Iron loss
Copper loss Stray loss Dielectric loss
(or) Core loss

Hysteresis Primary
losses copper losses

Eddy current Secondary

losses copper losses

1. CORE OR IRON LOSSES:

These are caused by the alternating flux in the core. Iron losses are constant
losses; because the core flux in a transformer is remain practically constant
for all loads.
• Hysteresis loss: As the flux produced in the core is alternating the core
will undergoes a cycles of magnetization and demagnetization. Due to
hysteresis effect there is a loss of energy ass heat in this process which
is called as Hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss, (Ph) =Ƞ B1.6
m
f γ Watts
• Eddy current loss: The flux produces in primary winding not only the
secondary winding but also cuts the core and induces currents in the
core. Due to this unwanted currents core will gets heated up.
Eddy current loss,(Pe)=Ke B2m f2t2 Watts
• Hysteresis loss in a transformer can be reduced by using CRGO (Cold
Rolled Grain Oriented) silicon steel material for constructing the core
and eddy current losses can be reduced by making core laminations with
insulation which reduces the eddy current loss.
• Iron loss in a transformer is determined from open-circuit test (O.C
TEST).
2. COPPER LOSSES:
As the material generally used for primary and secondary winding of a
transformer is copper and the losses occur due to their resistances. Primary
copper loss given by I12 R1 and secondary copper loss given by I22 R2
• As the copper loss depends upon square of the load current hence they
are known as variable losses.
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 11

• Copper loss in a transformer is determined from short-circuit test (S.C

TEST).
3. STRAY LOSSES:
Stray losses occur due to leakage fields inducing eddy currents in the tankwalls,
belts etcs.

4. DIELECTRIC LOSSES:
Dielectric losses occur due to due to loss of insulating material, mainly oil and
solid insulation.
Stray losses and Dielectric losses are small, hence neglected.

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power.
output power output power
Efficiency, (Ƞ) = =
input power output power+ Losses

Let V2= Secondary terminal voltage

I2= Secondary load current
cos  2= load power factor
Pi = Iron loss
Total copper loss = I12 R2 + I22 R2 (OR) I12 R01 (OR) I22 R02
Where R01 and R02 are equivalent resistance referred to primary and secondary
respectively.
As transformer power measured in KVA; KVA=KWpf
V 2I 2cosΦ 2
Efficiency, (Ƞ) =
2
V 2I 2cosΦ 2+Pi +I2 R 02

Efficiency at any Load:

Let S=full load VA of the transformer=Rating of a transformer

WCU = Full load copper loss
cos Φ= load power factor
X= Ration of actual to the full load (fraction of full load)
[i.e., X=3/4 is 3/4F.L and X=1/2 is at half F.L]
Therefore output of the transformer = XScos 
Wi = Iron loss; X2 WSC =Copper loss at any load
output in Watts XScosΦ
Efficiency at any load ȠX = then ȠX =
Input in Watts
XScosΦ+ W i +X 2 w cu
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 12

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER

Voltage regulation of transformer is defined as charging secondary
terminal voltage from no-load to full-load, expressed as secondary no-load voltage,
the primary voltage being assumed constantly, i.e.,
secondary no-load voltage- secondary full-load voltage
Voltage regulation =
secondary no.load voltage
-
% voltage regulation= E 2 V 2 *100
E2

The secondary terminal voltage depends not only on load current but also
on the no-load power factor of the load.
Approximate formula for voltage regulation:
The expression for obtaining voltage regulation, consider an equivalent circuit
referred to secondary as shown in below figure.
Consider the load as lagging power factor or inductive load in figure

In order to find an approximate formula for voltage regulation

In figure above:
i. Draw an extension line from ‘OA’ to meet a line ‘CL’ drawn from ‘C’
ii. From point ‘B’ drawn ‘BD’ perpendicular on line ‘AM’ to meet at ‘D’
iii. Draw ‘BL’ parallel to ‘DM’
From phasor OC=E2=KV1 No-load secondary voltage
OA=V2= Full-load secondary voltage
AM=E2-V2=voltage drop
E2-V2=AM=AD+DM
To find AD: To find DE: As BP=DE
Consider ∆ ADB Consider ∆ BPC
AD BP
cos  2= sin  2=
I2R 02 I2X02

AD= I2R02 cos  2 DE= BP= I2X02sin  2

TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 13

Therefore, E2-V2=AM= I2R02 cos  2 + I2X02sin  2

V 2 I 2 cos  2
% voltage regulation= *100
2
V 2 I 2 cos  2+ Pi + I 2 R02

Similarly approximate voltage drop for leading power factor referred to secondary
E2-V2= I2R02- I2X02sin  2
I R cosΦ 2 I2X02 sinΦ 2
% voltage regulation= 2 02 *100
E2

Positive sign for lagging load and negative sign for leading load. For unit power factor
load cos  =1; sin  =0
If the parameters are referred to primary i.e., R01 and X01 then Regulation can be
calculated as
I R cosΦ1±I1X01sinΦ1
% voltage regulation= 1 01 *100
V1
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 14

OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS:

These two tests on a transformer, used for determining
1) Equivalent circuit parameters such as R0, X0, R01, X01 (or) R02, X02
2) Voltage regulation at any load power factor.
3) Iron loss and copper loss i.e., total losses
4) Efficiency without actually loading the transformer.

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST (OR) NO-LOAD (OR) O.C TEST:

• This test is mainly conducted to obtain the no-load current (I0), R0, X0 of
equivalent circuit and to determine the iron loss.
• The transformer is connected in such a way that one of the winding
(usually H.V winding) kept open while the other winding (usually L.V
winding) is connected to the supply as shown in figure.
• By varying auto transformer rated voltage is applied to L.V winding.

• The voltmeter connected across the auto-transformer reads the rated

voltage and ammeter gives the no-load current.
• As rated voltage is applied to L.V winding, the n-load current will be
very small i.e., 2 to 5% of full load current being transformer a constant
power device.
• As the no-load current is very small and H.V open circuited I02 R0 no
load copper losses are very small and negligible.
• Hence the wattmeter reads only the iron loss of the transformer.
• With rated voltage to primary, normal flux is setup on core and therefore
normal iron loss will occur.
Determination of Equivalent circuit parameters:
Let V1= Rated voltage applied to L.V side
I0 = no-load current; cos  = no-load power factor
W0= input power under no-load
W0= V1I0cosΦ0 =Wi (iron loss)
cosΦ 0 = W 0
V1I 0
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 15

Active or working current (IW) can be calculated as

Therefore I0cosΦ0 = IW; W0=V1IW
IW = W 0
V1
And no-load magnetising current IM=I0sin  0 (OR) from no-load Phasor diagram I̅0
=I̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ 2 2
M +IW (or) I0=√IM − IW

No-load equivalent circuit parameters

R0= V1 and X0= V1

IW IM

Why O.C TEST conducted always on L.V side and H.V side open circuited
1) In O.C TEST supply is given to L.V side and H.V side is open circuited.
If supply given to H.V side and L.V side is open, the rated voltage
generally applied for O.C TEST will be high compared to L.V side rated
voltage.
2) The no-load current will be very small with H.V side and cannot be
measured with better accuracy. There will be difficult in the
measurement.
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST (OR) S.C TEST:
The purpose of this is to determine the copper loss, equivalent resistance and
reactance of the transformer (R01, X01 (or) R02, X02).
• The transformer is connected in such away the secondary winding
(usually L.V winding) is short circuited by a thick wire, while the other
winding (usually H.V winding) is applied with rated current (i.e., low
voltage) through an auto transformer. The circuit diagram for S.C TEST
is shown below figure.

• By varying the auto transformer rated current is applied to the H.V

winding.
For example consider 4.40/110v, 2KVA transformer.
2*103
IRated (full load)= =4.54A
440
TRANSFORMERS [email protected] 16

• As transformer is constant power device is rated current is applied to

H.V side the voltage will be very small i.e., 5 to 7% of rated voltage.
• As voltage is small, flux produced in core will be small, hence negligible
Iron loss and the Wattmeter reads only the full load Copper loss of the
transformer.
Determination of Equivalent circuit parameters:
Let WSC=reading of wattmeter
VSC=voltmeter reading
ISC=ammeter reading (full load current)
Wattmeter reading WSC= ISC2 R01=wcu

R01= WSC and Z01= VSC

2
ISC ISC

X01= Z012 -R 012

If S.C TEST conducted at a current other than full load current

Then Full load copper loss

Why S.C TEST conducted always on H.V side of a transformer:

1) The S.C TEST conducted always on H.V side and L.V side short
circuited. If the measurement made on L.V sided, the rated current
applied will be more compared to H.V side rated current.
2) The voltage which is (5 to 7%) full load voltage will be very small and
made difficult for measurement.