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Transformer
Introduction:
 Transformer is a static electrical AC machine which transfer electrical
power from one circuit to another circuit which are electrically
isolated from each other, but they are linked magnetically by a
common magnetic flux.
 The voltage level of two circuit may be different but the frequency of
both circuit remains same.
 It works on the principle of Mutual Electromagnetic Induction.
 Importance in electrical power system, (HVAC, HVDC):discuss

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Construction and working principle:

 The main parts of transformer are

• Magnetic circuit (consisting of core, limbs, yoke ), built up of thin soft
iron or silicon steel lamination.
• Electrical circuit (consisting of primary and secondary windings on
vertical limbs and are insulated from each other and from core.)
• Dielectric circuit (consisting of insulations in different forms and used
at different places)
• Tanks and accessories (conservator, breather, bushings, cooling tubes,
etc.)

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 Over all outer parts of commercial Transformer

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Operating principle and EMF equation:

 The working principle of transformer is based on mutual magnetic induction.

 When one of the coil is (primary winding) supplied by AC voltage, it will
draw an alternating current Io.
 This alternating current through the winding produces a continuously
changing and alternating flux that surrounds the winding.
 This flux links with the second coil (secondary winding) on other limb of the
core through common magnetic path.
 Hence, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, there will be
an EMF induced in the second coil.
 If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed i.e. load is connected, then a
current will flow through it and thus transferring power form first circuit to
second circuit.

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Operating principle and EMF equation:

 Current Io lags V1 by 90o

if winding is pure
inductive
 and the magnitude of
flux Φo depends upon
Io and is in phase with
Io.
Figure: waveforms of V1, Io, and Φo

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Operating principle and EMF equation:

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
now, from Faraday’s law of EMI, emf induced in second coil is

From wave of Φ, he flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0.

It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 S
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = Φm /T/4 = 4 Φm/T =4fΦm
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm

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Now, we know, Form factor = RMS value / average value

Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per
turn.
Also, form factor of a Sine wave = 1.11
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm

Now, RMS value of induced emf in whole secondary winding

E2 = RMS value of emf per turn X Number of turns in secondary
winding

E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. -----------------------------(1)

Similarly, RMS value of induced emf in primary winding (E1) is given as
E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ------------------------------(2)
 Hence, we can write

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• At every instant , the direction of E1 and E2 will be opposite to V1

according to Lenz’s law.
• In real, E1 is always less than V1 due drop in
the impedance of PW(primary winding)
• and primary current ,Io = (V1 - E1 )/ Z1
• and as Io is practically very small
So we can write, V1 =E1

• At loaded condition, V2 < E2 , due to voltage

drop in secondary.
• But at no load , I2 =0 and no drop,
So IV2 I = IE2 I
• Hence from emf equation , we can write

where K is known as Transformation ratio.

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cases
• If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1 => V2 > V1, then the transformer is called step-up
transformer.
• If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1 => V2 < V1, then the transformer is called step-down
transformer.
• If N2 = N1, i.e. K = 1 => V2 = V1, then the transformer is isolation
transformer., used in electronics circuit.

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Ideal Transformer:
An idea transformer is an imaginary transformer which has following
properties:
 Has purely inductive winding without any resistance.
 The core has infinite permeability() so that negligible mmf is required
to establish the flux in the core.
 No magnetic leakage flux i.e. entire flux is confined to the core and
links both windings.
 The efficiency is 100%. i.e. no losses due to resistance , hysteresis and
eddy current.
Hence, this is a mathematical abstraction and such transformer can't be
made in real practice.
Operation of Transformer:
1. No load operation (Transformer on No Load)
2. Loaded Operation (Transformer on Load)

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1. No load operation of Transformer:

 when secondary winding is open-circuited, which means there is no
load on the secondary side of the transformer i.e. current in the
secondary will be zero.
 In such case, when primary of transformer is supplied by ac voltage
of rated magnitude, it will draw some small current I0 from source
which is known as no-load current and is 3% to 5 % of rated current.

Figure: No load Operation of transformer

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 If the transformer is ideal i.e. it has purely inductive winding then Io

lags primary voltage V1 by 90o .
 And in such, active power drawn from source Po= V1 IoCosΦo = 0

Fig. Ideal Transformer phasor Fig. Real transformer phasor

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 As practical transformer has not purely inductive winding i.e. it has

some resistance and iron loss (hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss)occurs in transformer.
 Hence , no load current Io lags V1 by certain angle Φo which is less
than 90o i.e. Φo < 90o .
 Here , from phasor diagram, I can be resolved into two parts:
Iw = IoCosΦo = loss component of no load current (in phase with v1)
which is responsible for core loss or iron loss.

Im = IoSinΦo = Magnetizing component of no load current (lags v1 by 90)

which is responsible for maintaining the magnetic flux in core.
 Thus, active power consumed by transformer at no load is
Po= V1 Iw = V1 IoCosΦo , watt
 And Reactive power consumed by transformer at no load is
Qo= V1 Im = V1 ImSinΦo , Var
CosΦo = no load power factor of transformer
Φo = no load power factor angle of transformer

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Note :
 The iron loss of transformer is constant loss and is dependent on V1
i.e. iron loss is proportional to V1 . As E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm and flux is Φm
proportional V1 .

 From phasor diagram, we can write following relations:

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 Thus, no load equivalent circuit of transformer can be developed as:

 Points to be noted:
a) The branch ab is the having two parallel path
Ro = core loss equivalent resistance for flow of Iw
Xo = Magnetizing reactance for the flow of Im
b) The no load primary current Io (also called exciting current) is very
small(2% to 5% of full load current) as compared to full load current.
c) The no load primary current Io (also called exciting current) is very small(2%
to 5% of full load current) as compared to full load current.
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2. Operation of Transformer on Load :

 When the secondary of transformer is connected to some load, it is
the loaded condition.
 At no load, the output of transformer
= V2 I2 =0 as I2 =0.
 But the input power is P1 = V1I1
This input power at no load is the power
Loss within the transformer
i.e. Po= V1 Iw = V1 IoCosΦo = iron loss
Now,
 When the secondary of transformer is connected to the load some
current I2 will flow in the secondary as shown in the figure.
Now I2 will set some secondary mmf N2 I2 and will result it's own
magnetic flux Φ2 whose direction is opposite to the main flux Φo.
Also, at loaded condition, P2 = V2 I2 ≠0
So, some additional power will also flow from PW.

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The secondary flux Φ2 set up by I2 will oppose men flux Φo set up by Io

according to the Lenz’s law .
Thus it weakens the main flux Φo momentarily, so primary back EMF
E1 tends to be reduced.
Therefore, V1 - E1 gets increased and so more current will flow from
primary winding i.e. from source until the original value of flux Φo
is maintained and thus it again causes the increase in E1 and adjust itself
to the previous value .
Let the additional current in primary winding is I2 ' and its magnetic
flux is Φ2 ‘ so that I Φ2 ‘ I = I Φ2 I => gets cancelled.
therefore, net flux in core is Φo .
 The primary current I’2 is in phase opposition with the secondary
current I2. Thus, it is called primary counter-balancing current.

Proof:
Additional power in PW= V1I2 ‘ and V2I2 = V1I2 ‘ =>
=> N1I’2 = N2I2 -------------------(1)

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 And ---------(2)

From equation (1) and (2), since reluctance of both circuit is same, we
can write
Φ2 = Φ2 ‘
Hence, the main flux Φo remains constant for given V1 .
 Therefore, at any load, the EMF equations of primary and secondary
unchanged.
Thus, the net primary current is the sum of Io and I2 ‘ (primary counter
balance current) i.e. I1= Io + I2 ‘ (phasor sum)
And as Io is very small, so I1 ≈ I2 ‘
So P1 = P2 => V1 I1 = V2 I2 =>

8/29/2024 Asst. Prof. Pradip Sah/IOE, Thapathali Campus 19

Problem#1:
The no load current of transformer is 5A at 0.25 PF when supplied at
235V. The number of turns on the primary winding is 200. calculate
a. The maximum value of flux in the core.
b. The core loss component and magnetizing component of no load
current .
c. The core loss/ iron loss.

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Equivalent circuit of Actual transformer (Modeling of transformer)

 The equivalent circuit of any device is simply the circuit representation of
the equation describing the performance of the device.
 At no load, the equivalent circuit of transformer is simulated by the shunt
branch parameter R and X
 Also noted that no load power loss(iron loss) is constant loss irrespective of
load.
 No load current is very small (2% to 5% of full load current).
In actual transformer
 (a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This
leakage gives rise to leakage reactances at both sides, which are denoted as
X1 and X2 respectively.
b) Both the primary and
secondary winding possesses
resistance, denoted as R1 and
R2 respectively. These
resistances causes voltage
drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and
also copper loss I12R1 and I22R2.

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Equivalent circuit of Actual transformer (Modeling of transformer)

 The leakage flux in primary and secondary winding causes self
induced emfs which are simulated by reactive voltage drop in series
with corresponding primary and secondary winding.
 Thus equivalent circuit of transformer can be modeled as:

The voltage equations of primary and secondary circuits are thus

Also, and

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Transformation of impedances:
 The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by
representing all the parameters of the transformer either on the
secondary side or on the primary side.
1. Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side.

R’2 = Equivalent resistance of R2 referred to primary side

X’2 = Equivalent leakage reactance of X2 referred to primary side

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 The basic idea behind the transformation is that the value of R’2
should be such that it produces same amount of heat on Primary
side as produced by R2 in secondary side.
Now, heat produced by R2 in secondary wining = I2 2 R2
heat produced by R’2 in primary wining = I’2 2 R’2
so, I’2 2 R’2 = I2 2 R2 => I1 2 R’2 = I2 2 R2 , assuming I’2 = I1 as Io is very small
Hence, R’2 = (I2 /I1) 2R2 =R2/K 2

i.e.
Similarly, by equating the reactive power on both sides, we get,
Also, primary equivalent of V2 and E2 is,
V’2 =V2/K and E’2 =E2/K =E1
thus,
R01 = R1 + R’2 = Total equivalent resistance referred to primary side
X01 = X1 + X’2 = Total equivalent resistance referred to primary side
Z01 = R01 + jX01 = Total equivalent impedance referred to primary side
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Thus, Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side.

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2. Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary side

 Similarly, all the parameters of primary can be transferred to
secondary side as follows:
R’1 = K 2 R1 , X’1 = K 2 X1 , R’o = K 2 Ro 2
, X’o = K Xo
V’1 = K V1 and E’1 = K E1
R02 = R2 +R’1 = K 2R01 = Total equivalent resistance referred to secondary side
X02 = X2 + X’1 = K 2X01 = Total equivalent resistance referred to secondary side
Z02 = R02 + jX02 = Total equivalent impedance referred to secondary side.

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Losses and efficiency of transformer:

 The output of transformer is always less than input power, because of
losses occurring in transformer while it transfers power from one circuit to
another circuit.
 So, Power input = Losses + Power output
 The various losses are:

Transformer
Losses

Iron losses or core Copper losses Dielectric and

losses
(Variable losses) stray losses
(constant loss)

Hysteresis Eddy current

loss losses

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 Iron loss is loss due to heating of core and include hysteresis and
eddy current losses. (explain yourself)
 Copper loss is loss due to heating of PW and SW and main cause is
the resistance of windings. (explain yourself)
 So, copper loss is given by, Pcu=Wcu = I1 2 R1 + I 22 R2 = I1 2 R01 = I2 2 R02
 It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and
current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer
varies with the load.
Stray and dielectric loss:
 The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of
leakage field. The percentage of these losses are very small as
compared to the iron and copper losses so they can be neglected.
 Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer
that is in the oil of the transformer, or in the solid insulations.

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 The Efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output power divided

by the input power.

Also, we can write

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 Expression and condition for maximum effieciency:

The input power Pin= V1 I1CosΦ1 and output power Pout= V2 I2CosΦ2
Also, output power is, Pout= Pin- Ploss => Pout= Pin- Iron loss- copper loss
So, Pout= Pin- Wi- I1 2 R01 ,
where, R01= total resistance of transformer
Now, efficiency of transformer is

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 At no load, the output is zero, so efficiency is also zero.

 Clearly, efficiency depends upon the loading condition and also on the
power factor of load.
 so, differentiating above equation w.r.t. I1, we get

 Hence, it is seen that efficiency will be maximum when copper loss at

certain loading condition becomes equal to the iron loss (constant).
 And corresponding current for maximum efficiency is

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 Graphical representation of Efficiency of a transform

 Efficiency goes on increasing when load is increased

 Efficiency reaches maximum value at certain load,
 Then, it goes on decreasing after certain limit as copper loss becomes
dominant.
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Problem#2:
A 50 KVA, 4400/220 V Transformer has R1= 3.45Ω , R2= 0.009 Ω, X1 = 5.2 Ω,
X2 = 0.015 Ω. Calculate
I. Equivalent resistance as referred to primary and secondary.
II. Equivalent reactance as referred to primary and secondary.
III. Equivalent impedance as referred to primary and secondary
IV. Full load copper loss of transformer.
V. If iron loss is 600 Watt, calculate the efficiency of transformer at
a) Full load at unity power factor.
b) At full load at 0.8 power factor lagging.

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Solution:

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Solution:

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Solution:

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Solution:

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Voltage regulation of Transformer:

 “Voltage regulation is defined as the change in magnitude of secondary
terminal voltage when full load is reduced to no load, with primary voltage
held constant.”
 Mathematically,

Where, V2NL = no load terminal voltage

V2FL = full load secondary terminal voltage= V2

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Transformer test:
 Large transformer (power transformer) can not be tested direct loading
because of
a) Large amount of energy has to be wasted in such test.
b) It is not feasible to have large load enough for direct loading in lab.
Why Testing needed?
a) In case of losing of name plate i.e. to get the information.
b) To check the parameters of transformer, and hence to check the
performance parameter like voltage regulation, efficiency etc.
Types of Transformer test:
1. No load test (open circuit test)
2. Short circuit test

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Open circuit Test:

we can find from this test-
 Shunt branch parameters of equivalent circuit (R0 , X0 )
 No load power loss and no load power factor.

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Procedure:
 Usually high voltage (HV) winding is kept open and the low voltage
(LV) winding is connected to its normal supply.
 A wattmeter (W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are connected to
the LV winding as shown in the figure.
 Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero to normal rated
value of the LV side with the help of a variac. When the applied
voltage reaches to the rated value of the LV winding, readings from
all the three instruments are taken.
Now, The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full rated
current, so copper loss is very small and hence can be neglected.
Hence, the wattmeter only represents the core or iron losses.
Let,

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Now,

Then from phasor diaram, find

Iw = IoCosΦo
Im = IoSinΦo
and then and

Hence, equivalent circuit at no load is drawn as:

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Short circuit test:

 To find the full load copper loss
 To calculate series resistance and reactance i.e. R01 , X01 or R02 , X02.

 Procedure:
a) Short circuit the LV side (primary side in this case)
b) HV is supplied by reduced voltage so that full load current flows through
the winding which is recorded by ammeter as shown in diagram.

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 The low voltage is approximately 5 to 10% of the normal rated voltage.

 The flux is set up in the core of the transformer and this flux is small as
compared to the normal flux.
 So, hysteresis loss is negligible because the iron core does not saturate and
eddy current is also negligible due to low magnetic flux in the core.
 Hence, iron loss is negligible in this test , so neglected. i.e. Io is neglected.
 So, wattmeter measures only the copper loss in the windings.
Let,
Vsc = voltmeter reading ,Isc = ammeter reading ,Wsc = wattmeter reading
Now,

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 The equivalent circuit for short circuit test is shown below:

Thus, from the data obtained from the two tests , we can determine the
parameters of the equivalent circuit.
And once parameters are known, we can draw the equivalent circuit either
referred to primary side or secondary side according to our requirement.
Note: the values calculated in case of open ckt test is on primary side and in
case of short circuit test is on secondary side, so need to convert one of
them while drawing equivalent circuit.
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Problem#:

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Auto transformer
 Autotransformer is a transformer having only one windings
part of this being common to both primary and
secondary side.
 such a transformer is particularly economical when the
transformation rescue is very close to unity.
 Note: primary and secondary windings are not electrically
isolated from each other as in the case of two winding
transformer.

Advantages:
Less costly and small size.
Better voltage regulation
Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding
transformer of the same rating, so better
efficiency.

Disadvantage:
 Any undesirable condition at primary will affect the equipment at
secondary (as windings are not electrically isolated),
 due to low impedance (less leakage flux) of auto transformer, secondary
short circuit currents are very high,
 harmonics generated in the connected equipment will be passed to the
supply.
 if the common part of winding (CB) breaks, the transformer action is lost
and full primary voltage appears across the secondary.
Applications of auto transformer:
 Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory or where continuous
variable over broad ranges are required.
 Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting
induction and synchronous motors.
 Compensating voltage drops by boosting supply voltage in distribution
systems.
 It is also used as a voltage regulator

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