Transformer

Prepared by: Radhika Sah

Definition of Transformer
Static device that converts one AC voltage to another AC
voltage with corresponding decrease or increase in current at
Frequency
same
Power
Transfer power from one circuit to another circuit without
electrical connection, however connected through the
common magnetic flux confined to the core.
Very high efficiency device – as high as 99%

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Construction of Transformer
Basic components of a transformer:
Magnetic core
Windings or coils
Magnetic core
The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in size.
The vertical portion on which coils are wound is called limb while horizontal portion is
called yoke.
Core is laminated for eddy current losses minimization.
Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm) are used.

Windings
Conducting material (usually copper) is used for the winding of the transformer .
The coils are wound on the limbs and insulated from each other.
To reduce the leakage flux it is necessary that the windings should be very close to each other
and to have high mutual induction.
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Working Principle (Faradays law or mutual induction)

When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it set up a varying
magnetic flux in the core.
As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces
an emf ( ) in the secondary coil. This is also called mutual induction.
Direction of induced emf is opposite of V1 (Lenz’s law)
When load is connected to the secondary coil and thus current will circulate.
What happens when DC is suppled to Transformer?ss

If the rated DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant
magnitude flux will set up in the core of the transformer
hence there will not be any self-induced emf generation,
According to Ohm’s Law,

 The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is
high.
 So this current is much higher than the rated full load primary winding current.
 Hence, as a result, the amount of heat produced will be greater and therefore,
eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more.
 Because of this, the insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and the
transformer will be damaged.
EMF equation of transformer
Let,
N1 – Number of turns in the primary
N2 – Number of turns in the secondary
Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)
T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle
f = supply frequency, f = 1/T

=
Average value of is given by:
= = 4 f Φm
= 4 f Φm (average value) ……......(i)

To find rms value from average value use form factor of sinusoidal value i.e. = 1.11
Rms value of induced emf = 1.11 * average value = 4.44 𝟐 4 f Φm (emf equation)
EMF equation cont…
Primary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = = 4.44 fΦm * N1
Secondary Winding
RMS value of induced EMF = = 4.44 fΦm * N2

(constant)

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Voltage transformation ratio:

 If k>1 ; then the transformer is called step up transformer

 If k<1; then the transformer is called step down transformer
 If K=1; then the transformer is called Isolation transformer
Ideal Transformer

The transformer which is free from all types of losses i.e. 100 percent efficient, is
known as an ideal transformer.
Zero leakage flux: Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary currents are
confined within the core.
The windings of the transformer are purely inductive.
The windings have no resistance: Induced voltages equal applied voltages (E=V).
The core has infinite permeability
- Reluctance of the core is nearly zero
- Negligible current is required to establish magnetic flux
Loss-less magnetic core
- No hysteresis or eddy currents.
Note:- The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output energy. The power
loss in the ideal transformer becomes zero.
Behavior of Ideal Transformer

Consider the ideal transformer as shown below:

When V1 is applied across primary winding, then current Im (magnetizing current) flows it.
As the primary coil of the transformer is purely inductive the current induced lags V1 by 90º.
This magnetizing current produces the flux φm in the core of the transformer.
The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and secondary winding of the transformer due
to self and mutual induction respectively.
The direction of the induced emf is inversely proportional to the applied voltage V1(lenz law).
No load operation of transformer

When there is no load connected or secondary

is open and primary winding is supplied with
rated voltage.
Then current in the secondary will be zero,
while primary winding carries a small current
, called no load current which is 2 to 10% of
the rated current.
As there is resistance and reactance in real
transformer, the current lag by some angle Φ
known as no load power factor.
This current is responsible for supplying the
iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)
in the core and a very small amount of copper
losses in the primary winding.
No load operation of transformer cont..

The no load current consists of two components :

1. Reactive or magnetizing component I

 It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1.

 It produces flux in the core and does not consume
any power)

2. Active or power component (Iw)

 It also known as working component.
 It is in phase with the applied voltage V1.
 It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of
primary copper loss
Equivalent circuit of transformer at No load
Transformer on load condition

 When the secondary of the transformer is connected to load then transformer is on loaded condition.

 The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive

 The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance.

 The phase angle between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of the load.
Operation of transformer with load

V1 I’2 = V2 I’2
I2 =
I’2

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Operation of transformer with load cont..
When the secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws I0 from the main
supply and induces the mmf N1I0 and this force set up the flux Φm.
When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, I2 current flows
in it which induces the mmf N2I2 and set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core.
The flux φ2 opposes the flux Φm, according to Lenz’s law.
Φ2 reduces Φm and EMF E1 accordingly. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more
than E1 (or, I1 as E , I1 ) and an additional primary current I’2 drawn from
the main supply.
 I’2 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2. Thus, it is called
the primary counter-balancing current.
I’2 induces the mmf N1I’2 and set up φ’2. in the same as that of the Φm and it
cancels the flux φ2 and flux in transformer remain constant
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The real transformer’s equivalent circuit
To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for the following losses:

1. Copper losses – resistive heating in the windings  modeled by the resistors R1 and R2

2. Leakage flux – flux that escapes from the core and flux that passes through one winding
only.
 modeled by primary and secondary inductors X1 and X2.

3. Eddy current losses – resistive heating in the core: proportional to the square of voltage
applied to the transformer  modeled by a resistance R0 connected across the primary voltage
source

4. Hysteresis losses – energy needed to rearrange magnetic domains in the core: nonlinear
function of the voltage applied to the transformer. modeled by a reactance X0 connected
across the primary voltage source.

Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, X0 and R0 are just approximations.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

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Magnetic Leakage flux
All the flux linked with primary winding does not get linked with secondary
winding.
 But, it produces self induced emf in
main flux
each winding.
Leakage flux

 Hence, leakage flux produces an effect

equivalent to an inductive coil in series
with each windings (X).
Minimization of leakage flux
To minimize leakage reactance, primary and secondary windings are not placed on
separate legs.
Phasor Diagram for resistive load

𝐸 𝐸

I’2 = I2
V1 = V’1

KVL Loop 1
+ + =
KVL to loop 2 Phasor diagram of transformer with resistive load (unity pf)
= +
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Phasor diagram of transformer with
inductive load (lagging pf)

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Impedance ratio Shifting of impendences in a transformer

 (ii)

Dividing (i) by (ii) we get;

 = = * = K*K

𝒁𝟐 𝟐
 =
𝒁𝟏
Why Shifting of impendences in a transformer is important??
Makes the analysis of transformer very simple because we have to work in one
winding only.
If we shift all the impedances on one side then transformer can be eliminated and
we get an equivalent electrical circuit.
And various voltage and currents can be easily obtained by solving electrical
circuits.

V2’

Later on we will see this by solving a numerical example.

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to primary side.

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Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to primary side.

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Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to secondary side.

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Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to secondary side

• Similarly, we can find the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the

secondary side and this circuit is shown in the figure below:
Where,
Primary resistance referred to the secondary
side;
R‘1 = K2 R1
Primary reactance referred to the secondary side;
X‘1 = K2 X1
Hence, the total resistance is;
R02 =R‘1 + R2
And total reactance is:
X02 =X‘1 + X2

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Losses and efficiency

 Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss
occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss.
 Copper losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings:
Losses and efficiency
Or, Output power = KVA *pf

Core loss/ Iron

loss constant  From this we came to know that efficiency
Losses of transformer depends on loading.
 Lets see, when will be the efficiency of
Copper loss transformer be maximum.
 𝟐

Condition for maximum efficien y

Copper loss = Iron loss

Output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency
 Let x be the loading when 𝒄 = 𝒊 ,
𝟐 𝑷𝒊
 Then, 𝒄 = 𝒊 x= 𝒄 & 𝒊 is full load copper loss and iron loss.
𝑷𝒄

 Output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency = x* full load kVA full load kVA
KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Efficiency of transformer at x loading

η VVI
All day efficiency of a transformer
• All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer
throughout the day.

• It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power in kWh or

Wh of the transformer over 24 hours.

• Mathematically, it is represented as:

What is the need of All Day Efficiency?
Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial efficiency
as the load on certain transformer fluctuates throughout the day.
For example, the distribution transformers are energized for 24 hours, but they
deliver very light loads for the major portion of the day, and they do not supply
rated or full load, and most of the time the distribution transformer has 50 to 75%
load on it.
The iron or core (constant )loss occurs for the whole day in the distribution
transformer.
The variable loss/ copper loss occurs only when the transformers are in the loaded
condition.
Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the commercial
or ordinary efficiency, but the efficiency is calculated or judged by All Day
Efficiency also known as operational efficiency or energy efficiency
Voltage Regulation

 Change in secondary terminal voltage

from no load to full load at any
particular load is termed as regulation.
Voltage Drop in Transformer

Neglected

 Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is

considered nearly equal to OC i.e.

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Voltage regulation of transformer at leading power factor,
Example 1:
A 30 kVA, 2,000/200 V, single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has a primary
resistance of 3.5 Ω and reactance of 4.5 Ω . The secondary resistance and
reactance are 0.015 Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively. Find
(i) equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred to the primary
side
(ii) total copper loss in the transformer.
Example 2:
The primary and secondary winding of a 500 kVA 1-ph transformer have
resistance of 0.4 Ω and 0.0015 Ω respectively. The primary and secondary
voltages are 6,000 V and 400 V respectively and the iron loss is 3.2 kW.
Calculate the efficiency on
(i) Full load and
(ii) Half load
Assuming the pf of the load to be 0.8.
97.81%
Example 3:
A 30 kVA, single-phase transformer has an iron loss of 457 W and
copper loss of 125 W when delivering half-full load. At what per
cent of the full load will the transformer have maximum
efficiency?

95.6%
Test in Transformer
1. Polarity test

2. Open circuit test

3. Short circuit test

Why Polarity test of transformer is performed?
 If you have to add a transformer in parallel with other existing transformer to fulfill
the increased demand. How will you connect that??
 If the two transformers are to be connected in parallel, then the polarity should be
known for the proper connection of the transformer.

There are two types of polarity:

1. Additive Polarity
2. Subtractive Polarity
Polarity test of transformer is performed?
We consider a two winding transformer connected in
series with a voltmeter.

When we give supply to one winding Va and Vb will

be induced in primary and secondary wingding.

Now if the polarities of windings are as marked in the

diagram (i) then, voltmeter reading will show v = Va-
Vb (substractive connection).

If voltmeter readings gives V = Va +Vb, then then

marking of one winding must be changed.
Open Circuit/ No load Test
Its mainly conducted in low voltage side while high voltage side is kept open so that with
small amount of supply voltage we can perform the test
The purpose of the open circuit test are:
To determine the no-load current and losses of the transformer.
To determine no-load parameter of transformer.

The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltmeter are connected to their primary winding(input
side).
The nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary winding with the help of the ac
source.
As the value of no-load current is very small and copper loss occurs only on the primary
winding of the transformer because the secondary winding is open. The reading of the
wattmeter only represents the core and iron losses
The iron loss is used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.
Open Circuit/ No load Test

From these reading

no load parameter
can be calculated as

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Short circuit Test
Its mainly conducted in high voltage side while low voltage side is kept open so that with
small amount of supply current we can perform the test
The purpose of the short circuit test are:
To determine the copper loss occur on the full load.
To determine equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance of the
transformer referred to that side where the measuring unit are connected.
The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltmeter are connected to HVside.
The nominal rated current is supplied to the winding with the help of the ac source.
As the value of short circuit voltage is very small and iron loss of the transformer during
this test is neglected. The reading of the wattmeter only represents copper loss.

The copper loss is used for finding the efficiency of the transformer.
Short Circuit Test

From these reading

these parameter can
be calculated as

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Numerical
Example 4:

A 20 kVA, 250V/2500V, 50Hz single phase transformer gave the

following test results:

No-load test (on L.V. side): 250V, 1.4A, 105 watts

Short circuit test (on H.V. side): 120V, 8 A, 320 watts

Calculate the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary

side and draw the equivalent circuit.
[R0=595.2 Ω, X0= 187.2 Ω, R02 = 5 Ω, X02= 14.14 Ω, R01 = 0.05,
X01 = 0.14]

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Example 5:
A 4-kVA, 200/400V single phase transformer has following test results:
O.C Test: 200V, 0.8A, 70W
(Hint: 200V is rated voltage of in primary side, so the test results is of primary side)
S.C Test: 20V, 10A, 60W
∗ ^
(Hint: 10A is rated current of secondary side ( ), so the test results are of secondary side)

Obtain equivalent circuit parameters of the transformer refer to L.V side.

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Example 6:
A 20 kVA, 250/2500V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has Ro= 595.2, Xo = 187.26 Ω. Ro1 = 0.05 Ω and
Xο1 = 0.14 Ω. Calculate (i) iron loss of the transformer (ii) efficiency of the transformer at half load with
0.8 pf lagging.

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Extra Questions
The diagram shows the equivalent circuit for a single phase transformers along with its resistance and
reactance in ohms in terms of primary side. The ratio of secondary to primary turn is 10 and the load is
inductive. Find (i)the secondary terminal voltage and (ii)the primary current

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Given
K = 10
Ro = 400 Ω
Xo = 233.33 Ω I2’ = ==
Zo1 = R1+jX1 = (0.16 + j 0.7) Ω
(0.16 + j 0.7) (5.95 +j4.44)
= (19.29 – j16.105 ) A
ZL = RL+jXL = (5.95 +j4.44) Ω
I1’ = Io + I2’ = (0.5 – j 0.85) + (19.29 – j16.105 )
Solution:
= (19.79 – j 16.955)A
= 26.05 ∠ - 40.58
Zo = Ro// jXo
∗ Φ1 = 40.58 (lagging)
= cos Φ1 = 0.759 (lagging)
∗ .
=
. V2’ = I2’*ZL
Zo = (101.55 + j 174.09) Ω = (19.29 – j16.105 ) * (5.95 +j4.44)
= (186.28 – 10.17) V
Io = = 186.55 ∠ -3.12
V2 = k* V2’
= = 10 * 186.55 ∠ -3.12 V
(101.55 + j 174.09)
= (0.5 – j 0.85) A = 1865.5 ∠ -3.12 V
Io = 0.98 ∠ -59.53 A
Φo = 59.53 (lagging w.r.t V1(-))
CosΦo = cos(59.53) = 0.5 (lagging)

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Extra Question
A 230 V/2300 V single-phase transformer is excited by 230 V ac voltage.
The equivalent resistance and reactance referred to primary side are 0.1 Ω
and 0.4Ω respectively. Given that Ro= 500 Ω and Xo= 200 Ω. The load
impedance is (400 + j600) Ω .
Calculate:
(i) Primary current and input power factor
(ii) Secondary terminal voltage
400 + j600
(Hint= ZL’ = ( ) = (4 + j6) Ω
00

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Extra Question
A 230/460 V transformer has primary resistance of 0.2 Ω and reactance of
0.5 Ω and the corresponding value for secondary are 0.75 Ω and 1.8 Ω
respectively. Find secondary terminal voltage when supplying 10A at 0.8
lagging.
[424.8V]

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Extra Question
A 25 KVA, single phase, 11 KV / 400V transformer has impedance
of primary and secondary 0.4 + j22 and 0.02 +j12 respectively.
Determine the load terminal voltage and primary current at half
load. (Either ZL or pf should be given) else assume pf = 0.8 lagging

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