ELECTRICITY AND OPTICS PHYSICS LAB

Lab Session 01: Basic Measurements

Name : Ghiffari Gathfan Fadillah

NIM : 2406420655

Class : Regular
Shift : Monday, 18 February 2025 at 10.00- 12.00

PHYSICS LAB. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA

I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok, 16424
PHYSICS LAB. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok, 16424

I. GOALS
1. Instrument Familiarity: Develop proficiency in using common measuring tools.
Determine the density of at least two objects (one cylinder such as a coin, one rectangular
block like a wooden block or eraser) using measured mass and volume.
2. Statistical Confidence: Practice gathering multiple measurements and using them to
calculate averages and uncertainties.
3. Collaboration & Communication: Work effectively in teams, discussing and comparing
results to identify sources of error.

II. THEORY
Measurement Devices / Instruments
Accurate measurements require familiarity with the proper use and limitations of each instrument.
In this lab, you will use a meter stick (or ruler), a Vernier caliper, and a micrometer to measure
dimensions of different objects. You will also use a balance (triple-beam or digital scale) to
measure mass. Each instrument offers a unique level of precision and has specific operational steps
to minimize errors.
1. Meter Stick / Ruler
A meter stick, or more commonly known as a ruler, is used to measure the dimensions of
an object. It is typically marked at 1-millimeter intervals. A standard ruler may have both
metric and imperial markings. The smallest division on a meter stick is usually 1 mm (0.1
cm); therefore, measurements using a meter stick are usually reliable to about ±1 mm.

Figure 2. A ruler / meter stick

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PHYSICS LAB. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok, 16424

2. Vernier Caliper
A caliper has a main (fixed) scale and a sliding (Vernier) scale. It can measure inside and
outside dimensions, as well as depths. You can close the caliper gently on an object to get
an outer dimension reading or expand the horns of the caliper into some cavity for an
interior reading. A typical Vernier caliper can measure down to ±0.01 cm (0.1 mm) if used
correctly.

Figure 3. Vernier caliper

The main scale is primarily divided into 1 cm divisions, which are subdivided into each
millimeter. To read a caliper, you can follow the following guidelines (with example from
Figure 3):
• Zeroing: Gently close the caliper. If it does not read exactly 0 on the Vernier scale,
note the offset and adjust subsequent measurements accordingly.
• Taking a Measurement:
o Close or expand the jaws around/inside the object.
o Read the main scale up to the zero of the Vernier scale (e.g., 3.2 cm). Find which
Vernier division aligns exactly with a mark on the main scale (e.g., 0.08 cm).
o Add these readings (3.2 cm + 0.08 cm = 3.28 cm).
• Consistent Pressure: Excessive force can deform the object or the tool’s jaws,
introducing systematic error. Use a gentle but firm grip.
3. Micrometer
A micrometer can measure thickness or outer diameters with very fine resolution (down to
0.01 mm). It has a frame, a spindle, an anvil, a thimble, and a ratchet or friction screw that
helps ensure consistent measuring force.

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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Figure 4. Micrometer
The sleeve (Barrel) scale indicates millimeters and half millimeters, while the thimble scale
rotates around the sleeve and shows fractional parts of a millimeter. One complete rotation
usually represents 0.5 mm of travel. To read a micrometer, you can follow the following
guidelines (with an example from Figure 4):
• Check Zero: Bring the anvil and spindle together gently. If the reading is not 0, note
the offset or calibrate if possible.
• Measuring Process:
o Place the object between the anvil and spindle.
o Gently twist the ratchet until snug (do not overtighten or you risk compressing
the object).
o Read the sleeve scale for the number of full and half millimeters.
o Read the thimble scale where it aligns with the sleeve line for the fractional part.
• Handling: Avoid dropping or forcing the micrometer, as it is a precision instrument.
Each turn of the thimble opens the instrument 0.5mm; therefore, two turns gives 1mm, four
turns means 2mm, etc. These millimeter readings are notated by the hash marks which
originate from the horizontal line on the barrel. The other marks which don’t touch that line
indicate 0.5 mm increments.
Errors in Measurement
All measurements carry a degree of uncertainty. To interpret measurements rigorously, you need
a clear understanding of errors: where they come from, how to account for them, and how to
communicate your results accurately. In this lab, we distinguish between two broad categories of
error, which are random error and systematic error.

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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Figure 2. Systematic vs. Random Errors

Random error, sometimes erroneously called human error, comes from the perspective of
individual measurements. For instance, suppose one partner measures something, and then the
other partner measures the same thing. The judgment on where the needle points, or where the
rounding occurs, causes small variations in the readings. In some sense, the amount of random
error in an experiment indicates the confidence level of your lab technique. Importantly, these
errors add to the true value as often as they detract. Therefore, averaging the data usually eliminates
these errors. The more measurements that are made, the more averaging smoothest out these blips
in the data set.
Systematic errors are consistent shifts in measured values, often due to instrument miscalibration
or consistent user bias. A classic example is a steel meter stick that has expanded in hot weather,
causing all length measurements to be slightly off. The steel expands when heated; consequently,
each mark is separated more than its stated value. Anything you measure with the tape in this
condition will be read shorter than it actually is, because the tape itself is longer than it should be.
Systematic errors tend to give consistently higher or lower results, hence averaging multiple
measurements will not remove a systematic error; it must be corrected by identifying and adjusting
for the source (e.g., zeroing the instrument properly).
One kind of systematic error which can be easily eliminated is zero error (not ‘‘no error”). When
a caliper, micrometer, or other such device is closed, it should read ‘‘0’’, yet often the instrument
doesn't close properly (usually because some student misadjusted it) and each reading will be too
high or too low. Fixing this problem is merely a matter of noting the reading when the device is

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok, 16424

closed and adding (if the instrument reads low) or subtracting (reads high) that value from each
measurement.

Significant Figures
When reporting numerical values, significant figures (often abbreviated as “sig figs”) indicate the
precision of your measurement. They convey how many digits in a reported value are meaningful
rather than just placeholders. Proper use of significant figures ensures clarity and consistency when
communicating experimental results, especially in scientific and engineering contexts.
Table 1. Common Rules for Significant Figures

Rule Example

Non-Zero Digits: All non-zero digits (1–9) are 123 has three significant figures.
always significant.

Zeros Between Non-Zero Digits (captive 1003 has four significant figures.
zeros) are significant.

Leading Zeros are not significant; they merely 0.0025 has two significant figures.
position the decimal point.

Trailing Zeros to the Right of a Decimal Point 12.00 has four significant figures (the zeros
are significant if they are at the end of a after the decimal indicate the precision to the
number. hundredths place).

Exact Numbers (e.g., counts of objects, 12 eggs in a dozen is an exact count, so it does
defined constants) are considered to have not limit precision in calculations.
infinite significant figures.

Uncertainty and Statistical Measures

No physical measurement is perfectly precise. Each time we measure a quantity, small variations
can arise due to the instrument, the environment, or human judgment. To handle these variations

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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Kampus UI Depok, 16424

systematically, we use statistical measures to quantify uncertainty. By analyzing the spread of

repeated measurements, we gain insight into how much confidence we can place in our results.
Whenever you present a final measured quantity, it is standard practice to write it in the form:
Measurement = measured value ± standard uncertainty
For example:
Diameter of tennis ball = 6.7 ± 0.2 cm
Mean (Average)
When making multiple measurements of the same quantity, the arithmetic mean is often
the best estimate of the “true” value:

where x1, x2, …, xN are the individual measurements, and N is the total number of measurements.
This helps reduce random fluctuations, providing a more stable estimate of the quantity being
measured.
Spread of Measurements
Average Deviation
One way to express the variation among the measurements is to use the average deviation. This
statistic tells us on average (with 50% confidence) how much the individual measurements vary
from the mean.

Standard Deviation
However, standard deviation is the most common way to characterize the spread of a data set. The
standard deviation is always slightly greater than the average deviation and is used because of its
association with the normal distribution that is frequently encountered in statistical analyses.

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where δxi = xi − x̄, for i = 1, 2, , N, and x̄ is the mean of the data. From the above measurement
we can get the standard deviation.

Standard Error (SE)

When we report the average value of N measurements, the uncertainty we should associate with
this average value is the standard deviation of the mean, often called the standard error (SE).

Average paper width = 31.19 ± 0.05 cm.

Error Propagation
In many experiments, you will combine multiple measured quantities to compute a result—for
example, calculating an object’s density from its mass and volume or determining its speed from
distance and time. Each measured value carries its own uncertainty, and these uncertainties can
affect the precision of the final calculated result. Error propagation describes how to estimate that
overall uncertainty.
For example, to determine the average speed of an object we could measure the amount of time it
takes to travel a certain distance and then use the formula

Average speed = distance traveled/elapsed time

The uncertainty in the calculated average speed depends upon the uncertainty in the distance as
well as the uncertainty in the time. Propagation of error refers to the methods used to determine
how the uncertainty in a calculated result is related to the uncertainties in the individual
measurements. The methods used for determining how uncertainties are combined can be quite
sophisticated. In this lab we will use approximate methods, easier but give reasonable agreement
with other methods.

Rules for Propagating Uncertainties

Assume the error is δ.

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Addition and Subtraction

When adding or subtracting measured values, the absolute uncertainties add in quadrature (square
root of the sum of squares).

(7)
Where:
• a,b,c are positive measurements;
• x,y,z are negative measurements
• δ is the error associated with each measurement (the absolute error).
• δa is the uncertainty associated with measurement a,
• δb is the uncertainty associated with measurement b, and so on.
Multiplication or Division
When quantities are multiplied or divided, their relative (fractional) uncertainties add in
quadrature.

Power formula
If the final quantity is a single variable raised to a power, the relative uncertainty of the result is
multiplied by |n|. If n is an exact number and Q = xn, then the uncertainty becomes

General formula for Error Propagation

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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Error propagation formulas are based on taking partial derivatives of a function with respect to the
variable with the uncertainty. Let’s say you had a function with three variables (x, u, v) and two
of those (u, v) have uncertainty. The variance of x can be approximated by:

For example, the volume of a cylinder is 1/3 π r 2 t. There are two variables that have errors, that
is r and t. Thus, error propagation formula for volume is:

III. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

1. Meter Stick (or Metric Ruler)
2. Vernier Caliper
3. Micrometer
4. Balance (digital or triple-beam)
5. Coins (e.g., small cylindrical coins)
6. Metal Cube
7. Eraser

IV. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Measuring a Coin
1. Height (Thickness)

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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a. Use the Vernier Caliper to measure the coin’s thickness/height in at least 3 places per
person.
b. If the group has 3 members, that’s 3 × 3 = 9 total measurements. (You can adjust based on
group size.)
c. Record all values, note any unusual readings, and include units (cm).
2. Diameter
a. Use the Micrometer to measure the coin’s diameter in at least 3 places per person, rotating
around the coin to catch potential variations.
b. Record these in a shared data table.

3. Mass
a. Weigh the coin once. Note if your balance reads zero properly before placing the coin on
it.

4. Data Analysis
a. Calculate the average thickness and average diameter.
b. Compute the volume of the coin (treated as a cylinder)
c. Find the density ρ = mass/volume
d. Express your final density with an appropriate uncertainty and use significant figures
correctly.

Measuring a Block / Rectangular Solid

1. Length, Width, Height
a. Use the Metric Ruler or Meter Stick to measure each dimension.
b. Each group member takes at least 2 measurements of each dimension, noting any
differences.
2. Mass
a. Weigh the block once and record.

3. Data Analysis
a. Average each dimension. Compute the volume (L×W×H)
b. Calculate the density using ρ = mass/volume.
c. Report density with correct significant figures and approximate uncertainty.
d. Label the block/eraser (e.g., “Block #3”) so data can be tracked if multiple groups share
materials.

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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Measuring an Object of Your Choice

1. Selection: Find any small, measurable object around you (pen cap, small container, etc.).
2. Measure & Weigh: Follow the same steps (multiple measurements of dimensions, single mass
measurement, volume calculation).
3. Report: Calculate its density, noting any unique sources of error (e.g., irregular shape might
introduce approximation).

V. DATA SUMMARY
Measurement Result
Based on the results of measuring 3 different objects, we get the dimensions of these objects.
1. IDR 500 Coin

Figure 1. IDR 500 Coin

Source: https://colnect.com

a. Measurement Data
Zero error = 0 cm
Table 1. Data on the results of measuring IDR 500 coin
Coin
Diameter (d) (cm) Thickness (t) (cm)
2.702 0.16
2.704 0.161
2.702 0.165
2.7 0.163
2.704 0.16
2.7 0.162
2.7 0.16
2.702 0.165
2.704 0.161

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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
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b. Data processing
Based on the table above, the researcher calculates the average diameter and the
thickness to find the recurring uncertainty of those values.
24.318
𝑑̅ = = 2.702 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 2.7 𝑐𝑚
9
1.457
𝑡̅ = = 0.161889 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 1.6 × 10−1 𝑐𝑚
9
The average from these dimensions will be used to find the standard deviation and
standard error of these dimensions.
𝑑 ∑ 2
𝑆𝑑 = √𝑛−1𝑖 = 0.001732 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 1.7 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚

𝑆𝑑 0.001732
𝜎𝑑̅ = = = 0.0005773 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 5.7 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚
√ 𝑛 √9

𝑡 ∑ 2
𝑆𝑡 = √𝑛−1𝑖 = 0.002028 𝑐𝑚 = 2.0 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚

𝑆𝑡 0.002028
𝜎𝑡̅ = = = 0.000676 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 6.8 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚
√𝑛 √9

Hence, the measurement results of the two dimensions of the coin are:

𝑑 = 2.7 ± 0.00057 𝑐𝑚 (2 significant figures)

𝑡 = 0.16 ± 0.000676 𝑐𝑚 (2 significant figures)

To find the density of the coin, researchers must find the mass and the volume of
the coin.
1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑡 = 0.9282777 𝑐𝑚3
4
≈ 9.3 × 10−1 𝑐𝑚3 (Rounded to 2 significant figures)

∆𝑉 ∆𝑑 ∆𝑡 0.000577 0.000676
=2 + =2 + 0.161889 ≈ 0.004603 = 0.4%
𝑉 𝑑 𝑡 2.702
∆𝑉 = 0.04 × 0.9282777 = 0.043 𝑐𝑚3 (Rounded to 2 significant figures)

Hence,

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𝑉 = 0.93 ± 0.043 𝑐𝑚3 (Rounded to 2 significant figures)

Coin Mass = 3.11 grams (3 Significant figures)

Therefore,

𝑚 3.11 𝑔
Density of the coin = = 0.9282777 ≈ 3.4 ⁄𝑐𝑚3 (Rounded to 2 significant
𝑣
figures)
Uncertainty:
∆𝜌 ∆𝑚 ∆𝑉 0.043
= + = 0+
≈ 0.046
𝜌 𝑚 𝑉 0.93
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
∆𝜌 = 0.046 × 3.4 ≈ 0.16 ⁄𝑐𝑚3
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Density (𝜌) = 3.4 ± 0.16 ⁄𝑐𝑚3

2. Metal Cube

Figure 2. Metal Cube

Source: Blibli.com

a. Measurement data
Zero error = 0 cm
Table 2. Metal Cube dimension measurement data
Metal Cube
Length (P) (cm) Width (L) (cm) Height (T) (cm)
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2

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2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2

b. Data processing
Data processing for this measurement is the same as that carried out in previous
measurements. Researchers need to look for uncertainty in each dimension first.
18
𝑃̅ = = 2 𝑐𝑚
9
18
𝐿̅ = = 2 𝑐𝑚
9
2
𝑇̅ = 9 = 2 𝑐𝑚
Because all the data collected from the experiment does not deviate from the
average. Therefore, there is no error for each of the dimensions of the cube.

And as in the previous measurement, researchers need to find the volume and mass
of the eraser to find the density of the object.

𝑉 = 𝑃 × 𝐿 × 𝑇 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8 𝑐𝑚3
Mass of the Cube = 63.95 grams

Therefore,

63.95 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) = ≈ 7.99375 ⁄𝑐𝑚3 ≈ 8 ⁄𝑐𝑚3 (Rounded to 1
8
significant figures)
Uncertainty:
∆𝜌 ∆𝑚 ∆𝑉
= + = 0+0= 0
𝜌 𝑚 𝑉
∆𝜌 = 0

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3. White Eraser

Figure 3. White Eraser

Source: Cermati.com

a. Measurement Data
Zero error = 0 cm

Table 3. White eraser dimensional measurement data

White Eraser
Length (p) (cm) Width (l) (cm) Thickness (t) (cm)
3.15 1.15 1.6
3.10 1.15 1.65
3.15 1.1 1.6
3.10 1.05 1.7
3.05 1.1 1.65
3.15 1.1 1.65
3.10 1.1 1.65
3.10 1.1 1.65
3.10 1.05 1.7

b. Data processing
Like the previous measurement, researchers must find the average of each
dimension and then calculate the standard deviation.

28
𝑝̅ = = 3.11 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 3.1
9
9.9
̅
𝑙 = ≈ 1.1 𝑐𝑚
9

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14.85
𝑡̅ = ≈ 1.65 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 1.6 𝑐𝑚
9

Standard deviation dan Standard error:

𝑝 ∑ 2
𝑆𝑝 = √𝑛−1𝑖 = 0.033333 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 3.3 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚

𝑆𝑃 0.033333
𝜎𝑃̅ = = ≈ 0.011111 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 1.1 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 (Rounded to 2
√𝑛 √9
significant figures)

𝑙 ∑ 2
𝑆𝑙 = √𝑛−1𝑖 = 0.035355 ≈ 3.5 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚

𝑆𝑙 0.035355
𝜎𝑙 ̅ = = = 0.011785 ≈ 1.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 (Rounded to 2 significant
√𝑛 √9
figures)

𝑡 ∑ 2
𝑆𝑡 = √𝑛−1𝑖 = 0.035355 𝑐𝑚 ≈ 3.5 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 (Rounded to 2 significant
figures)

𝑆𝑡 0.035355
𝜎𝑡̅ = = ≈ 0.011785 𝑐𝑚 = 1.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚 (Rounded to 2
√𝑛 √9
significant figures)

Hence, the measurement results obtained from the dimensions of the card are:
𝑝 = 3.1 ± 0.011 𝑐𝑚 (2 significant figures)
𝑙 = 1.1 ± 0.012 𝑐𝑚 (2 significant figures)
𝑡 = 1.6 ± 0.012 𝑐𝑚 (2 significant figures)

To find the density of a card, researchers must find the volume and mass of the card.

𝑉 = 𝑝 × 𝑙 × 𝑑 = 3.11 × 1.1 × 1.65

= 5.86 ≈ 5.9 𝑐𝑚3 (Rounded to 2 significant figures)
∆𝑉 ∆𝑃 ∆𝐿 ∆𝑇
= + +
𝑉 𝑃 𝐿 𝑇
0.0111 0.011785 0.011785
= + + = 0.0249996 ≈ 0.02 = 2%
3.11 1.1 1.65

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∆𝑉 = 0.0249996 × 5.86 ≈ 0.15 𝑐𝑚3

Therefore,
𝑉 = 5.9 ± 0.15 𝑐𝑚3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑎 = 6.25 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑎
Density (𝜌) = 𝑉
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
= 1.06655 ≈ 1.1 ⁄𝑐𝑚3
(Rounded to 2 significant figures)
Uncertainty:
∆𝜌 ∆𝑚 ∆𝑉 0.15
= + = 0+
≈ 0.025
𝜌 𝑚 𝑉 5.9
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
∆𝜌 = 0.025 × 1.06655 ≈ 0.027 ⁄𝑐𝑚3
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Density (𝜌) = 1.1 ± 0.027 ⁄𝑐𝑚3

VI. Error Analysis

To see how accurate the results of the measurements that researchers have made.
Researchers will analyze how close the results of calculating the density of each object are
to the density based on the theory using percentage error.

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

1. IDR 500 Coin

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Theoretical value = 2.3039678888 ⁄𝑐𝑚3
3.4−2.304
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ≈ 48%
2.304

2. White Eraser
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Theoretical value = 1.851852 ⁄𝑐𝑚3
1.06655−1.851852
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = −0.42 ≈ −42%
1.851862

3. Metal Cube
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Theoretical value = 7.874 ⁄𝑐𝑚3

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PHYSICS LAB. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
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I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
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7.99375 −7.874
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = 0.0152083 ≈ 1.5%
7.874

Based on these results, errors in measurements occur due to random errors or human errors.
As the result of the coin experiment, the high error percentage might be caused by the
researchers not considering zero error or the lack of experience using the measurement
device, thus the measurement might not be accurate.
For the error from measuring the eraser, the high error percentage mainly caused by the
eraser that the researchers used was not brand new, and it was already used, thus reducing
the mass significantly. Another possible cause is because the measurement device used was
a ruler. The ruler does not give high accuracy in a measurement.
For the error from measuring the metal cube, the small percentage of error might be caused
by the low accuracy of the measurement device. The device that the researchers used was
a ruler, a device that has an accuracy of 0.1 cm, which is relatively low.

VII. QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

1. Why is it essential to check and record the zero reading on instruments such as the
Vernier caliper and the micrometer before taking measurements?
Because zero errors from a measuring device can cause systematic error from a
measurement. Thus, by considering zero errors, we can eliminate the systematic error
that is caused by the zero error.
2. Explain why taking multiple measurements of each dimension is important.
The main reason that we take multiple measurements for each dimension is to eliminate
random errors. Thus, by taking the average of the multiple measurements, we hope that
it can eliminate random errors.
3. How did you determine the appropriate number of significant figures when
reporting your results (e.g., density)? Provide an example from your data that
illustrates the importance of matching the measured value’s precision with its
uncertainty.
To determine the appropriate number of significant figures, there are rules for that.
a. Every nonzero number is a significant figure
b. A zero in between nonzero numbers is a significant figure
c. Any zero behind a decimal point is a significant figure
By using the example of the density of white eraser = 1.06655 gram/cm3, this number
has 6 significant figures because there are 5 nonzero numbers and the zero is in between
nonzero numbers. However, in the data summary section, the density is rounded to 2
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PHYSICS LAB. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok, 16424

significant figures. This is due to the calculation that considers the significant figures
of each number used.
4. Why is it important to propagate errors through your calculations, and what
impact does this have on the reliability of your final reported values?
The propagation of error is to determine how the data will vary. Thus, any researchers
that use this report for reference can determine how accurate the measurement and how
reliable the data is. A high error means that the measurement has a lot of mistakes, and
it can affect the reliability of the data shown in this report.
5. Compare the density values obtained for the coin and the block/eraser. Are these
values consistent with what you would expect for their respective materials? If
there were discrepancies, what factors (measurement error, instrument
limitations, etc.) might explain these differences?
Based on section VI, most of the errors are caused by human error such as the lack of
experience using the measuring device and parallax error. This results in the coin density
having a high error percentage. For the eraser, the high error percentage is due to the
eraser has been used, thus reducing the actual mass of the object. For the metal cube, it
has the lowest error percentage. This error might be caused by the accuracy of the
measuring device i.e. the ruler.
6. What challenges did your group encounter during data collection, and how were
they addressed?
Our group were having difficulties reading the vernier caliper. We had a hard time
finding the right reading for the measurement, and there was a lot of debate. To address
this challenge, we asked the assistant to provide explanations on how to read the device
and give their opinion on what is the correct reading of the measurement.
VIII. Conclusion
Based on the analysis result of calculating the density of various objects, researchers found
several conclusions.
1. There are two types of errors in measurement, namely systematic error and random
error.
2. Based on the results of the practicum, this practicum might have a systematic error
because the density of the density of the coin is very high.
3. The error of the eraser is mainly due to the eraser has been used, thus reducing the
actual mass.
4. The results of measuring these three objects show that,
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
a. The density of IDR 500 Coin is 3.4 ± 0.16 ⁄𝑐𝑚3 and it is 48% greater than
theory.

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PHYSICS LAB. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA
I-Cell Building, 7th Floor, Faculty of Engineering,
Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok, 16424

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
b. The density of White Eraser is 1.1 ± 0.027 ⁄𝑐𝑚3 and it is 42% less than
theory.
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
c. The density of the iron cube is 8 ⁄𝑐𝑚3 and it is 1.5% greater than theory.

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