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What is physics?
Physics is the branch of science which deals with the properties and interaction of matter
and energy.
Properties of matter
The properties of matter are called physical quantities.
Physical quantities are measurable features or properties of objects.
Types of physical quantities
There are two types of physical quantities:
Basic quantities
Derived quantities
Base quantities
These are quantities with only one SI unit.

SI unit.(International system of units). This is a system of units which is universally

Agreed to be used in measurements of quantities worldwide.

Base unit Symbol For measuring

Metre m Length
Kilogram Kg Mass
Second s Time
Ampere A Electric current
Kelvin K Temperature
Mole mol Amount of substance
Candela cd Luminous intensity
1. Derived quantities
These are quantities which are expressed by combining two or more base units.
Derived quantity SI unit Symbol
Speed Metre per second m/s
Acceleration Metre per second squared m/s2
Density Kilogram per cubic metre Kg/m3
Force Newton Kgm/s2
Energy Joule Kgm2/s2
Electricity Coulomb As

Conversion of units
Measure of distance
10mm = 1cm
100cm = 1m
1000m = 1Km
1Km = 100000cm = 1000000 mm
Measure of mass
1Kg = 1000g
1tonne = 1000Kg = 1000000g
Measure of time
60 seconds= 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day-night
7 days= 1 week
4 weeks = 1 month
12 months = 1 year = 360 days
Examples
1. Convert the following to the stated units.
(a) 200 kg to g,
(b) 30cm to m
Solution
(a) 1Kg → 1000g
200Kg →x

x=

x = 200000g
(b) 100cm → 1m
30cm →x
x=

x = 0.3m
Activity one
1. Convert the following to the stated units
(a) 8.0Km to m
(b) 0.8cm to m
(c) 500m to Km
(d) 13m to mm
Rounding off numbers
When considering whole numbers:
 Zeros at the end of the number are not significant. Note that zeros at the end of the
whole number are place holders so that the other digits do not lose their place
values
 Zeros between non – zero digits are significant
When rounding off decimal numbers:
 Zeros at the end of a decimal number are significant
 Zeros between non – zero digits are significant
 Zeros at the beginning at of a decimal number are not significant.
When decimal numbers are rounded off, the number of decimal places to be
rounded off must be specified
Scientific notation
Scientific notation is also called standard form.
Scientific notation is a method of expressing a number in the form: a x 10n, where 1 < a<
10 and n is an integer.
This is where numbers are expressed in the power of ten
Examples
1. Express the following in standard form
(a) 3000000
(b) 4200
(c) 600
(d) 0.0016
(e) 0.235
(f) 0.2001
(g) 0.2000
Solution
(a) 3 x 106
(b) 4.2 x 103
(c) 6 x 102
(d) 1.6 x 10-3
(e) 2.35 x 10-1
(f) 2.001 x 10-1
(g) 2 x 10-1
Exercise
1. Write down the standard form of;
(a) 6423
(b) 5200
(c) 60003
(d) 0.03
(e) 0.3002
(f) 0.004010
Examples
1. Round off the following numbers according to the specifications:
(a) 683 to the nearest ten
(b) 683 to nearest hundred
(c) 786 to the nearest ten
(d) 9.3 to the nearest whole number
(e) 5.7 to the nearest whole number
(f) 9.9 to the nearest whole number
Solution
(a) 680
(b) 700
(c) 790
(d) 9
(e) 6
(f) 10
Rounding off decimal numbers
Examples
1. Round off the following according to the decimal places specified
(a) 6.83 correct to one decimal place
(b) 1.057 correct two decimal places
(c) 0.0863648 correct to two decimal places
(d) 0.95 correct to one decimal place
Solution
(a) 6.8
(b) 1.06
(c) 0.09
(d) 1.0
Exercise
1. Round off the following according to the decimal places specified.
(a) 4.38 correct to one decimal place
(b) 2.065 correct to two decimal places
(c) 0.004689 correct to three decimal places.
Fundamental quantities
There are three fundamental quantities upon which all measurements are based. These
are;
 Length
 Time
 Mass
Length
Symbol: L
SI unit: metre, m
Definition: Length is distance between two or more points.
Instruments used to measure length
 Rule
 Vernier calipers
 Micrometer screw gauge
The rule
Accuracy: 1mm
Quantity measured: Length
Common types of rules
 metre rule (100cm rule)
 30cm rule
 15cm rule
Meter rule
The metre rule is used to measure length of more than 1mm.
It is usually graduated in centimeters.
It has sub- divisions in millimeters.
Correct useof a rule
1. The eye should be placed vertically above the point to be measured to avoid
parallax error.
2. If a rule has no zero edge, it means you cannot use this point. Therefore, to take a
reading, start slightly inwards say at 1cm and remember to subtract from the final
reading.

Example
1. A piece of cotton is measured between two points on a ruler.

When the length of cotton is wound closely around a pen, it goes round six times.
What is the length of the cotton?
Solution
Length of cotton = 15.6cm – 2.4cm
=13.2cm
Vernier Calipers
Accuracy:0.01cm
Quantity measured: Length
Use: It is used to measure the length of solids where an ordinary rule cannot be used.
The Vernier calipers can also be used to measure the diameter of balls and cylinders.
Structure of the vernier calipers
Main scale
The main scale is on the stem and fixed.
It is marked in centimeters, cm.
Vernier scale
The vernier scale is movable and slides on the main scale.
It is marked in millimeters, mm.
th
It has an accuracy of up to of a millimeter

The vernier scale has ten divisions that correspond to nine divisions of the main scale.
Internal jaws
They measure internal diameter of objects.
External jaws
They measure external diameter of objects.
How to read vernier calipers
1. Find the value on the main scale that appears just before the zero of the vernier
scale in centimeters, cm.
2. Find the value of the line on the vernier scale that coincides with a line on the
main scale and multiply it by 0.01cm in order to convert it into cm.
3. Add main scale reading and vernier scale reading.
Precautions when using vernier calipers
1. Zero the instrument before taking a reading
2. Clean the instrument so that it is free from dust particles.
Example
1. State the readings shown in the diagram of Vernier calipers below.
Main scale reading = 0.10cm
Vernier scale reading =3 x 0.01cm = 0.03cm
Vernier calipers reading = 0.10cm + 0.03cm
= 0.13cm
Activity four
1. Find the readings registered by the vernier calipers below.
(a)

(b)

Micrometer screw gauge

Accuracy: 0.01mm
Quantity measured: Length
Use: It is used to measure smallest size of length such as;
 the thickness of a hair,
 the diameter of a wire,
 the thickness of a piece of paper,
 the thickness of a coin,
 the thickness of a razor blade.
Structure of the micrometer screw gauge
Important parts of the micrometer screw gauge
1. Sleeve
This is the part that bears the sleeve scale.
The sleeve scale is graduated in millimeters, mm.
The sleeve scale measures correct to 0.5mm
2. Thimble
This is the part that bears the thimble scale.
The thimble scale measures correct to a 100th of a millimeter or 0.01mm.
A thimble scale has 50 divisions and each division represents 0.01mm.
3. Anvil and Spindle
These two parts hold the object that is being measured by the instrument.
4. Ratchet
This is a part used to move the spindle towards or away from the anvil in order to hold
the object.
Measurement using the micrometer screw gauge
The two parts or scales are considered, namely;
 thimble scale
 sleeve scale
How to read the micrometer screw gauge
1. Find the value on the sleeve scale which appears just before the edges of the
thimble. The value above the horizontal line gives the whole numbers.
The value below the horizontal line but in front of the whole number obtained is a
mark of 0.5mm and is added to the whole number.
2. Find the value on the thimble scale which is in line with the horizontal line of the
sleeve scale and multiply it by 0.01mm.
Note
If there isn’t any mark in line, but the horizontal line or point is in between the
mark, the highest mark is taken and then multiplied by 0.01mm.
3. Add the sleeve scale reading and thimble scale reading.
Precautions when using a micrometer screw gauge.
1. Zero the instrument before making any measurement.
2. Clean the anvil and spindle before making any measurement.
3. Turn the ratchet gently.
Example
1. State the measurement shown in the diagram of the micrometer screw below.

Sleeve reading = 6.5mm,

Thimblereading = 32 x 0.01mm
= 0.32mm
Micrometer reading = 6.5mm + 0.32mm
= 6.82mm .
Activity five
1. State the measurement shown in the diagram of the micrometer below

Time
Symbol: t
SI unit: Second, s
Definition: It is the measure of how long matter occupies a given space
A time measurement enables us to determine the interval between the beginning and the
end of an event.
Instruments for measuring time
 Simple pendulum
 Stop watch
 Ticker tape timer
 Oscilloscope (C.R.O)
The simple pendulum
A simple pendulum is a small heavy bob suspended by a light inextensible string.
This consists of a string tied to a horizontal support. A bob is suspended at the lower end
of the string.

Terms used to describe a simple pendulum

Oscillation
An oscillation is a complete to and fro movement of the bob. It is also called a cycle or
vibration or swing.
Note:
A swing from;
(a) A to B= or 0.25 oscillations.

(b) A to C= or 0.5 oscillations

(c) A to C and back to B = or 0.75 oscillations

(d) A to C and back to A = 1 complete oscillation

Amplitude
Symbol: A
SI unit: metre, m
Definition: Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the bob from the rest position.
Length of the pendulum
Symbol: L
SI unit: metre, m
Definition: Length of the pendulum is the distance from the supporter (point of
suspension) to the centre of the bob.
Period of a pendulum
Symbol: T
SI unit: Second, s
Definition: Period of the pendulum is the time taken by the bob to make a complete
oscillation.
Factors affecting the period of the pendulum
 Length of the pendulum, L
 Acceleration due to gravity, g
(a) Length of the pendulum, L
Period of the pendulum becomes;
(i) longer if the length of the pendulum is increased
(ii) shorter if the period of the pendulum is reduced
(b) Acceleration due to gravity, g
When;
(i) gravity is high, period reduces
(ii) gravity is low period increases
Period does not depend on themass or material of the bob.
Relationship between period and time
 t=nxT
 T=

 n=

Note
 t = time interval in seconds, s
 n = number of oscillations ( swings/cycles/times)
 T = period of the pendulum in seconds, s
Frequency
Symbol: f
SI unit: Hertz, Hz
Definition: Frequency is the number of oscillations in one second.
Relationship between frequency and period
 period =

T=

 frequency =

f=

 frequency =
f=

Displacement- time graph for a simple pendulum

Note
 Amplitude = 2cm
 Period of the pendulum = 1.0s
 When length of the pendulum increases, period also increases but frequency
reduces.
 When length of the pendulum reduces, period also reduces but frequency
increases.
Determining (measuring) period of the pendulum
 Set the pendulum oscillating
 Note the time, t, and the number of oscillations, n.
 Calculate the period, T, using the formula;
T=

Measuring time interval using a simple pendulum.

 Set the pendulum oscillating.
 Note the number of oscillations, n.
 Calculate time by using the formula;
t=nxT
Note
 A number of runs are done and the average is taken to minimize error.
Experiment
Aim: To determine the relationship between the length (L) and period (T) of the
pendulum
Apparatus
 Bob
 Clamp and stand
 String
 Stop watch
Method
Measure and record the length of the string from the point of support to the centre of the
bob.
Pull the bob to one side with angular amplitude of less than 10o.
Release the bob so that it starts swinging.
When the bob reaches the maximum displacement, start the stop watch and start counting
Record the time taken for 20 complete oscillations
Repeat the experiment with different lengths (L). Record values in the table.
Results
Length of string (cm) Time taken for 20 complete oscillations (s) Period (s)
1 30cm
2 20cm
3 10cm

Conclusion
Period of the pendulum depends on the length of the pendulum and acceleration due to
gravity.
Examples
1. In an experiment to measure the period of the pendulum, the time taken for 50
complete oscillations was found to be one minute. What is the period of the
pendulum?
Data Solution
T =? T=
t = 60 seconds
T=
n = 50
T = 1.2s
2. What is the period of a pendulum that makes 50 cycles in 9s?
Data Solution
T =? T=
t = 9s
T=
n = 50
T = 0.18s

3. A pendulum has period 0.6s. Calculate the time it takes to make 75 cycles?
Data Solution
t =? t=nxT
n = 75 t = 75 x 0.6s
T = 0.6s t = 45s

4. How many cycles are made by a pendulum whose period is 1.2s in 30s?
Data Solution
n =? n=
T = 1.2s
n=
.
t = 30s
n = 25 cycles

5. A pendulum makes 96 cycles in 4.8s.What is its frequency?

Data Solution
f =? f=
n = 96
f=
.
t = 4.8s
f = 20Hz

6. A pendulum's frequency is 15Hz.How many cycles does it make in 3.6s?

Data Solution
n =? n=fxt
f = 15Hz n = 15Hz x 3.6s
t = 3.6s n = 54 cycles

7. What is the time taken for a pendulum of frequency 25Hz to make 40 cycles?
Data Solution
t =? t=
n = 40
t=
f = 25Hz
t = 1.6s

8. The figure below shows a simple pendulum that oscillates between position A and
C.

a) If it takes 2 seconds for the bob to move from A to C and back to B, find the
number of oscillations.
b) Calculate the period of the pendulum.
c) Calculate the frequency of the pendulum
Data Solution
a A to C back to B n = 0.75 oscillations
b T =? T=
t = 2s
T= .
n = 0.75
T = 2.67s
c f =? f=
T= 2.67s
f=
.
f = 0.37Hz

9. The diagram below shows an oscillating pendulum.

If the period of the pendulum is 0.4s, find the time taken for the pendulum to swing from;
a) A to C
b) A to B
c) A to C and back to B
Data Solution
a t =? t=nxT
n = 0.5 oscillations t = 0.5 x 0.4s
T = 0.4s t = 0.2s
b t =? t=nxT
n = 0.25 oscillations t = 0.25 x 0.4s
T = 0.4s t = 0.1s
c t =? t=nxT
n = 0.75 oscillations t = 0.75 x 0.4s
T = 0.4s t = 0.3s

10. The bob of a simple pendulum is pulled to one side and released. The motion
during its swing is shown in the graph.
(a) What is the value of the period of the pendulum?
(b) Calculate the frequency of the pendulum
(c) What would you do in order to change the periodic time of the same
pendulum to 1.5s?
Data Solution
a T = 2.0s
b f =? f=
T = 2.0s
f=
.

f = 0.5Hz
c By reducing the length of the pendulum.

Activity six
1. Find the period of the pendulum if it oscillates 15 times for 45 seconds.
2. The diagram below shows an oscillating pendulum.

a) If it takes 3 seconds for the bob to move from A to C, find the period of the
pendulum.
b) Find the time taken for 12 complete oscillations.
3. The bob of the pendulum shown below takes 0.25s to swing from A to C.

a) If A and C are extreme points, determine;

(i) the period of the pendulum
(ii) the frequency of the pendulum
b) State whether the frequency of oscillations will increase, decrease or remain the
same if;
(i) the length of the string is increased
(ii) the mass of the bob is increased
(iii) The distance between A and C is increased.
4 Briefly describe how the period of the pendulum would be measured.
5 Study the displacement- time graph for a simple pendulum.

(a) What is value of the period of the pendulum?

(b) State the maximum displacement of the pendulum.
(c) Naosa carried out an experiment to determine the time Kakula took to finish
drinking one litre of castle using a simple pendulum. The period of the
pendulum was 1.5 seconds and its length was 0.8m.
(i) Calculate the time taken for Kakula to finish drinking one litre of castle if
the number of oscillations were 50.
(ii) State what will happen to the frequency of pendulum if the length was;
(a) reduced to 0.5m
(b) Increased by 0.5m.
6 The graph below is for a pendulum bob which was pulled to one side and then
released to swing. Assume that there is no friction of any sort as the bob
swings.

(a) What do you understand by period of the pendulum?

(b) After how long does the pendulum bob reach the maximum distance of travel?
(c) If the pendulum bob swings at the rate of 5m/s, how far from the starting position
is it at 8 seconds later from the time it started swinging?
(d) Explain why this pendulum would be suitable for keeping or measuring time.
Stop clocks
Exercise
1. The diagrams show the times on a stop clock at the beginning and at the end of an
experiment.
How long did the experiment take?
A 10 s B 25 s C 35 s D 45 s
2. One side of the main bedroom has a modern clock while the opposite side had a
large dressing mirror. A child enters this room and sees the image of the clock in
the mirror as shown below.

What is the correct time shown by the actual clock?

A 10:10 hours B 11:10 hours C 13:50 hours D 14:50 hours
Scalar and vector quantities
Scalar quantity
It is a quantity which has magnitude (size) with no direction
Scalar quantities can easily be added and subtracted.
Examples of scalar quantities
 Distance
 Speed
 Mass
 Volume
 Temperature
Vector quantity
It is a quantity which has both magnitude (size) and direction.
Vector quantities are mainly represented graphically or an arrow with a point (→)
Examples of Vector quantities
 Displacement
 Velocity
 Acceleration
 Force
 Weight
 Momentum
Kinematics
Kinematics is the science of describing the motion of objects using words, diagrams,
numbers, graphs, and equations. Kinematics is a branch of mechanics.
Mechanics is the study of the motion of objects.
Motion
Motion is the change of position of an object in a given direction.
Types of motion
1. Linear motion
This is the movement of an object along a straight line or path e.g. a car travelling along a
straight road.
2. Motion Circular (Rotational motion)
This is the movement in a circle about the centre or an axis e.g. a spinning wheel or
rotating fan.
3. Oscillatory motion
This is the movement where an object moves to and fro about a fixed position e.g. the
swinging of the bob of the pendulum.
4. Random motion
This is the movement of an object in a disorderly manner e.g. in the case of gaseous
particles.
Linear motion
Four parameters are required to describe motion in a straight line. These are;
 Distance or displacement
 Speed or velocity
 Acceleration
 Time
Distance
Symbol: s
SI unit: metre, m
Definition: Distance is the length between two or more points. It can also be defined as
the actual path travelled by an object from its initial position to the final position.
Displacement
Symbol: s
SI unit: metre, m
Definition: Displacement is the distance travelled in a specified direction.
Similarity between distance and displacement
1. The SI unit for both distance and displacement is the metre, m.
Differences between distance and displacement
1. Distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.
2. Distance is the length between two points while displacement is the distance
travelled in a specified direction.
Examples
1. A car moves 15Km to the East and 13Km to the North.
(a) Find the distance and displacement of the car.
Solution
(i)Distance = 15Km + 13Km
= 28Km
(ii)Displacement = 15Km East and 13Km North.
2. The circumference of a round bout is 50m and the car turns it once.
(a) Find the distance and displacement of the car.
Solution
(i)Distance = 50m
(ii)Displacement = 0m because the car came back to the starting point.
3. A boy walks forward 25m and backward 15m.
(a) Find the distance and displacement of the boy.
Solution
(i)Distance = 25m + 15m
= 40m
(ii)Displacement = 25m – 15m
= 10m forward
Speed
Symbol: V
SI unit: metre per second, m/s (or ms-1)
Definition: Speed is the rate of change of distance with time.

Formula: Average speed =

v=

Note
1m/s = 3.6Km/h
Examples
1. Express
(a) 72Km/h in m/s
(b) 10m/s in Km/h
(c)
Solution
( )
(a) = ( )

=20m/s
OR
3.6Km/h → 1m/s
72Km/h → x
/ /
x=
. /

x = 20m/s
(b) 1m/s → 3.6Km/h
10m/s→ x
/ . /
x= /

x = 36Km/h
2. A car travels from Lusaka to Mongu 600Km away in 8hours. Find the average
speed of the car in Km/h.
Data Solution
v =? v=
s = 600Km v=
t = 8h
v = 75Km/h

3. A cheetah runs at a speed of 20m/s in 50 seconds. Calculate how far it will travel
in this time.

Data Solution
s =? s=vxt
v= 20m/s s = 20m/s x 50s
t = 50s s = 100m

4. A bus takes 40 minutes to complete its 24Km route. Calculate its average speed in
m/s.
Data Solution
v =? v=
s = 24Km = 24000m
v=
t = 40min = 2400s
v = 10m/s

Velocity
Symbol: V
SI unit: metre per second, m/s (or ms-1)
Definition: Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time.

Formula: Average velocity =

v=

Similarity between speed and velocity

1. Both speed and velocity are measured in metres per second, m/s.
Differences between speed and velocity
1. Speed is a scalar quantity while velocity is vector quantity.
2. Speed is the rate of change of distance with time while velocity is the rate of
change of displacement with time.
Note
Speed is called velocity when it has direction and velocity is called speed when it has no
direction.
Example
1. Car 1 moves 10m/s east and car 2 moves 10m/s north. Find the speed and velocity
of the two cars.
Solution
(a) Both car 1 and 2 have the same speed of 10m/s
(b) Car 1 has a velocity of 10m/s east while car 2 has a velocity of 10m/s north.
Acceleration
Symbol: a
SI unit: metre per second squared, m/s2 (or ms-2)
Definition: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.

Formula: Average acceleration =

a=

Types of acceleration
1. Positive acceleration
This is when velocity is increasing with time.
It is always given a positive sign.
2. Negative acceleration
This is when velocity is decreasing with time. It is also called retardation or deceleration
It is always given a negative sign
3. Uniform acceleration
This is when the rate of velocity is constant
Under uniform acceleration, velocity is changing continuously but at the same rate.
Uniform acceleration is also called constant acceleration
4. Non uniform acceleration
This is the acceleration in which the rate of change of velocity is not constant.
The rate of change of velocity keeps on changing.
Note
1. Negative acceleration is called retardation or deceleration
2. When speed or velocity is constant, acceleration, a = 0m/s2
3. From rest, initial velocity, u = 0m/s
4. Moving at/travelling at/moving with, initial velocity, u = given velocity in m/s
5. To rest, final velocity, v = 0m/s
Examples
1. A car starting from rest increases its velocity uniformly to 15m/s in 3 seconds.
What is the acceleration?
Data Solution
a =?
v = 15m/s a=
u = 0m/s / /
a=
t = 3s
/
a=

a = 5m/s2

2. A car slows down from 36m/s to rest in 12s. Calculate the retardation.
Data Solution
a =? / /
a=
v = 0m/s /
a=
u = 36m/s
a = -3m/s2
t = 12s

Equations of uniformly accelerated linear motion

1. v = u + at
2. s = ut + at2

3. v2 = u2 + 2as
( )
4. s =

Examples
1. A car travelling at 10m/s accelerates at 2m/s2 for 3 seconds. What is its final
velocity?
Data Solution
v =? v = u + at
u = 10m/s v = 10m/s + (2m/s2 x 3s)
t = 3s v = 10m/s + 6m/s
2
a = 2m/s v = 16m/s

2. A car starts from rest accelerates at 3m/s2.How far does it travel in4 seconds?
Data Solution
s =? s= + at2
u = 0m/s
s=0 / 4 + x 3m/s2 x (4s )2
t = 4s
s = 24m
a = 3m/s2

3. A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 8m/s over a distance of 200m. How
long does it take to accelerate from rest to 8m/s?
Data Solution
t =? t=
s = 200m
t=
/ /
v = 8m/s
u = 0m/s t = 50s

4. A car accelerates uniformly from rest until it reaches a velocity of 10m/s in 5s.
How far does it travel during the 5s?
Data Solution
s =? ( )
s=
v =10m/s
u = 0m/s ( / / )
s=
t = 5s
s = 25m

Activity seven
1. A car travelling at 20m/s accelerates at the rate of 2m/s2 for 30 seconds.
Calculate;
(a) the final velocity of the car
(b) the distance travelled by the car.
Time graphs
Distance-time graphs
A distance time - graph is a graph where distance is plotted against time.
The diagrams below represent the distance time graphs for the motion of an object.

Description
The object was accelerating.

Description
The object was decelerating or retarding

Description
The object stopped moving.(was at rest)
The horizontal straight line indicates zero speed

Description
The object was moving with constant velocity. It travelled a distance of 10m in 6s.
The slope on the distance-time graph represents velocity.

Velocity =

Example
1. An object travelled a distance of 40m in 4 seconds.
(a) Sketch the distance- time graph to interpret the information above.
(b) Calculate the velocity of an object.
Solution
(a)
(a) Velocity =

v=

v=

v = 10m/s
Activity eight
1. The diagram below shows the distance-time graph of an object.

1. Describe the motion of an object from;

(a) A to B
(b) B to C
(c) C to D
Velocity (speed)-time graphs
Velocity-time graph is a graph where velocity is plotted against time.
The diagrams below show the velocity-time graphs for the motion of an object.

Description
The object was moving from rest with constant acceleration to a velocity of 12m/s in 2s.
The slope indicates constant acceleration.

Description
The object was moving from rest with constant acceleration to a velocity of 12m/s in 2s.
It then moved with constant velocity of 12m/s in 2s.
Description
The object was moving at a constant velocity of 12m/s in 3s and then decelerated
uniformly to rest in 3s.
Description
The object was moving from rest with constant (uniform) acceleration to a velocity of
12m/s in 2s and then it moved with constant velocity of 12m/s in 2s and finally
decelerates uniformly to rest in 5s.
Summary of velocity-time graphs
Description
Non-uniform acceleration

Description
Non-uniform deceleration or retardation

Description
Constant velocity
Horizontal line represents zero acceleration

Description
Increasing (uniform) velocity
Constant or uniform acceleration

Description
Negative velocity shows that the object was dropping or falling.
Constant (uniform) deceleration
Note
1. The slope (gradient) on the velocity-time graph represents acceleration.

a=
2. The area under the velocity-time graph represents the distance covered.
For a;
(a) triangle,

Distance, s = bh

(b) rectangle,

Distance, s = l x b
(c) trapezium,

Distance, s = (a + b)h

3. Velocity of a body must be changing when the body is accelerating

Example
1. The diagram below shows a speed versus time graph for an arrow which was shot
vertically upwards.
(a) At what speed was the arrow shot?
(b) How long did it take the arrow to reach its highest point?
(c) Determine how high the arrow rose.
Data Solution
(a) v = 100m/s
(b) t = 10s
(c) s =?
b = 10s s = bh
h = 100m/s
s = x 10s x 100m/s

s = 500m

1. The figure below shows a velocity-time graph for a car travelling along a straight
road in 10s.

(a) Describe the motion of the car in 10s.

(b) Find the acceleration of the car in the first 2s.
(c) Find the acceleration of the car between 2 and 6 seconds of the journey.
(d) Calculate the acceleration of the car in the last 4s of its motion.
(e) Find the distance travelled by the car in the first 2s.
(f) Calculate the distance travelled by the car during the constant velocity
(between 2 and 6 seconds)
(g) Find the total distance travelled by the car.
1 Data Solution
(a) The car was moving from rest with constant acceleration
to a velocity of 10m/s in 2s and then it moved with
constant velocity of 10m/s in 4s and finally decelerates
uniformly to rest in 4s.
(b) a =? a=
v = 10m/s / /
a=
u = 0m/s
a = 5m/s2
t = 2s
(c) a =? a = 0m/s2 because velocity is constant.
v = 10m/s or
u = 10m/s a=
t = 4s / /
a=
/
a=

a = 0m/s2
(d) a =? a=
v = 0m/s / /
a=
u = 10m/s
a = -2.5m/s2
t = 4s
(e) s =? s= ℎ
b = 2s
s= 2 10 /
h = 10m/s
s = 10m
(f) s =? s=lxb
l = 4s s = 4s x 10m/s
b = 10m/s s = 40m
(g) s =? s = (a + b)h
a = 4s
s = (4s + 10s)10m/s
b = 10s
h = 10m/s s = x 14s x 10m/s

s = 70m

Activity nine
1. A car moving from rest acquires a velocity of 20m/s with uniform acceleration in
4s. It then moves with this velocity for 6s and again accelerates uniformly to
30m/s in 5s. It travels for 3s at this velocity and then comes to rest with uniform
deceleration in 12s.
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph
(b) Calculate the total distance covered.
(c) Calculate the average speed.
2. A car starting from rest accelerates uniformly to 20m/s in 5s. And it accelerates
more to 40m/s in 2s and then decelerates until it stops 8s later.
(a) Draw the speed-time graph
(b) Calculate the retardation
(c) Calculate the total distance travelled
(d) Calculate the average speed.
3. A car accelerated uniformly from 10m/s to 20m/s. It travelled a distance of 50m
during this time.
(a) What the acceleration of the car?
(b) How long does it take to travel this distance?
4. A car stating from rest accelerates uniformly at 5m/s2in 3s.
(a) Calculate the final velocity
(b) Calculate the distance covered.
5. A man drives a car at 5Km/h. He brakes and stops in 3s. Calculate the retardation.
6. A man rides a bicycle. He accelerates from rest to a velocity of 8m/s in 5s. What
is the acceleration?
7. An object moving at a velocity of 10m/s comes to rest in 4s.
(a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the motion of this object.
(b) Using your graph, calculate the acceleration of the object.
8. The table below shows the readings obtained by a group of pupils performing an
experiment to determine variation of velocity with time for a car starting from
rest.
Velocity, m/s 0 10 20 20 20
Time,s 0 2 4 6 8

(a) On the axes above, draw the velocity-time graph.

(b) Calculate the acceleration of the car for the first 4 seconds.
Acceleration-time graphs
Acceleration-time graph is a graph where acceleration is plotted against time.
The diagrams below represent the acceleration- time graphs

+1.25 Acceleration
Acceleration
(m/s2) 0 time/s (m/s

-1.25 time/s

Description Description
Constant deceleration Constant acceleration
Decreasing velocity Increasing velocity
Example
1. As it went past an observer standing by the road side, a bus decelerated at
1.25m/s2. Thirty seconds later, the bus stopped.
(a) How far from the observer has the bus moved when it stopped?
(b) What was the speed of the bus as it went past the observer?
(c) On the axis below, sketch an acceleration- time graph for the motion of the bus.

a (m/s2) 0 time/s

1 Data Solution
(a) s =? s = ut + at2
u = 0m/s
s = 0m/s x 30s + x1.25m/s2x(30s)2
t = 30s
a = -1.25m/s2 s = 0m/s x 30 + x1.25m/s2x30s x 30s

s =562.5m
(b) u =? v = u + at
v = 0m/s u = v – at
t = 30s u = 0m/s – (-1.25m/s2) x 30s
a = -1.25m/s2 u = 37.5m/s
(c)
a (m/s2)
-1.25

Activity ten
1. Starting from rest at t = 0s, a car moves in a straight line with an acceleration
given by the graph below.

10
a (m/s2)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 time/s
(a) What is the speed of the car at t = 3s?
Acceleration due to gravity: free fall
Symbol: g
SI unit: metre per second squared, m/s2
Definition: It is the acceleration of free falling objects.
All objects accelerate uniformly downwards on the earth if air resistance is ignored. This
is called acceleration due to gravity.
Objects fall because of the gravitational attraction between the objects and the earth.
If an object is dropped from the top of the building, it accelerates uniformly downwards.
If an object is released without applying force, it starts from rest. This is called free fall.
Free fall (dropping), u = 0m/s
g = 10m/s2
If an object is thrown vertically upwards, it decelerates to the top. Then the object stops
momentarily on the top and then it starts to fall freely.
Throwing up, v = 0m/s
g = -10m/s2

The time taken for an object thrown vertically upwards to rise is equal to the time it will
take to drop, t1 = t2
t1: time taken from the ground to the top.
t2: time taken from the top to the ground.
Total time, t = t1 + t2
The equations of motion can be applied to free falling objects using “g” instead of “a”
and “h” instead of “s".
1. v = u + gt
2. h = ut + gt2

3. v2 = u2 + 2gh
( )
4. h =

Note
g = acceleration due to gravity [10 m/s2]
h = height or distance [m].
Examples
1. A stone is thrown upwards with an initial velocity of 20m/s. Air resistance is
ignored.
(a) How far does it reach to the top?
(b) How long does it take to the top?
(c) What is its velocity just before reaching the ground?
(d) How long does it take to the ground?
Data Solution
a h=? h=
u = 20m/s
v = 0m/s h= ( )

g = -10m/s2 h=

h = 20m
b t1 =? t1 =
u = 20m/s
t1 =
v = 0m/s
t1 = 2s
g = -10m/s2
c u=v v = 20m/s (Final velocity is equal to initial velocity,
the velocity with which it was thrown)
d t =? t = t1 + t 2
t1 = 2s t = 2s + 2s
t1 = t2 = 2s t = 4s

2. A body falls freely from rest. Air resistance is ignored.

(a) What is its velocity after 1s?
(b) How far does it reach in 1s?
2 Data Solution
a v =? v = u + gt
u = 0m/s v = 0m/s + (10m/s2 x 1s)
g = 10m/s2 v = 0m/s + 10m/s
t = 1s v = 10m/s
b h =? h = ut + gt2
u = 0m/s
h = om/s x 1s + x10m/s2x1sx1s
t = 1s
h = 5m
g = 10m/s2

3. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 10m/s.

Calculate,
(a) the maximum height that the ball reaches.
(b) the total time the ball is in the air
(c) the velocity with which the ball hits the ground.
3 Data Solution
a h =? h=
u = 10m/s
v = 0m/s h= ( )

g = -10m/s2 h=

h = 5m
b t1 =? t1 =
t 1 = t2
t1 =
t =? / /

h = 5m t1 = /
u = 10m/s t1 =1s
v = 0m/s t1 = t2 = 1s
t = t1 + t 2
t = 1s + 1s
t = 2s
c u=v v = 10m/s (Final velocity is equal to initial velocity, the
velocity with which it was thrown.)
Activity eleven
1. A stone is released from the top of a building and takes 3s to reach the ground.
The air resistance is ignored.
(a) What was the final velocity of the stone?
(b) How tall is the building?
2. A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 40m/s.
(a) Find the maximum height the ball reaches.
(b) How long does the ball remain in the air? (assuming air resistance is ignored)
Terminal velocity
Terminal velocity is constant velocity reached by a falling object when the air resistance
is equal to the weight of the object.
Every falling object experiences some air resistances which increase with speed. When a
falling object acquires a high speed such that air resistance becomes equal to the weight
of the object, the object stops accelerating and falls with constant velocity. This constant
velocity is called terminal velocity.
Factors (conditions) that affect terminal velocity
 Size of the object
 Shape of the object
 Weight of the object
 Mass of the object
An object of low density but large surface area reaches terminal velocity e.g. a feather.
A man who jumps out of a helicopter has a high terminal velocity, but when he opens the
parachute to his advantage, terminal velocity reduces due to increased air resistance.
[A] If a coin and a feather are enclosed in a long tube which contains air and the tube is
inverted, the coin falls much faster than a feather. A feather falls more slowly because it
has a low density and large surface area.
Terminal velocity is reached where there is air.

[B] If air is pumped out of the tube with a vacuum pump and the tube is inverted, both the
feather and the coin fall at the same time and the same acceleration called acceleration
due to gravity.
Terminal velocity is not reached in a vacuum.

Activity twelve
1. Give an example where a person uses terminal velocity to his advantage.
2. Explain a reason why a piece of paper falls more slowly than a stone, although
both of them are on earth and are supposed to have the same acceleration of
10m/s2.
3. The figure below shows a feather, dropped from the top of a building which
reaches terminal velocity at point B.

The velocity of the feather at B is 30m/s. If time taken for the feather to move from B to
C is 3s, what is its velocity at C?
Recording motion using a ticker tape timer
A ticker tape timer is a device that can be used to record motion of an object.
A ticker tape makes dots on a paper tape.
When a paper tape is pulled through the timer, a dot is marked on the tape every 0.02s.
In one second, 50 dots are made on the paper tape. This implies that a dot is made in

or 0.02s.
Implications (interpretations) of ticker tape dot pattern
Constant speed

Accelerating

Decelerating

Determining time from the ticker tape

Time = number of dot spaces x 0.02s
Example
1. Determine thetime interval between x and y.

Solution
t = number of dot spaces x 0.02s
t = 7 x 0.02s
t = 0.14s
Determining speed from ticker tapes

Speed =

v=
Example
1. From the ticker tape shown below, work out the speed.

Solution
t = number of dot spaces x 0.02s
t = 4 x 0.02s
t = 0.8s

Speed =

v=
.
v= .

v = 2.5m/s
Mass
Symbol: m
SI unit: Kilogram, Kg
Definition: Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a substance.
The mass of an object is also the measure of its inertia.
Measuring instruments: beam balance.
Mass of an object is constant (same) everywhere the object is taken e.g. if the stone on
earth is 75Kg, its mass on the moon will also be 75Kg.
Conversion of units
1 Kg = 1000g
1 tonne = 1000Kg
1 tonne = 1000000g
Measurement of mass
Comparing masses using a beam balance
When measuring the mass of a substance, we compare the mass of the measured object
with standard masses (known masses)
Procedure
1. Place the standard mass (e.g. 10kg) on one pan.(Standard mass of a substance of
mass 10kg is needed)
2. Place the measured object on the other pan until the object and standard mass
balances.
3. When the two balances, it means they have the same mass or weight.
Precautions
1. Clean the pans and beams
2. Adjust the zeroing screw so that the pointer coincides with the zero mark.
3. Read the mass of the known mass object when the beam is balanced.
Determining the mass of a liquid
Experiment
Aim: To find the mass of the liquid, m
Apparatus
 Triple beam balance
 Beaker
 Liquid
Method
Place a dry empty beaker on the beam balance and record its mass, m1.
Pour the liquid into the beaker. Measure and record the mass of the liquid and beaker, m2.
Find the mass of the liquid using the formula; m = m2 – m1.
Conclusion
Mass of liquid = mass of beaker and liquid – mass of empty beaker
Precaution
1. The beaker should be cleaned and dried before the experiment.
Example
1. In an experiment to determine the mass of a certain volume of paraffin, the mass
of the beaker was found to be 20g. When the paraffin was poured into the beaker,
the mass increased to 42.5g. What was the mass of paraffin?
Solution
Mass of paraffin = mass of beaker and liquid – mass of empty beaker
m = m2 – m1
m = 42.5g – 20g
m = 22.5g

Exercise
1. Briefly describe how the mass of a liquid can be determined. Show how the final
result can be calculated.
Determining the mass of air
Experiment
Aim: To find the mass of air, m.
Apparatus
 Bottle with air
 Beam balance
 Vacuum pump
Method
Place the bottle filled with air on the beam balance and record the mass, m1
Remove the air from the bottle using the vacuum pump. Measure and record the mass of
the empty bottle, m2
Find the mass of the air using the formula; m = m1 – m2
Conclusion
Mass of air = mass of bottle with air – mass of empty bottle
Example
1. The mass of the bottle filled with air is 50.65g. When the air is removed from the
bottle, the mass of the empty bottle is 50g. Calculate the mass of air.
Solution
Mass of air = mass of bottle filled with air – mass of empty bottle
m = m1 – m2
m = 50.65g – 50g
m = 0.65g
Activity thirteen
1. A bottle filled with air with mass 22g has a mass of 53.2g. Find the mass of the
empty bottle.
Weight
Symbol: W
SI unit: Newton. N
Definition: Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object.
Measuring instrument: Spring balance.

The weight of an object varies from place to place i.e. from the earth to the moon.
Weight is less on the moon and more on the earth.
There is no weight in the outer space. (Weight is equal to zero newtons)
Factors that affect the weight of an object
 Mass of an object
 Acceleration due to gravity, g
 Distance of an object from the centre of the earth.
The greater the mass of an object, the greater its weight.
When g is high, weight is also high and when g is low, weight is also low.
On the earth’s surface, g varies depending on how far the object is from the centre of the
earth.
Nearer to the centre of the earth, g is high and further away from the centre of the earth, g
is low.
As the object is moved further away from the centre of the earth, weight reduces because
g keeps reducing.
A place at the south or North Pole where g is zero, weight is also zero.
As the object is moved closer to the centre of the earth, g increases and weight also
increases.

Example
1. Explain why;
(a) The weight of the miner increases as he goes along a deep mine?
(b) The weight of the space craft reduces as it moves upwards?
(c) The rocket’s weight is zero?
Solution
(a) Because g increases as the miner goes closer to the centre of the earth and this
results in an increase in the weight.
(b) Because g reduces as an object moves away from the centre of the earth and
weight also reduces.
(c) Because in the space g is equal to zero and also results in weight to be zero.
Differences between mass and weight
1. Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a substance while weight is the force
of gravity acting on an object.
2. Mass is a scalar quantity while weight is a vector quantity.
3. Mass is measured using a beam balance while weight is measured using a spring
balance.
4. Weight varies slightly from place to place while mass does not change.
5. The SI unit for weight is the Newton, N, while the SI unit for mass is the
kilogram, Kg. (A mass of 1Kg weighs approximately 10N)
Relationship between mass and weight
Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
W = mg
Where;
W = weight [N]
m = mass [Kg]
g = acceleration due to gravity [N/Kg]
Note
1. The value of g on earth is 10N/Kg
2. The value of g on the moon is 1.6N/Kg

Example
1. The mass of a man is 70kg. What is his weight on the moon?
Data Solution
W =? W = mg
m = 70kg W = 70kg x 10N/kg
g = 10N/kg W = 700N.

2. The weight of an on object is 300N.

(a) What is its mass on earth?
(b) What is its (i) mass and (ii) weight on the moon?
(c) What is its (i) mass and (ii) weight in the outer space?
Data Solution
A m =? m=
W = 300N
m= /
g = 10N/kg
m = 30Kg
b(i) Mass does not m = 30kg
change
(ii) W =? W = mg
m = 30kg W = 30kg x 1.6N/kg
g = 1.6N/kg W = 48N
c (i) Mass does not m = 30kg
change
(ii) g = 0N/kg W = mg
m = 30kg W = 30kg x 0N/kg
W = 0N

Activity fourteen
1. A stone of mass 20kg is placed on earth where gravitational strength is 10N/kg.
(a) Find the weight of the stone on earth.
(b) What is the weight of the same stone on the moon?
2. A block of mass 5000g is found at a place on earth where g is 10N/kg.
(a) Find its weight at this place.
(b) What is its mass when it is taken down into the mine?
3. An astronaut with a mass of 75kg on earth travels to the moon whose gravitational
strength is 1.6N/kg.
(a) What is meant by mass?
(b) What is the mass of an astronaut on the moon?
(c) What is his weight on the moon?
4. State the differences between mass and weight
Centre of gravity (Centre of mass)
Centre of gravity of an object is the point through which its whole weight appears to act.
Centre of gravity can also be defined as a point within an object where its total mass
seems to originate from.
How to determine the centre of gravity of an irregular object
Aim: To find out (locate) the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped object (plane
lamina)
Apparatus
 String
 Plane lamina/ paper
 Pen/pencil/ruler with a knife edge
 Pin
 Bob
Method
Make a small hole near the edge of a flat plane lamina
Hang the plane lamina by a needle and make sure that it can swing freely.
Hang the plumb line from the same needle and again make sure that it is also free to turn
Mark the position of the plumb line on the plane lamina (to do this accurately, make a
point near the bottom edge of the plane lamina over which the string passes)
Draw a straight line from the needle to this point to represent the position of the plumb
line [the centre of gravity lies some where along this line]
Make two other holes near the edge of the plane lamina so that all the three holes are as
far as possible.
Repeat the experiment and draw two other lines.

Observation
The irregular shaped plane lamina balances at point C.
Conclusion
Since the centre of gravity lies on each of the lines, their intersection locates the centre of
gravity.
Stability
Stability of an object is defined as the ability of an object to regain its original position
after it has been displaced slightly.
Stability can also be defined as a condition in which an object is not moving and cannot
fall.
A stationary object can either be stable or unstable
Something stable is an object which cannot easily fall when slightly pushed or tilted.
Something unstable is an object which can easily fall when slightly pushed or tilted.
Conditions (factors) for stability
 Low centre of gravity
 Wide base
1. Low centre of gravity
The position of centre of gravity affects the stability of an object.
The centre of gravity should be as low as possible.
2. Wide base
The base area should be as large as possible
The wider the base, the more stable an object will be.
The mass of an object should be concentrated at the base.
Equilibrium
Equilibrium is a condition of an object in which the sum of all forces acting on it is zero
e.g. resultant force is zero
Objects which are in equilibrium are;
(a) those that are stationary i.e.at rest
(b) those that are moving with constant velocity
A stationary object can either be in a stable equilibrium, unstable equilibrium or neutral
equilibrium.
1. Stable equilibrium
An object is said be in stable equilibrium if when slightly pushed or tilted goes back to its
original position.
Examples

The objects above are more stable because they have;

(a) Low centre of gravity and
(b) Wider base
Objects in stable equilibrium do not easily fall when slightly pushed because the vertical
line of force from the centre of gravity does not easily fall on the other side of base.

2. Unstable equilibrium
An object is said to be in unstable equilibrium if when slightly pushed or tilted falls off
i.e.it does not go back to its original position.
Examples
Topples over when tilted
Topples over when tilted

High centre of gravity

High centre of gravity

Vertical line of force Vertical line of force

The objects above are unstable because they have;
(a) High centre of gravity
(b) Smaller or narrow base
Objects in unstable equilibrium fall off easily because when slightly pushed or tilted, the
vertical line of force easily falls off on the other side of the base.
3. Neutral equilibrium
An object is said to be in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new position after it has
been pushed slightly.
Example

When a ball and a cylinder are rolled, they come to rest in a new stable equilibrium.
Note
It is not advisable to put a heavy luggage on the roof of a minibus because it can topple
over at the corner when it is moving fast.
Activity
1. The figure below shows a bus

(a) State three modifications that should be made in the design of the bus to make it
more stable.
2. The diagram below shows two identical rectangular wooden blocks A and B.
Block B has a layer of lead attached to its base. The blocks were tilted about
edges PQ as shown in the diagram below.
Explain why A topples over at a smaller angle of tilt than B
(a) State two conditions which can help to prevent a truck toppling over when tilted.
3. What two factors will make an object stable?
Volume
Symbol: V
SI unit: cubic metre, m3
Definition: Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.
Other units for volume
Cubic centimeters, cm3
Mililitres, ml
Litres, L

Relationship of units
1ml = 1cm3
1L = 1000ml = 1000cm3
1m3 = 1000L = 1000000cm3
Note
In the laboratory, we usually use cubic centimeters because the cubic metre is a very
large unit.
Instruments for measuring volume of liquids
Measuring cylinder
It measures various volumes of liquids
Pipette
It measures a fixed amount of volume of liquid according to its capacity
Burette
It measures the required volume up to its capacity
Flasks
They give or measure approximate fixed volumes
Volume of regular solids
An irregular solid is an object whose sides can be measured easily.
Procedure
Measure the length of an object using a ruler or vernier calipers or micrometer screw
gauge
Use the appropriate formula to find the volume.
Object Formula
Cuboid (rectangle) V=lxbxh
V=Axh
Cube (square) V = l3
Sphere (circle) V = πr3

Cylinder (wire or pipe) V = πr2h

V=Axh
Cone V = π2h

Pyramid V = bh

Prism V = bh

Examples
1. Find the volume of the block which has the following measurements; length =
10cm, breadth = 6cm, height = 3cm.
Data Solution
V =? V=lxbxh
l = 10cm V = 10cm x 6cm x 3cm
b = 6cm V = 180cm3
h = 3cm
2. Find the volume of a cube of sides 4cm.
Data Solution
V =? V = l3
l = 4cm V = l x l xl
V = 4cm x 4cm x 4cm
V = 64cm3

3. Calculate the volume of the sphere of radius 6cm.

Data Solution
V =? V = πr3
π=
V = x x 6cm x 6cm x 6cm
r = 6cm
V = 905cm3

Activity sixteen
1. Calculate the volume of the pipe of cross section area 30cm2 and 50cm long.
2. Find the volume of a wire of diameter 0.2cm and height 7cm.
Volume of liquids
Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are placed.
If a container is filled to its capacity, its volume can be determined by pouring the
contents into the measuring cylinder.
How to read volumes of liquids
When a liquid is poured into a measuring cylinder, it forms a curved surface on the upper
part of the liquid.
The curve could be concave or convex depending on the properties of the liquid.
The curved surface is called meniscus and is caused by the attraction between the liquid
particles and the container.
When the meniscus is convex (i.e. curving upwards) it is read from the top and when it is
concave (i.e. curving downwards) it is read from the bottom.
Precautions
1. Place the measuring cylinder on the horizontal flat surface
Volume of irregular solids
An irregular solid is an object whose sides cannot be measured easily.
An irregular solid has no specific dimensions e.g. a stone
The volume of small solids is measured by the displacement method using;
 A measuring cylinder
 An over flow can
(a) Using a measuring cylinder
Experiment
Aim: To find the volume of the stone, V
Apparatus
 Measuring cylinder
 Water
 Stone
 Thin string
Method
Pour water into a measuring cylinder and record the initial water level, V1
Tie a piece of thin string around a small stone and slowly lower the stone into the
measuring cylinder until it is fully submerged. Record the final water level, V2
Find the volume of the stone using the formula, V = V2 – V1
Conclusion
Volume of water displaced by the stone is equal to the volume of the stone
(b) Using an over flow can
Experiment
Aim: To find the volume of the stone, V
Apparatus
 Over flow can
 Water
 Measuring cylinder
 Tripod stand
 Small stone
 Thin string
Method
Place an over flow can on a tripod stand
Pour water into an over flow can until it begins to flow from the spout.
Leave the can until the water stops over flowing (dripping)
Place an empty measuring cylinder under the spout
Tie a piece of thin string around a small stone and slowly lower the stone into the can
until it is fully submerged.
Water from the can is collected in a measuring cylinder. Water collected in the cylinder is
the volume of the stone.
Conclusion
The water collected in the measuring cylinder is called displaced water and its volume is
equal to the volume of the stone lowered in the can.
Precautions
1. Use a thin string to reduce the amount of water displaced by it.
2. Use a solid that does not react or dissolve in the liquid.
3. Lower the irregular solid gently to avoid the splashing of the liquid.
4. Place the measuring cylinder on the flat or horizontal surface
5. Tap the measuring cylinder to remove any amount of air bubbles.
6. Place the eye level with the flat surface of the liquid [in case of water, read from
the bottom of the meniscus]
Example
1. 100cm3 of water is poured into a measuring cylinder. A block of copper wire is
gently lowered into the measuring cylinder and the water level rises to the 183cm
mark.
(a) What is the volume of the copper block?
(b) If the height of the block is 10cm, what is the cross sectional area?
Data Solution
a V =? V = v2 – v1
V2 =183cm3 V = 183cm3 – 100cm3
V1 = 100cm3 V = 83cm3
b A =? A=
3
V = 83cm
A=
h = 10cm
A = 8.3cm2

Volume of a small irregular floating solid

Experiment
Aim: To find the volume of an irregular floating solid, V
Apparatus
 Cork (floating object)
 Stone
 Water
 Thin string
 Measuring cylinder
Method
Pour water into the measuring cylinder.
Tie a thin string around a small stone and gently lower the stone into the measuring
cylinder until it is fully submerged. Record this initial water level, V1.
Then tie a floating object together with the stone and then lower them into the same
measuring cylinder. Water level rises and record the this final water level, V2
Find the volume of the floating object using the formula, V = V2 – V1
Conclusion
Volume of floating object = final volume – initial volume
Note
The stone is used to make the floating object to sink or submerge
Anything that sinks can be used in place of a stone.
Density
Symbol: ρ
SI unit: kilogram per cubic metre, kg/m3
Definition: Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance
Formula: Density =
ρ=

Relationship of units
1kg/m3 = 0.001g/cm3
1g/cm3 = 1000kg/m3
Example
1. Convert
(a) 3kg/m3 into g/cm3
(b) 5g/cm3 into kg/m3
Solution
(a) 0.001g/cm3 → 1kg/m3
x → 3kg/m3
. / /
x=
/

x = 0.003g/cm3
(b) 1g/cm3→ 1000kg/m3
5g/cm3→ x
/ /
x= /

x = 5000kg/m3
Simple determination of density
Find the mass of an object using a beam balance
Find the volume of an object
Find the density of an object using the formula;
Density =

ρ=

Density of irregular solids

Experiment
Aim: To find the density of an irregular object, ρ
Apparatus
 Measuring cylinder
 Beam balance
 Stone
 Water
 Thin string
Method
Measure and record the mass of the stone, m
Pour water in the measuring cylinder and record the initial volume of water, V1
Slowly, lower the stone into a measuring cylinder using a thin string and record the final
volume of water, V2.
Find the density of the stone by using the formula;
ρ=

Examples
1. A body of mass 500g was suspended in 100cm3 of water by a piece of cotton. The
level rises to 150cm3. What is its density?
Data Solution
ρ =? ρ =
m = 500g
ρ =
V1= 100cm3
V2 = 150cm3 ρ =

ρ = 10g/cm3

Activity
1. A material has density of 9.0g/cm3 and volume 50cm3. What is its mass?
2. A metal has mass of 225g and volume of 30cm3. What is its density?
Density of liquids
Experiment
Aim: To find the density of a liquid, ρ
Apparatus
 Measuring cylinder
 Beam balance
 Liquid
Method
Measure and record the mass of an empty cylinder, m1.
Pour the liquid into the measuring cylinder. Measure and record the mass of the cylinder
and water, m2.
Record the volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder, V
Find the density of the liquid by using the formula;
ρ =

Example
1. A container of mass 200g and contains160cm3 of liquid. The total mass of the
container and liquid is 520g. What is the density of the liquid?
Data Solution
ρ =? ρ =
m1 = 200g
ρ =
m2 = 520g
v = 160cm3 ρ =

ρ = 2.0g/cm3

Activity
1. A stone of mass 20g and density 0.5g/cm3 was immersed into water in a
measuring cylinder whose initial volume was 30cm3. Find the final volume of the
water in the measuring cylinder.
2. What is meant by the density of a substance? State constituent units in which the
various quantities you have mentioned could be measured.
(a) A tin containing 5000cm3 of paint has a mass of 7.0kg.
(i)If the mass of the empty tin including the lid is 0.5kg, calculate the density
of the paint.
(ii)If the tin is made of a metal which has a density of 7800kgm-3, calculate .
the volume of metal used to make the tin and the lid.
Relative density
Alternative term: Specific gravity
Symbol: ρr
Definition: Relative density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of water.
It is also the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water

Formula: Relative density =

Relative density =

Units: Relative density has no units.

Note
Density of water = 1g/cm3 or 1000kg/m3
Example
1. Find the relative density of a liquid of mass 300g if it has the same volume as
100g of water.
Data Solution
ρr=? ρr =
Mass of liquid = 300g
=
Mass of water = 100g
=3

Activity
1. The density of mercury is 13600kg/m3. The density of water is 1000kg/m3.
Calculate the relative density of mercury.
Density bottle
A density bottle is used to determine the relative density of a liquid
Experiment
Aim: To find the relative density of a liquid using the density bottle.
Method
Measure and record the mass of the density bottle, m1.
Measure and record the mass of the density bottle containing the water, m2.
Measure and record the mass of the density bottle containing the liquid under
investigation, m3.
Find the relative density by using the formula;
ρr =

Conclusion

Relative density of liquid =

NB: The density of a liquid is then found by multiplying relative density of the liquid by
the density of water.
Density of liquid = relative density x density of water
Precautions when using a density bottle
1. The density bottle must be thoroughly dried.
2. The water outside the density bottle must be dried completely with a dry cloth
3. The density bottle must be held by the neck to avoid expansion of the liquid [if
the bottle itself is held in the hands, the heat will cause expansion to the liquid]
4. Remove the water from the top of the stopper with a blotting paper.
Example
1. An empty relative density bottle weighs 25g. It weighs 65g when filled with a
liquid and 75g when filled with water.
(a) Calculate the mass of the liquid
(b) Calculate the mass of water
(c) Calculate the relative density of the liquid
(d) Calculate the density of the liquid
Solution
(a) Mass of liquid = 65g -25g
= 40g
(b) Mass of water = 75g – 25g
= 50g

(c) Relative density of the liquid =

Relative density of the liquid =

= 0.8
(d) Density of liquid = relative density x density of water
= 0.8 x 1g/cm3
= 0.8g/cm3
Activity
1. In an experiment, the results below were obtained
Mass of empty bottle = 50.2g
Mass of bottle filled with ethanol = 130.2g
Mass of bottled filled water = 150.2g
(a) Calculate the mass of the liquid
(b) Calculate the mass of water
(c) Calculate the relative density of the liquid
(d) Calculate the density of the liquid
2. An empty relative density bottle has a mass of 25g. When filled with a liquid of
relative density 0.92, its mass becomes 85g.
Calculate
(a) The mass of the bottle when filled with water.
(b) The capacity of the bottle
3. An empty relative density bottle has a mass of 35g. When filled with water, its
mass becomes 85.
Calculate the
(I) Mass of water
(II) The volume of the bottle ( take density of water to be 1g/cm3)
Density of air
Experiment
Aim: To find the density of air, ρ
Apparatus
 Beam balance / top pan balance
 Bottle / container with a top and tube
Note
A tube of the container can be connected to a suction pump which draw air in or suck air
out of the container
Method
Measure and record the mass of the container filled with air, m1.
Remove all the air from the container using a suction pump and then close the tap.
Measure and record the mass of the container without air. (empty container), m2.
NB: The volume, V, of the container should be known.
Next, open the container and fill it with water. Close the container tightly and make sure
all the air has been replaced by water
Measure and record the mass of the container filled with water, m3.
Find the density of air by using the formula;
ρ=

Conclusion

Density of air =

Note
Volume of container = Volume of air = Volume of water
The volume of air depends very much on the temperature and pressure of the
surrounding. It is therefore important to take note of the temperature and atmospheric
pressure during the experiment.
Example
1. Mr. Chilambe A, a physics teacher at Maiteneke Secondary School did an
experiment to find the density of air and he obtained the following results:
Mass of container = 265.12g
Mass of container and air = 265.42g
Mass of container and water = 515.12g
Take density of water to be 1g/cm3
Calculate
(a) The mass of air
(b) The mass of water
(c) The volume of the container
(d) The density of air
Solution
(a) Mass of air = mass of container with air – mass of empty container
= 265.42g – 265.12g
= 0.3g
(b) Mass of water = mass of container with water – mass of empty container
= 515.42g – 265.12g
= 250g
(c) Volume of container = volume of water
Volume =

=
/

= 250cm3
(d) Volume of air = volume of container
Density of air =
.
=
= 0.0012g/cm3
Activity
1. An experiment was carried out by Ritony to determine the density of air using the
density of air contained in a thick walled bottled as shown below.

The following results were obtained:

Mass of empty bottle = 309g
Mass of bottle filled with air = 310g
Mass of bottle filled with water = 1050g
Take density of water to be 1g/cm3
(a) What was the mass of water?
(b) What was the initial volume of the bottle?
(c) What was the mass of air?
(d) Calculate the density of air.
Density of a mixture
Method
Add the mass of the components to find the total mass
Add the volume of the components to find the total volume
Find the density of the mixture by using the formula;

Density =

Example
1. 30g of alcohol of volume 38cm3 is mixed in a jug with water of volume 20cm3
with mass 20g. Find the density of the mixture.
Solution
Total mass of mixture = 30g + 20g
= 50g
Total volume of mixture = 38cm3 + 20cm3
= 58cm3

Density =

= 0.86g/cm3
Activity
1. 32g of kerosene of density 0.80g/cm3is mixed with 8g of water.
(a) Find the total mass of the mixture
(b) Find the volume of kerosene
(c) Find the volume of water
(d) Calculate the total volume of the mixture
(e) Calculate the density of the mixture
2. 300cm3 of water is mixed with 300cm3 of pure alcohol. Calculate the density of
the mixture if the relative density of alcohol is 0.79.
Note
 When impurities of pollutants are added to a substance, its density increases e.g.
the density of water is 1g/cm3, but when salt is added to it, density increases
depending on the amount of impurities.
 An egg sinks in pure water because an egg is denser than pure water and an egg
floats in salt water because salt water is denser than an egg.
Force
Symbol: F
SI unit: Newton, N
Definition: Force is the push or pull exerted on an object
Measuring instrument: Spring balance.
Examples of forces
 Weight
 Friction
 Tension
 Up thrust
 Magnetic force
 Electric force
 Constant force
Effects of force on an object
1. Force can change the size and shape of an object
2. Force can change the motion of an object. Force can change the motion of an
object in the following ways:
(a) It makes an object to start moving
(b) It makes an object accelerates either uniformly or non-uniformly i.e. makes an
object accelerates uniformly if the force is constant and makes an object
accelerates non uniformly if the force varies.
(c) It makes an object decelerates
(d) It makes an objectchange direction
3. Force can make an object to turn about the point (pivot). It can also make an
object to rotate.
Newton’s laws of motion
There are three basic laws of motion given by Sir Isaac Newton
Newton’s first law of motion
The law states that: Any given body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless it is compelled to change that by an external force exerted on it.
Newton’s first law of motion is also called the law of inertia.
Inertia is the property of a body that resists a change to its motion.
Inertia is not a force but a property of an object.
Inertia depends on the mass of an object.
If something has a high resistance [high mass] to the change of motion, its inertia is said
to be high.
Note
1. A wire car is easier to start and easier to stop
2. A heavy truck has high inertia and it is difficult to start moving and difficult to
stop.
Every day effects of inertia
(a) When a fast moving bus stops suddenly, the passengers tend to be thrown forward
to maintain their forward motion. Similarly, when a bus suddenly starts moving,
the passengers are thrown backwards; they tend to remain behind due to inertia.
(b) When a block is placed on a smooth card on the table and the card is suddenly
pulled away horizontally, the block remains behind.
Newton’s second law of motion
The law states that: An unbalanced force acting on a body produces an acceleration in the
direction of the force.
This acceleration is directly proportional to the force but inversely proportional to the
mass of the body.
a∞F and a∞

Force = mass x acceleration

F = ma
Note
 a=

 m=

F = force [N]
m = mass [kg]
a = acceleration [m/s2] or [N/kg]
Example
1. A horizontal force of 5N was applied to a brick of mass 2kg resting on a
frictionless table. What was the acceleration of the brick?

Data Solution
a =? a=
F = 5N
a=
m = 2kg
a = 2.5N/kg

Activity twenty three

1. A man pushes an 8kg luggage on the smooth floor. It starts from rest and reaches
the final velocity of 15m/s in 5seconds.
(a) Calculate the acceleration
(b) What was the force acting on the luggage?
Newton’s third law of motion
The law states that: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Resultant force
Symbol: Rf
Definition: Resultant force is the sum of all forces acting on a body.
Formula: Resultant force = sum of forward forces– sumof backward forces
Or Resultant force = horizontal force –friction
Example
1. Find the resultant force of each of the following:
Direction of motion

5N 8N
(a)

4N

(b) 11N 12N

1N 2N
(c)
4N 3N

Solution
(a) Rf = 8N – 5N
= 3N
(b) Rf = (4N + 12N) – 11N
= 16N – 11N
= 5N
(c) Rf = (2N + 3N) – (1N + 4N)
= 5N – 5N
= 0N
2. The figure below shows the total forces acting forwards and backwards on a car at
different times X, Y and Z during a journey.
Direction of motion

In each case, the car is moving forwards. The mass of the car is 1000kg.
(a) State the name of one of the forces that is acting in the opposite direction to the
motion of the car.
(b) State whether the speed of the car is changing at time X.
Explain your answer.
(c) State whether the speed of the car at time Y is increasing, decreasing or is
constant.
Explain your answer.
(d) Calculate the acceleration of the car at time Y.
Data Solution
(a) Friction
(b) The speed is not changing
Forward force = Backward force Reason: Because the resultant force is zero
(i.e. Rf = 3000N –3000N = 0N)
(c) Increasing
Forward force > Backward force Reason: Because the forward force is greater than the
backward force.
(d) a =? a=
F = 5000N – 3000N = 2000N
a=
m = 1000kg
a = 2m/s2

Exercise
1. The figure below shows an object of mass 0.7kg resting on a horizontal
surface.

6.0N 2.5 N

If the object is pulled to the left by a force of 6.0 N and to the right by a force of 2.5N and
assuming that no other forces act on the object,
Calculate
(a) The resultant force
(b) The acceleration produced by the resultant force in (a)
(c) Explain why in practice the actual acceleration for the object may be lower than
your answer in (b) above.
Friction
Friction is the force which opposes the motion of two touching surfaces.
Friction acts in the opposite direction to the motion of an object.
Application of friction
1. It enables us to walk without slipping
2. It enables us to hold or grip something
3. It helps a vehicle to run and stop.
Friction and its effects on motion
1. It causes an object to move with constant velocity. In this case, horizontal
force (forward force) is equal to friction (backward force).e.g.
Direction of motion

20N 20N

Rf = 20N – 20N
= 0N
2. It causes an object to come to rest or decelerates. In this case, friction is
greater than forward force. e.g.
Direction of motion

250N 200N

Rf = 200N – 250N
= -50N
3. It causes the change in the direction of motion
Problems (consequences) of friction
1. It produces unnecessary heat and reduces the efficiency of machines
2. It causes the wearing and tearing of surfaces in contact
How to reduce friction
1. Lubrication of surfaces in contact using grease or oil
2. Putting ball bearings between movable surfaces in contact
Exercise
1. A man pushes a packing car having a total mass of 400kg across a floor at a
constant speed of 0.5m/s by exerting a horizontal force of 100N.
(a) How big was the force of friction acting on the car?
(b) What was the resultant force on the car?
Force and motion in a circular path
There are a number of objects which move round in circular motion.
Examples
1. The moon goes round the earth
2. The earth goes round the sun in an orbit
3. In the laboratory, a mass tied to a string can be made to swing round.
Centripetal force
Centripetal force is a force where the direction of the force is always directed towards the
Centre of the circle.
The force of circular motion is always at right angles to the motion.
Direction of centripetal force and acceleration
Object

Direction of motion

The acceleration caused by the centripetal force is called centripetal acceleration

Effects of force on the shape and size of an object
Force changes the shape and size of an object
The change of shape and size of an object is called deformation
Force can change the size and shape in the following ways;
(a) It compresses the object, hence reduces it in size
(b) It stretches the object, hence makes it longer
(c) It twists the object, hence changes its shape

Elastic material
It is a substance which regains its original shape and size when the force applied has been
removed
Examples of elastic materials
 Spring
 Rubber
Elasticity
Definition: Elasticity is the ability of an elastic material to regain its original shape and
size after the applied force has been removed
Elastic limit of the spring
Definition: Elastic limit of the spring is the maximum force that can be applied to a
spring without stretching it permanently
Original length
Alternative term: Neutral length
Definition: Original length is the length of the spring before being stretched
Formula: Original length = new length – extension
New length
Definition: New length is the length the spring reaches when it is stretched
Formula: New length = original length + extension
Extension
Definition: Extension is the difference between the new length and original length of the
spring
Formula: Extension = new length – original length
Experiment
Title: Hooke’s law
Aim: To find the relationship between loads and extensions on a spring
Apparatus
 Spring
 Loads (standard masses)
 Clamp and stand

Method
Support the spring vertically by means of a clamp and stand. Place a pan on the lower end
of the spring.
Measure the original length of the spring
Hang a load (standard mass) on the lower end of the spring
Calculate the new length of the spring
Calculate the extension of the spring
Repeat the experiment by adding loads
Calculate the spring constant by using the formula;

Constant = , K=

Graph of load against extension

Elastic limit = 6N

Constant =

Constant =

Constant = 0.6N/cm
Conclusion
The extension of the loaded spring is directly proportional to the force applied, provided
the elastic limit is not exceeded. This is called Hooke’s law.

Example
1. A load of 1N extends a spring by 5mm. What load extends it by 10mm?
Solution
1N → 5mm
x→ 10mm

x=

x = 2N
2. Calculate the extension of a spring that would be produced by a 20N load if a 15N
load extends the spring by 3cm?
Solution
15N → 3cm
20N → x

x=

x = 4cm
Exercise
1. A load of 4N extends a spring by 10mm. What load would extend it by 15mm?
2. A steel spring obeys Hooke’s law. A force of 8N extends a spring by 10mm.
Calculate the extension of the spring that would be produced by a force of 10N
3. A spring of neutral length 3cm is extended by a force of 4N. What will be
(a) the stiffness of the spring
(b) its extension when a force applied is 12N
(c) its length when a force applied is 12N
4. Use the data below to answerthis question;
Original length = 20cm
New length = 25cm
Load = 50N
(a) Find the extension of the spring
(b) Calculate the elastic limit
(c) Find the extension caused by the 100N load that the elastic is not exceeded
(d) Find the new length when the spring is stretched by the 100N force.
5. In an experiment to verify Hooke’s law, standard masses were placed on the pan
which was attached to a suspended spring at the lower end. The corresponding
lengths of the stretched spring were recorded as shown below.
Load/N 0.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.8 3.4 3.1
Length of the spring/mm 500 505 510 515 520 525 528 530 530 530
Extension/mm

(a) Complete the table by filling in the values of extension

(b) Plot the graph of load against extension
(c) Show clearly on the graph the elastic limit
(d) Use your graph to determine the spring constant

12cm

14cm
10N

20N
In the figure above, the length of the spring with 10N force hang on it is 12cm and with
20N is 14cm. What would be the length of the spring with 12N hang on it if the spring
obeys Hooke’s law?
Moments
Symbol:Г
SI: Newton metre, Nm
Definition: Moment is the turning effect of the force about the pivot
Moment of a force
Moment of a force about a pivot is the product of the force and perpendicular distance
from the point to the line of action of the force.
Moment = force x perpendicular distance
Г=Fxd
Note
Г = moment [Nm]
F = force [N]
d = perpendicular distance[m]
Perpendicular distance must be distance from the pivot to the force
Perpendicular distance must be at right angle to the force

In this case, there is a moment because the force is perpendicular to the bar.
The force can produce the turning effect.

In this case, there is no moment because force is in the same direction of distance
The force doesn’t produce the turning effect.
Example
1. Calculate the moment of the force at the pivot

Data Solution
Г =? Г= F x d
F =3N Г= 3N x 2m
d = 2m Г = 6Nm

Principle of moments
The law states that: For a body in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moment is equal to
the sum of anticlockwise moment about the same point.
Total anticlockwise moment = Total clockwise moment
Experiment
Title: Moments
Aim: To verify the principle of moment
Apparatus
 Long ruler (30cm or more)
 3 string
 Loads
Method
Hang a ruler by a string at the centre of mass and make it balanced
Hang some loads at a certain point from the pivot
Find the position where other loads are hanging to balance the ruler and measure the
length from the pivot to the position.
Calculate the clockwise moment and the anticlockwise moment
Repeat the experiment with different pairs of loads and distances

Г1= Г2
F1 x d1= F2 x d2Conclusion
If a body is balanced, then the total clockwise moment is equal to the total anticlockwise
moment.
Example
1. Find the force, F1, if the bar below is balanced
Data Solution
Г1 = Г2 F1 x d1 = F2 x d2
F1 =? F1 x 0.5m = 100N x 0.4m
d1 =0.5m F1 x 0.5m = 40Nm
F2 = 100N F1 = .
d2 = 0.4m
F1 = 80N

2. Find the distance, d1, if the bar below is balanced.

Data Solution
Г1 = Г2 + Г3 F1 x d1 = F2 x F2 + F3 x d3
d1 =? 5N x d1 = 3N x 2m + 2N x 3m
F1 = 5N 5N x d1 = 6Nm + 6Nm
d2 = 2m 5N x d1 = 12Nm
F2 = 3N d1 =
d3 = 3m
d1 = 2.4m
F3 = 2N
3. Below is the diagram of a uniform beam suspended on a pivot. Four coins of
equal masses are put on points B and F as shown below.

(a) What happens to the beam if left to move freely?

Give a reason for your answer
(b) Which position on the beam would you put one coin to balance the beam? Mark
the position with letter P
Solution
(a) The beam will tilt anticlockwise
Reason: The anticlockwise moments are more than the clockwise moments
(b) P should be at H
Determining mass using the principle of moments
Hint
1. Weight of a body acts through its centre of gravity
2. Centre of gravity of a body with a uniform cross section is at mid points
Example
1. A meter rule pivoted at the 40cm mark is balanced by an 80g placed at the 20cm
mark. Find the mass of the rule.
Solution
0cm 20cm 40cm 50cm 100cm

80g W
20cm x 0.8N = 10cm x W
.
W=

W = 1.6N

m=
.
m= /

m = 0.16kg = 160g
Exercise
1. Calculate the force, F3, if the bar below is balanced
4m
2m 2m

5N 3N F3
2. The diagram below shows a uniform rule, weight, W, pivoted at the 75cm mark
and balanced by a force of 2N acting at the 95cm mark.
50cm 75cm 95cm

W 2N
(a) Calculate the moment of the 2N force about the pivot
(b) Use the principle of moments to calculate the value of W.
3. A metre rule hangs by a string at the 80cm mark and a mass of 140g hangs at
95cm mark. The weight of the ruler appears on the centre of mass.
(a) Where is the pivot?
(b) What is the weight of the 140g mass?
(c) Calculate the weight of the ruler, W
(d) Calculate the mass of the ruler
4. The diagram below shows the uniform metre rule balanced horizontally on a
knife-edge placed at the 58cm mark when a mass of 20g is suspended from the
end.
0cm 58cm 100cm

20g
(a) Find the mass of the rule
(b) What is the weight of the rule (taking g = 10m/s2)
(c) A candle stand has a wide heavy base. Explain why the base has both heavy mass
and wide area.
5. The figure below shows a door well secured on the door frame.

(a) What is meant by moment of force? Include SI units.

(b) Calculate the moment of force if a force of 10N is applied at point 1 to open or close
the door.
(c) Explain why it is easier to open or close the door if the handle is fixed at point 1 than
at point 2 or 3.
Simple machines
A machine is mechanical device which uses an effort to overcome a load
Effort
Symbol: E
SI unit: Newton, N
Definition: Effort is the applied force
Load
Symbol: L
SI unit: Newton, N
Definition: Load is the force which the effort overcomes
Load can also be defined as the force an object pulls or pushes on a machine.
Mechanical advantage
Symbol: M.A
Definition: Mechanical advantage is the ratio of the load to the effort
Formula: M.A =

Units: M.A has no units since it is a ratio whose units cancel each other.
Velocity ratio
Alternative term: Ideal mechanical advantage
Symbol: V.R
Definition: Velocity ratio is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance
moved by the load

Formula: V.R =

Units: V.R has no units since it is a ratio whose units cancel each other.
Efficiency of a machine
Symbol: η
Definitions
Efficiency is the ratio of the useful energy output to the energy input multiplied by 100%.
Efficiency is the ratio of the power output to the power input multiplied by 100%.

Formulae: η= x 100%

η= x 100%
.
η= .
x 100%

Note
Efficiency of a machine can never be more than 100% because the energy output (work
done by a machine) is never more than energy in put (work done on the machine)
η< 100%
Efficiency of a machine cannot be 100%
Reasons:
 Some energy is used to overcome friction
 Some energy is used to move parts of the machine
M.A< V.R
Generally, in an ideal situation, the efficiency of any machine is equal to100% and this
just theoretical. This means that M.A = V.R or energy out put = energy in put.
1. Prove that M.A ≤ V.R
Solution
.
η= x 100%
.

η ≤ 100%
.
x 100% ≤ 100%
.
.
%
x .
x 100% ≤ 100% x %
.
.
≤1

M.A ≤ V.R, hence proved

2. Find the efficiency of an electric motor that is capable of pulling a 50kg mass
through a height of 15m after consuming 30,000J of electric energy.
Solution
Energy out put = mgh
= 50kg x 10N/kg x 15m
= 7,500J
Energy in put = 30,000J

η= x 100%
,
= x 100%
,

= 25%
Types of simple machines
A. Levers

Load
Effort

Pivot

V.R =
Some examples of levers
 Wheel barrow
 Claw hammer
 Table knife
 Scissors
 Bore hole
Example
1. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow

60N
20N
10cm 40cm
Calculate
(a) The mechanical advantage
(b) The velocity ratio
(c) The efficiency
Solution

(a) M.A =

M.A =

M.A = 3

(b) V.R =

V.R =

V.R = 4
.
(c) Efficiency = x 100%
.

Efficiency = x 100%

Efficiency = 75%
2. A load is to be moved using a wheelbarrow. The total mass of the load and
wheelbarrow is 60kg. The gravitational field strength is 10N/kg
F

Wheelbarrow

Load [weight]

70cm 50cm

Pivot
What is the size of force, F, needed just to lift the loaded wheelbarrow?
Data Solution
F =? W = mg
m = 60kg W = 60kg x 10N/kg
g = 10N/kg W = 600N
d1 = 70cm 600N x 70cm = F x 120cm
d2 = 120cm (70cm +50cm) F=

F = 350N

B. Pulleys
A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim mounted on a block
Types of pulleys
1. Single fixed pulley

Rope

Effort
Load
Load = Effort
M.A = 1
2. Single moving pulley

Effort Effort

Load
Load is twice effort
M.A = 2
3. Block and tackle

V.R = Number of lines or pulley wheels

V.R = 4
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows the pulley system

Find
(a) The mechanical advantage
(b) The velocity ratio
(c) The efficiency
C. Inclined plane

V.R =

OR

V.R =

Activity
1. The diagram below shows an inclined plane.

Find
(a) The mechanical advantage
(b) The velocity ratio
(c) The efficiency
D. Gears

Rotations

Out put shaft Input shaft

Driving wheel Driven wheel
Teeth Teeth

V.R =

Number of rotations in driving wheel =

.

Exercise
1. The figure below shows the diagram of rotating gear wheels. The driving wheel
has 36 teeth and the driven wheel has 12 teeth.
Rotations

Driving wheel Driven wheel

36 teeth 12 teeth
(a) Find the velocity ratio
(b) If the driven wheel makes 15 rotations, how many rotations would the driving
wheel make
Work
Symbol: W
SI unit: Joule, J
Definition: Work isthe product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the
force.
Formula: Work = force x distance
W=Fxd
W = weight x height
W = mgh
Note
W = work [J]
F = force [N]
d = distance [m]
h = height [m]
m = mass [kg]
g = acceleration due to gravity [10m/s2] or [10N/kg]
Joule is the work done when the point of application of a force of 1 Newton moves
through 1 metre in the direction of the force.
1 Newton-metre is equal to 1 joule of work.
Work is said to have been done when we push an object through a certain point or when
we lift an object from the ground.
Relationship of units
1KJ = 1000J
1MJ = 1000KJ = 1000000J = 106J
NB: KJ = kilo joule
MJ = mega joule
Example
1. A force of 5N acts on a 2kg brick, moving it 8m horizontally from rest. Find the
work done by the force.
Data Solution
W =? W=Fxd
F = 5N W = 5N x 8m
d = 8m W = 40Nm
W = 40J

2. A hawk picks a 2kg chicken and lifts it up to a branch of a tree 15m from the
ground. How much work has it done on the chicken?
g = 10N/kg
Data Solution
W =? W = mgh
m = 2kg W = 2kg x 10N/kg x 15m
g = 10N/kg W = 300Nm
h = 15m W = 300J

Exercise
1. A car of mass 1000kg is accelerated at 2m/s2 from rest in 20 seconds.
Calculate
(a) The force acting on the car.
(b) The final velocity
(c) The distance travelled by the car
(d) The work done by the car.
2. A crane lifts a weight of 200N through 50m. Find the work done by the crane.
3. A crane lifts a car of mass 500kg through 5m. Find the work done by the crane.
4. A person exerts a horizontal force of 500N on a box, which also experiences a
friction force of 100N.
Box

100N 500N

3m
How much work is done against friction when the box moves a horizontal distance of
3m?
Energy
Symbol: E
SI unit: Joule, J
Definition: Energy is the ability to do work.
Potential energy
Symbol: P. E or E
SI unit: Joule, J
Definition: Potential energy is the energy which the body possess by virtual of its
position.
Formula: P.E = mgh
Note
P.E = potential energy [J]
m = mass [kg]
g = acceleration due to gravity [10m/s2] or [10N/kg]
h = height [m]
Example
1. A 2kg object is raised to a heightof 5m. What is its potential emery?
Data Solution
P.E =? P.E = mgh
m = 2kg P.E = 2kg x 10N/kg x 5m
g = 10N/kg P.E = 100Nm
h = 5m P.E = 100J

Exercise
1. A book which has a mass of 1.2kg is put on the desk of height 0.8m. Calculate
the potential energy. (Take g to be 10N/kg)
2. A rock of mass 10kg is on top of the hill. Calculate the height of the hill if the
potential energy of the rock is 5000J. (Take g to be 10N/kg)
Kinetic energy
Symbol: K.E or E
SI unit: Joule, J
Definition: Kinetic energy is the energy the body has due to its motion.
Formula: K.E = mv2
Note
K.E = kinetic energy [J]
m = mass [kg]
v = velocity [m/s]
Example
1. A 2kg stone is thrown vertically with a velocity of 5m/s. What is the kinetic
energy?
Data Solution
K.E =? K.E = mv2

K.E = x 2kg x (5m/s)2

m = 2kg
K.E = x 2kg x 5m/s x 5m/s

v =5m/s K.E = 25J

Exercise
1. A car of mass 500kg moves with a velocity of 20m/s. Find the kinetic energy.
2. A 60kg pupil runs 600m in one minute uniformly.
(a) Calculate his velocity
(b) Calculate his kinetic energy.
The law of conservation of energy
The law states that: Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be changed from
one form to another.
Energy transformations
Each energy can be changed but the total energy is constant
When there is only P.E and K.E, then;
P.E + K.E = Constant
Applications
(I) Conservation of mechanical energy of a falling body
[A] Before a ball is released, its potential energy is 20J and the kinetic energy is 0J
because it is not moving
[B] At the mid-point of its journey, the potential energy drops to 10J but the kinetic
energy increases to 10J.At height 15m, P.E becomes equal to K.E.
The total energy is still 20J.
[C] Just before hitting the ground, the potential energy becomes 0J but the kinetic energy
increases to 20J. All P.E becomes K.E
There is no change in the total energy throughout its falling.
Example
1. A 2kg stone is dropped from the top of a 20m building.
(a) What potential energy does it posses?
(b) At what height does its potential energy becomes equal to its kinetic energy?
(c) What is its kinetic energy just before it hits the ground?
(d) With what velocity does it reach the ground?
1 Data Solution
(a) P.E =? P.E = mgh
m = 2kg P.E = 2kg x 10N/kg x 20m
g = 10N/kg P.E = 400Nm
h = 20m P.E = 400J
(b) At height 10m
(c) All P.E becomes K.E K.E = 400J
(d)
v =? K.E = mv2

400 = x 2 x v2
K.E = 400J
v2 = 400

m = 2kg v = √400
v = 20m/s

(II) Conservation of mechanical energy in an oscillating pendulum

[A] The pendulum bob is pulled to position A. Before it is released, its potential energy is
20J and kinetic energy is 0J because it is at rest.
[B] As the bob moves from A to B, it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy of
20J because of reducing the height and increasing the velocity. It has maximum velocity
at B
[C] Moving from B to C, the bob slows down losing kinetic energy but gaining potential
energy. If air resistance is ignored, the height of A is the same as the height of C because
the potential energies must be the same.
Example
1. A pendulum bob of mass 0.1kg is raised to a height of 0.4m above its lowest
point. It is then released.
(a) What is its potential energy at this height?
(b) What is its kinetic energy at its lowest height?
(c) What is its maximum velocity?
1 Data Solution
(a) P.E =? P.E = mgh
m = 0.1kg P.E = 0.1kg x 10N/kg x 0.4m
g = 10N/kg P.E = 0.4Nm
h = 0.4m P.E = 0.4J
(b) All P.E becomes K.E K.E = 0.4J
(c) v =? K.E = mv2
m = 0.1kg
0.4 = x 0.1 x v2

v2 x 0.1= 0.4 x 2
K.E = 0.4J
v2 x 0.1 = 0.8
.
v2 =
.
2
v =8
v = √8
v = 2.83m/s

(III) Charging a cell phone

(From electrical energy to chemical energy)
(IV) Using a cooker
(From electrical energy to thermal energy)
(V) Generation of electrical energy at a hydro - electric power station
(From mechanical energy to electrical energy)
Exercise
1. A 25kg bag of mealie meal is lifted from the ground to the top of a wall 1.8m high
in 0.6 seconds.
(a) What type of energy has the mealie meal bag gained?
(b) If the bag is released from the wall, with what velocity does it strike the
ground?
(c) Calculate the power which developed
(d) On striking the ground, into what form is the energy of the bag converted?
2. A tin of mass 64g fell from a height of 11.25m.
(a) Work out the speed of the tin at the moment it struck the ground.
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the tin when it was just hitting the ground.
Power
Symbol: P
SI unit: watt, W
Definition: Power is the rate of doing work.

Formula: Power =

P=

P=

P = power [W]
W = wok [J]
t = time [s]
m = mass [kg]
g = acceleration due to gravity [10m/s2] or [10N/kg]
h = height [m]
Example
1. A machine can lift 200kg to a height of 100m in 20 seconds. Find the useful
power of the machine.
Data Solution
P =? P=
m = 200kg
g = 10N/kg /
P=
h = 100m
P = 10,000W
t = 20s

2. A boy whose mass is 40kg finds that he can ran up a flight of 45 steps each
16cm high in 5 seconds. Calculate the power.
Data Solution
P =? P=
m = 40kg / .
P=
g = 10N/kg
h = 45 x 16cm = 720cm = 7.2m P=
t = 5s P = 576W
Exercise
1. A force of 1000N is needed to push a mass of 30kg through a distance of 40m
to raise an inclined plane to a height of 5m.
Calculate
(a) The weight of the object
(b) The mechanical advantage
(c) The velocity ratio
(d) The efficiency of the inclined plane.
(e) The energy at the height of 5m
(f) The work done by the force of 1000N.
2. A pupil of mass 50kg runs up a flight of 20 stairs each 5cm high in a time of
20 seconds. [ Take g = 10N/kg]
Calculate
(a) The pupil’s gain in potential energy
(b) The useful power developed by the pupil in climbing the stairs.
Thermal physics
State of matter is the form in which a substance exists. Matter exists in three of Solids,
liquids, gases
The physical differene between the three states of matter depends on the arrangement and
behaviour of the molecules in each particular state. The differences can be explained in
terms of the kinetic theory
The kinetic theory of matter
The theory states that:

 Matter is made up very tiny particles called molecules

 The molecules are not stationary but are in a contnous random motion
 The degree of movement of the molecules depends on their temperature
Characteristicproperties of the three states of matter

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Have fixed shape Have no fixed shape. They Have no fixed shape
Normally hard and rigid take the shape of the
container in which they are
placed.
Volume Have fixed volume Have fixed volume Have no fixed volume.
High density High density Particles spread to fill the
space available.
Low density

Compressibility Can not be compressed Can not be compressed Can be compressed.

Arrangement of Particles are closely packed Particles are slightly further Particles are much
particles and arranged in a regular apart than in solids. Paticles further apart from each
pattern. The particles are are held together by weak other. The forces which
held together by strong electrostatic forces of hold the particles
electrostatic forces of attraction. together are negligible.
attraction called cohesive
forces.

Movement of Particles move by vibrating Particles move by vibrating Particles move at random
particles at fixed positions rapidly over short distances. at a very high speed.
Particles move from one
position to the other.

Solids and liquids can not be compressed because their particles are close together.
However, gases can be compressed because the gas particles are far apart from each other
and can be forced to move closer by exerting pressure.
Brownian motion
Brownian motion provides the evidence of the continuous random motion of the
molecules of air.
Experiment
Aim: To demonstrate Brownian motion in air
Apparatus

 Source of light
 Converging lens or glass rod
 Smoke cell
 Microscope
 Teat pipette
Method
Fix the converging lens parallel to the filament lamp to focus the light into the cell
View the smoke cell from above through the microscope.
Focus into the center of smoke cell and introduce smoke into the smoke cell using a teat
pipette
Place the cover slip on top of the smoke cell.

Observation
When light strikes the smoke particles, they appear as bright points of light under the
microscope moving randomly in a zig – zag path

Explanation
The zig – zag movement is due to the collision of the smoke particles with invisible air
molecules that move about randomly in the smoke cell. This is called Brownian motion.
Conclusion
The air molecules are in a continuous random motion colliding with the smoke particles
and the walls of the smoke cell
Exercise
1. The figure below shows one of the forms of an apparatus used to observe
Brownian motion of smoke particles in air. Mr Naosa D. K looking through the
microscope sees tiny bright specks which he describes as ‘dancing about’.

(a) What are bright specks?

(b) Why are the specks ‘dancing about’?
(c) State the conclusion that can be drawn from the Brownian motion?
Differences between evaporation and boiling

Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at any temperature below boiling Occurs at boiling point
Occurs only at the surface of the liquid Occurs throughout the liquid
No bubbles are observed Bubbles are observed
Occurs slowly Occurs rapidly
The heating curve
The heating curve is a graph showing changes in temperature with time for a substance
being heated

Slope sections of the heating curve

As a substance is heated, it absorbs heat energy and its temperature rises, then it changes
from solid to liquid and finally to gas.
Flat sections of the heating curve
The flat section shows the melting point and boiling point. Here the temperature remains
constant over a period of time as energy being absorbed is used to change the state of a
substance
Note
A pure substance has a fixed temperature. It has an exact boiling point and melting point.
Impurities raise the boiling point and lower the melting point.
The cooling curve
The cooling curve is a graph showing changes in temperature with time for a substance
being cooled.

Slope sections of the cooling curve

As a substance is cooled, it loses heat energy and its temperature falls, then it changes
from gas to liquid and finally to solid.
Flat sections of the cooling curve
The flat section shows the melting point and boiling point. Here the temperature remains
constant over a period of time as energy being lost is used to change the state of a
substance.

Exercise
1. The graph below shows a cooling curve of a substance as its temperature falls
from 300 C to 20 C.

(a) At 250 C, is the substance a solid, liquid or gas?

(b) What was the boiling point of the substance?
(c) What was the melting point of the substance?
(d) Why does the temperature stay constant over the section BC and DE despite the
fact that the substance is losing energy to the surrounding?
(e) Pressure

Symbol: P

Units: Newton per metre squared, N/m

Pascal, Pa

Note: 1 Pascal = 1N/m

Definition: Pressure is force per unit area
Formula: Pressure =

P=

Gas pressure is as a result of the collisions of the gas molecules with the walls of the
container vessel
Pressure of a gas depends on:
1. Frequency of collisions
2. Speed of molecules
Frequency Pressure Speed Pressure
High High High High
Low Low Low Low

Examples
1. If a 70N is applied over an area of 0.8m2, how much pressure is exerted?

Data Solution
P =? P=
F = 70N
P= .
A = 87.5m
P = 87.5 N/m

2. When a force acted over an area of 16cm2, a pressure of 20 Kpa was established.
Determine the magnitude of the force.
Data Solution
F =? P=
P = 20Kpa = 20,000Pa
F = PA
A = 16cm = 0.00016m
F = 20 x 10 Pa x 16 x 10 m
F = 32N

3. Explain why
(a) A sharp knife cuts well
(b) Low heeled shoes are more comfortable than high heeled shoes
Solution
(a) A sharp knife cuts well because it exerts less pressure
(b) Low heeled shoes exerts pressure on the feet compared to high heeled shoes
4. A block measuring 0.1m x 0.2m x 0.8m has a mass of 20Kg.
What is the maximum and minimum pressure it can exert on the ground?
Data Solution
P =? P=
m = 20Kg
P=
g = 10N/Kg
/
L = 0.1m P=
. .

B = 0.2m P= .

P = 10000N/m

Exercise
1. A person weighing 1200N is supported on an inflated air pillow. The total area of
soles of his shoes is 0.1m2. Calculate the minimum pressure of the air inside the
pillow.
Pressure due to a liquid column
Formula: P = ρhg
Note
P = pressure
ρ = density
h = height or depth
g = acceleration due to gravity
Pressure due to a liquid column increases with depth
Pressure due to a liquid column increases with density of the liquid

Example
1. Density of water is 1000Kg/m3. Determine the pressure due to a liquid at the bed
of a 6m deep river.
Solution
P = ρhg
P = 1000Kg/m3 x 6m x 10N/Kg
P = 60000N/m2
2. Refer to the diagram below

Density of mercury is 13.6g/cm3. Calculate the pressure exerted by the mercury at the
base area of the measuring cylinder.
Solution
P = ρhg
P = 13.6g/cm x 22 x m x 10N/Kg
P = 13600Kg/m x 0.22m x 10N/Kg
P = 29920 Pa
Measurement of pressure using a manometer
A manometer can be used to measure pressure. It applies the following relationship
P +P = P
P = atmospheric pressure
P = pressure due to a liquid column
P = pressure due to a gas supply
Note
h=X–Y
Atmospheric pressure = 76cmHg = 760mmHg = 1 x 10 Pa
Example
1. Refer to the diagram below

The density of paraffin is 790Kg/m3 and atmospheric pressure is 1 x 10 Pa, determine

(a) Pressure due the liquid head of the paraffin column
(b) The pressure of the gas supply
Solution
(a) P = ρhg
P = 790Kg/m x (0.3m − 0.1m)x 10N/Kg
P = 790Kg/m x 0.2m x 10N/Kg
P = 1580 Pa
(b) P = P + P
P = 1 x 10 Pa + 1580 Pa
P = 101580 Pa
2. Refer to the diagram below

The density of water is 1000Kg/m3 and atmospheric pressure is 1 x 10 N/Kg

(a) Calculate pressure due to the head of the water column
(b) Calculate pressure of the gas supply
(c) If ethanol (density 8 x 10 Kg/m ) was used in place of water, what would have
been the difference in the liquid columns in the two arms of the manometer?
Assume the pressure of the gas supply is unchanged.
Solution
(a) P = ρhg
P = 1000Kg/m x (0.7m − 0.2m)x 10N/Kg
P = 1000Kg/m x 0.5 x 10N/Kg
P = 5000 pa
(b) P = P + P
P = 1 x 10 Pa + 5 x 10 Pa
P = 105000 Pa
(c) P = ρhg

h=

h= / /

h = 0.625m
Transmission of pressure in a fluid
Pascal’s law
The law state that: Pressure of a fluid is transmitted undiminished to every part of a fluid
and every part of the container
Application
1. Hydraulic press

2. Hydraulic brakes
Example
1. Refer to the diagram below

Calculate the force, F

Solution
=

F =

F =

F = 1000N

Exercise
1. State Pascal’s law
2. Refer to the figure below
The mass of the bus is 4 tonnes
Calculate
(a) The weight of the bus
(b) The minimum force, F, required to lift the bus
Boyle’s law
The law state that: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is
inversely proportional to its volume.
Formula: P V = P V
Graph of pressure against volume

Graph of pressure against

Example
1. A sample of gas has volume 1000cm3 and pressure 8 x 10 Pa. Assuming
temperature remains constant,
Calculate
(a) The pressure of the gas when its volume is doubled
(b) The volume of the gas when its pressure is 1 x 10

Data Solution
a P2 = ? PV = PV
P1 = 8 10 PV
P
V1 = 1000cm3 V

V2 = 2000cm3 8 x 10 x 1000cm
P
2000cm
P 4 x 10 Pa
b V2= ? PV = PV
P1 = 8 x 10 PV
V
V1 = 1000cm3 P

P2 = 1 x 10 8 x 10 Pa x 1000cm
=
1 x 10
V = 80cm
2. The table below shows the relationship between pressure and volume.
V (cm3) 120 110 100 90 80
P (Kpa) 11 16 19 23 28

(a) Calculate the value of for each pair of the readings

(b) Plot the graph of :

(I) P against V
(II) P against

(c) Estimate the volume when pressure is 109Kpa

(d) Estimate the pressure when volume is 20cm3.
Exercise
1. A gas occupies a volume of 10cm3 at 100Kpa. If the pressure is increased to
200Kpa, what is the new volume if the temperature remains the same at 27oC?
2. In an experiment to verify Boyle’s law, a gas syringe containing some air was
connected to a bourdon pressure gauge. The pressure, P, was measured for
different volumes, V. the results are tabulated below
V (cm3) 10 12 14 16 18
P (Kpa) 198 167 142 125 112
(a) Plot a graph of volume against pressure
(b) State the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at a constant
temperature.
(c) Using your graph, find the pressure when the volume is 15cm3.
(d) Find the volume of air at a pressure of 102Kpa.
Thermal properties
Internal energy
Definition: Internal energy is the total energy due to the random motion of molecules in a
sample of a substance
Note
 When a substance is heated, its internal energy increases
 An increase in internal energy cause temperature rise
Heat capacity
Symbol: C
SI unit: Joule per kelvin, J / K
Definition: Heat capacity is the quantity of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a body through 1oC or 1K
Ɵ
Formula: C =
∆

Specific heat capacity

Symbol: c
SI unit: Joule per kilogram kelvin, J / KgK
Definition: Specific heat capacity is the quantity of thermal energy required to raise a 1kg
substance through 1oC or 1K. Specific heat capacity can also be defined as the heat
capacity per unit mass
Ɵ
Formula: c =
∆

Substance Specific heat capacity (JKg-1K-1)

Water 4200
Ice 2100
Alcohol 2500
Glycerine 2400
Brine 3900
Paraffin 2200
Glass 670
Aluminium 880
Copper 390
Lead 130
Silver 230
Mercury 140
Iron 460
Air 720
Relationship between heat capacity and specific heat capacity
c=

Examples
1. Calculate the quantity of energy required to raise the temperature of 500g of water
from 20oC to 30oC.
Solution
Q = mcΔT
Q = 0.5Kg x 4200JKgoC-1 x 10oC
Q = 21000J
2. Determine the heat capacity of a 2Kg aluminium block
Solution

c=

C = mc
C = 2Kg x 880JKg-1K-1
C = 1760JK-1
3. To 5Kg of water at 22oC was added 500g of water at 77oC, calculate the final
temperature of water.
Solution
Heat lost = Heat gained
C x 0.5Kg x (77oC – Tf) = C x 5Kg x (Tf – 22oC)
38.5KgoC – 0.5TKg = 5TKg – 110KgoC
38.5KgoC + 110KgoC = 5TKg + 0.5TKg
148.5KgoC = 5.5TKg
.
T=
.
o
T = 27 C
4. Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 5Kg of water from
20K to 100K.
Solution
Q = mcΔT
Q = 5Kg x 4200JK-1Kg-1 x (100 – 20)K
Q = 1.68 x 106 J
5. In an experiment,920000J of energy is transferred to 2kg of iron ( c = 460JKg-1K-
1
). The initial temperature of iron is 25K. What is the final temperature of iron?
Solution
Q = mcΔT

ΔT =

ΔT =
( )

(T – 25K) = 1000K
T = 1000K + 25K
T = 1025K
6. The figure below shows a silver spoon

The mass of the spoon is 75.0g.

The spoon is heated using an electric circuit
(a) Determine the quantity of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of the
spoon from 15oC to 105oC
(b) It took 40s for the temperature of the spoon to rise from 15oC to 105oC. neglecting
the heat loss to the surrounding, determine the power of the electric heating
system
Solution
(a) Q = mcΔT
Q = 0.075Kg x 230J/(KgoC) x (106 – 15)oC
Q = 1552.5J

(b) P =
.
P=

P = 38.8125W
Latent heat
Definition: Latent heat is thermal energy that is transferred to cause phase change of a
pure substance without temperature change
Specific latent heat
Symbol: L
SI unit: Joule per Kilogram, J/Kg
Definition: Specific latent heat is the quantity of thermal energy that is transferred to
cause phase change of 1Kg of a pure substance without temperature change

Formula: L =

Specific latent heat of fusion

Symbol: L
SI unit: Joule per Kilogram, J/Kg
Definition: Specific latent heat of fusion is thermal energy required to change 1Kg of a
substance from solid to liquid state without a change in temperature
Values of specific latent heat of fusion
Substance J/Kg Melting point, oC
Ice 335000 0
Copper 212000 1083
Lead 26200 327
Naphthalene 148000 80
Specific latent heat of vaporization
Symbol: L
SI unit: Joule per Kilogram, J/Kg
Definition: Specific latent heat of vaporization is thermal energy required to change 1Kg
of a substance from liquid to gaseous state without a change in temperature.
Values of specific latent heat of vaporization
Substance J/Kg Melting point, oC
Water 2250000 100
Chloroform 240000 61
Alcohol 850000 78
Ether 350000 34

Example
1. Calculate thermal energy required to convert 5Kg of ice at 0oC to steam at 100oC
[specific heat capacity of ice = 2100JKg-1oC-1, water = 4200JKg-1oC-1, ]
[L = 2.3 x 106J/Kg , L = 3.3 x 105J/Kg]
Solution
Q1 = mL
Q1 = 5Kg x 3.3 x 105J/Kg
Q1 = 1.65 x 106J
Q2 = mcΔT
Q2 = 5Kg x 4200JKg-1oC- x 100oC
Q2 = 2.1 x 106J
Q3 = mL
Q3 = 5Kg x 2.3 x 106J/Kg
Q3 = 1.2 x 107J
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Q = 1.65 x 106J + 2.1 x 106J + 1.2 x 107J
Q = 1.6 x 107J
Exercise
1. Define specific latent heat of fusion
2. Calculate the quantity of heat:
(a) Which has to be supplied to melt 5g of ice at 0oC
(b) Which has to be removed to turn 10g of water into ice at 0oC
3. Determine the quantity of heat needed to convert 2Kg of ice at 0oC to water at
50oC.
Thermal expansion
Definition: Thermal expansion is the increase in volume of a material resulting from the
application of heat
Relative order of expansion in solids, liquids and gases

Anomalous expansion of water

When temperature of water is rising from a value lower than 4oC, water contracts
When temperature rises from 4oC to higher value, the water expands.
The anomalous behavior of water explains why its density is highest at 4oC.
Absolute temperature
Definition: Absolute temperature is the temperature expressed in kelvins
Conversions
T = (T + 273)K
T = (T − 273)K
T = Temperature in kelvins
T = Temperature in degrees Celsius
Examples
1. Convert
(a) 20 to K
(b) 300K
(c) 0 to K
Exercise
1. Convert
(a) 30 to K
(b) −50K to C
(c) 450K to C
Charles law
The law states that: The volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature

Formula: =

Graph of volume against tempera ,

Graph of volume against temperature, K

Note
The temperature value of −273 or 0K is called absolute zero.
Examples
1. At 20 , a sample of gas occupies a volume of 250cm3. Assuming pressure
remains unchanged, determine the volume which the gas sample would occupy at
30 C.
Data Solution
V2= ? =
3
V1 = 250cm
=
T1 = 20oC = 293K
T2 = 30oC = 303K =

= 258.5

2. A gas at 27oC extends from a volume of 5cm3 to 7.5cm3 at constant pressure. Find
its final temperature.
Data Solution
T2= ? =
3
V1 = 5cm
=
T1 = 27oC = 300K
.
V2 = 7.5cm3 =

= 450K
Exercise
1. At what temperature will a mass of gas occupying 200cm3 at 0oC have a volume
of 300cm3 if pressure remains constant?
Combination of Boyle’s law and Charles law – General gas law
Formula: =

Examples
1. 15cm3 of a gas at pressure 70N/m2 and temperature of 27oC. Find the volume at a
temperature of 127oC and pressure of 35N/m2.
Data Solution
V2=? =
3
V1 = 15cm
V=
P1 = 70N/m2
/
P2 = 35N/m2 V = /
T1 = 27oC = 300K 3
= 40m
T2 = 127oC = 400K

Exercise
1. A mass of gas occupies a volume of 200cm3 at a temperature of 27oC and a
pressure of 1atm. Calculate the new volume when the pressure is 2atm and the
temperature is 37oC.
2. A gas at 7oC and 100Kpa occupies 20L. The gas is heated to 27oC at a pressure of
120Kpa. Find the new volume.
Summary
Constant Law applied
Temperature Boyle’s law
Pressure Charles law
None General gas law
Temperature
Definition: Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold an object is as compared to a
particular scale.
Measuring instrument: Thermometer
Principles of thermometry
Temperature is measured using some physical properties which vary with temperature
Physical properties which vary with temperature
 Length of liquid column
 Electromotive force (e.m.f)
Physical property Thermometer
Length of liquid column Liquid in glass thermometer
Electromotive force (e.m.f) Thermocouple thermometer
Thermometric liquid
 Mercury
 Alcohol
Reasons why mercury is suitable for use in thermometers
1. It is easy to see through the glass
2. It does not wet the glass
3. It expands uniformly
4. It is a liquid over a wide range of temperature
5. It conducts heat rapidly and therefore more sensitive to temperature variations
Advantages of mercury over alcohol
1. It is coloured ( so it is easily seen through the glass)
2. It is a good thermal conductor ( so it expands evenly)
3. It is highly cohesive ( so it does not wet the glass)
4. It has a high boiling point and a low freezing point ( so it is used over a wide
temperature range)
Advantages of alcohol over mercury
1. It is cheaper
2. It is safe
3. It expands more than mercury
4. It has a low freezing point
Thermometer
The thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature.
Types of thermometers
 Clinical thermometer
 Laboratory thermometer
 Thermocouple thermometer
Clinical thermometer
The clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body.
Structure of the clinical thermometer

Features of the clinical thermometer

1. Constriction
The constriction is a sharp bend in bore at the bottom of the scale
The constriction helps to prevent the mercury thread from flowing back before the
reading is taken.
2. Short range
It has a short range of temperature calibration because it measures body temperature
which fluctuates within a narrow range. The range is from 35 C to 42 C
The short range also gives accuracy
3. Narrow bore
The narrow bore makes the thermometer have a greater precision and sensitivity
4. Thin glass walled bulb
The thin walled bulb makes the thermometer sensitive to temperature changes and for
quick responsiveness
5. Oval shaped glass stem
Convenience for replacement in the armpit
Exercise
1. The figure below shows a diagram of a clinical thermometer some features
labeled.
Explain why it has each of the following features
(a) A thin glass walled bulb
(b) A constriction
(c) A short range of temperature calibration
(d) A narrow bore
(e) An oval shaped stem
Laboratory thermometer
Structure of the laboratory thermometer

Example
1. The student uses the mercury-in-glass thermometer shown in the diagram below.
He does not detect any temperature rise in the water in the beaker.

(a) Describe how you would check the 0 °C and 100 °C points on the thermometer.
(b) Explain why the thermometer is not sensitive enough to detect the temperature
rise.
(c) State and explain one change that will make a mercury-in-glass thermometer
more Sensitive.
Solution
(a) Pure melting ice for 0° C
Pureboiling water/steam above boiling water (at 1 atmosphere)for 100° C
(b) Each division on thermometer is too small described in some way e.g. does
not expand far up tube (not bore too thin, notenough mercury)
(c) Change : Use more mercury or use smaller bore
Reason: More expansion or further distance uptube (for same expansion)
Graduating a thermometer – temperature scale
When a mercury – in – glass thermometer is produced, the temperature scale must be
marked on the stem. Then, two known temperatures are needed for marking the scale.
These temperatures are called fixed points
Fixed point
Definition: Fixed point is a reference temperature chosen because it is readily
reproducible
Fixed points are important for calibration of thermometers
Ice point
Alternative term: Lower fixed point
Value: 0 C
Definition: Ice point is the temperature of melting pure ice.
Determining ice point
Place the bulb in the melting ice
Measure the length of the mercury thread when it has stabilized. Mark it. It is the ice
point.
Steam point
Alternative term: Upper fixed point
Value: 100 C
Definition: Steam point is the temperature of steam from boiling water at a pressure of 1
atmosphere.
Determining steam point
Place the bulb in the steam from boiling water

Measure the length of the mercury thread when it has stabilized. Mark it. It is the steam
point.
Measurement of temperature using uncalibrated thermometer
Ɵ
Formula: Ɵ = x 100%

Note
LƟ = length of mercury at Ɵ
L = length mercury at 100 C
L = length of mercury at 0 C
Example
1. At 0 C , the length of mercury thread in a thermometer is 2cm. at 100 C, the
length of mercury is 22cm. At a temperature, Ɵ, the length of mercury thread is
18cm. Determine the temperature, Ɵ.
Solution
Ɵ
Ɵ= x100 C

Ɵ= x100 C

Ɵ= x100 C

Ɵ = 80 C
2. The table below shows information about a mercury – in – glass thermometer
Length of mercury thread / cm Temperature / oC
1 −10
25 110
At a temperature, Ɵ, the length of the mercury thread is 13cm. determine the
temperature, Ɵ.
Solution
Ɵ
Ɵ= x120 C

Ɵ= x120 C

Ɵ= x120 C

Ɵ = 60 C
Thermocouple thermometer
A thermocouple is made from wires of two different materials e.g. copper and iron. The
wires are soldered or just twisted tightly together at the ends. When two junctions are
placed in different temperatures, an electric current flows around the circuit. The amount
of current depends on the differences in temperatures. If one of the junctions is placed
into the known temperature, e.g. melting ice (0oC) , and the other junction is placed into
the measured object, e.g. fire, it is possible to measure the temperature by reading the
current. The thermocouple is very sensitive and it can measure high temperatures because
of melting points of metals.
Advantages of the thermocouple thermometer
1. It can measure temperature at a point
2. It can measure very high temperatures
3. It can measure rapidly changing temperatures
Examples
1. Refer to the diagram below

Determine temperature x
Solution
x= x 100 C

x = 25 C
The gas laws
●Pressure of a gas
The air forming the Earth’s atmosphere stretches upwards a long way. Air has weight; the
air in a normal room weighs about the same as you do, about 500 N. Because of its
weight the atmosphere exerts a large pressure at sea level, about 100 000 N/m2 = 105 Pa
(or 100 kPa).
This pressure acts equally in all directions.
A gas in a container exerts a pressure on the walls of the container. If air is removed from
a can by a vacuum pump (Figure 18.1), the can collapses because the air pressure outside
is greater than that inside. A space from which all the air has been removed is a vacuum.

Alternatively the pressure in a container can be increased, for example by pumping more
gas into the can; When a gas is heated, as air is in a jet engine, its pressure as well as its
volume may change. To study the effect of temperature on these two quantities we must
keep one fixed while the other is changed.
The gas laws
Using absolute temperatures, the gas laws can be stated in a convenient form for
calculations.
a) Charles’ law
In Figure 18.4 (p. 77) the volume–temperature graph passes through the origin if
temperatures are measured on the Kelvin scale, that is, if we take 0 K as the origin. We
can then say that the volume V is directly proportional to the absolute temperature T, i.e.
doubling T doubles V, etc. Therefore

Charles’ law may be stated as follows.

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if
the pressure is kept constant.
b) Pressure law
From Figure 18.4 we can say similarly for the pressure p that

The Pressure law may be stated as follows.

The pressure of a fi xed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if
the volume is kept constant.
c) Boyle’s law
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature
P V = constant (3)
d) Combining the laws
The three equations can be combined giving

Worked example
A bicycle pump contains 50 cm of air at 17.oC and at 1.0 atmosphere pressure. Find the
3

pressure when the air is compressed to 10 cm3 and its temperature rises to 27.oC.
We have
Notes
All temperatures must be in K.
Any units can be used for p and V provided the same units are used on both sides of the
equation. In some calculations the volume of the gas has to be found at standard
temperature and pressure, or ‘s.t.p.’ This is temperature 0 .C and pressure 1 atmosphere
(1atm = 105 Pa).
Gases and the kinetic theory
The kinetic theory can explain the behaviour of gases.
a) Cause of gas pressure
All the molecules in a gas are in rapid random motion, with a wide range of speeds, and
repeatedly hit and rebound from the walls of the container in huge numbers per second.
At each rebound, a gas molecule undergoes a change of momentum which produces a
force on the walls of the container. The average force and hence the pressure they exert
on the walls is constant since pressure is force on unit area.
b) Boyle’s law
If the volume of a fixed mass of gas is halved by halving the volume of the container
(Figure 18.8), the number of molecules per cm3 will be doubled. There will be twice as
many collisions per second with the walls, i.e. the pressure is doubled. This is Boyle’s
law.
c) Temperature
When a gas is heated and its temperature rises, the average speed of its molecules
increases. If the volume of the gas stays constant, its pressure increases because there are
more frequent and more violent collisions of the molecules with the walls. If the pressure
of the gas is to remain constant, the volume must increase so that the frequency of
collisions does not go up.
Question
1. If a certain quantity of gas has a volume of 30 cm3 at a pressure of 1x× 105 Pa, what is
its volume when the pressure is
a. 2 x × 105 Pa,
b. 5 x× 105 Pa?
Assume the temperature remains constant.
Uses of expansion
‘Shrink-fitting’ of axles into gear wheels
The axles have been shrunk by cooling in liquid nitrogen at 196 .oC until the gear wheels
can be slipped on to them. On regaining normal temperature the axles expand to give a
very tight fit.
In the kitchen, a tight metal lid can be removed from a glass jar by immersing the lid in
hot water so that it expands.
Precautions against expansion
Gaps used to be left between lengths of railway lines to allow for expansion in summer.
They caused a familiar ‘clickety-click’ sound as the train passed over them. These days
rails are welded into lengths of about 1 km and are held by concrete ‘sleepers’ that can
withstand the large forces created without buckling. Also, at the joints the ends are
tapered and overlap .This gives a smoother journey and allows some expansion near the
ends of each length of rail.
For similar reasons slight gaps are left between lengths of aluminium guttering. In central
heating pipes ‘expansion joints’ are used to join lengths of pipe these allow the copper
pipes to expand in length inside the joints when carrying very hot water.
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat travels from a place with a high temperature to the place with a low temperature.
Heat transfer is through the three methods namely conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction
This is the transfer of heat through solids. It is characterized by vibrations of particles
which are bonded to each other. When heat is supplied to one part of a solid, the particles
vibrate faster. This vibration is passed on to the neighbouring particles through the bonds
there by spreading the heat throughout the object.
Demonstration of heat transfer in solids

Good and bad conductors of heat

Conductors are classified as good or bad depending on how fast they transfer heat from a
region of high temperature to a region of lower temperature.
Good conductors are used where heat is required while the bad conductors are used as
insulators where heat is not needed. Metals are good conductors used to manufacture
cooking utensils such as pots, pans; used in the manufacture of electrical cables while on
the other hand wood and plastics are examples of bad conductors used in making pot
handles, insulation of electrical cables among many other uses.
Waves
Definition: A wave is a disturbance in a medium which transmits energy
A wave front is a line joining points on a wave which are in phase

Types of waves
 Transverse waves
 Longitudinal waves
Transverse wave
Transverse wave is a wave in which the movement of particles is perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave

Examples of transverse waves

 Water waves
 Light
 A wave on a rope
Longitudinal wave
Longitudinal wave is a wave in which the movement of the particles is parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave
Examples of longitudinal waves
 Sound waves
 Waves on the spring
 Seismic wave
Graphs of waves
Graph of displacement against distance

Amplitude
Symbol: A
SI unit: Meter, m
Definition: Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a wave from its rest position
(height of crest or depth of trough)
Wave length
Symbol: λ
SI unit: Meter, m
Definition: Wave length is distance between two successive similar points on a wave
Graph of displacement against time

Period
Symbol: T
SI unit: Second, s
Definition: Period is the time taken for one complete wave to be generated
Formula: T =

Frequency
Symbol: f
SI unit: Hertz, Hz
Definition: Frequency is the number of waves generated per second
Formula: f =

f=

Speed
Symbol: V
SI unit: Meter per second, m/s
Definition: Speed of a wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second
Formula: V = λ x f
Example
1. Refer to the graph below

(a) What is the amplitude of the wave?

(b) What is the wavelength of the wave?
(c) Given that the speed of the wave is 4m/s, calculate its frequency
Solution
(a) A = 0.1m
(b) λ = 0.08m

(c) f =
/
f=
.

f = 50Hz
2. If 100 waves were produced in 5 seconds, what is the frequency?

f=

f=

f = 20Hz
LIGHT
Sources of light
You can see an object only if light from it enters your eyes. Some objects such as the
Sun, electric lamps and candles make their own light. We call these luminous sources.
Most things you see do not make their own light but reflect it from a luminous source.
They are non luminous objects.
Luminous sources radiate light when their atoms become ‘excited’ as a result of receiving
energy. In a light bulb, for example, the energy comes from electricity. The ‘excited’
atoms give off their light haphazardly in most luminous sources.
A light source that works differently is the laser, invented in 1960. In laser light sources
the excited atoms act together and emit a narrow, very bright beam of light. The laser has
a host of applications.
It is used in industry to cut through plate metal, in scanners to read bar codes at shop-and
library checkouts, in CD players, in optical fibre telecommunication systems, in delicate
medical operations on the eye or inner ear, in printing and in surveying and range-
finding.
Rays and beams
Sunbeams streaming through trees and light from a cinema projector on its way to the
screen both suggest that light travels in straight lines.
The beams are visible because dust particles in the air reflect light into our eyes.
The direction of the path in which light is travelling is called a ray and is represented in
diagrams by a straight line with an arrow on it. A beam is a stream of light and is shown
by a number of rays, as in Figure 26.4. A beam may be parallel, diverging (spreading
out) or converging (getting narrower).
Shadows
Shadows are formed for two reasons. First, because some objects, which are said to be
opaque, do not allow light to pass through them. Secondly, light travels in straight lines.
The sharpness of the shadow depends on the size of the light source. A very small source
of light, called a point source, gives a sharp shadow which is equally dark all over. This
may be shown as in Figure 26.7a where the small hole in the card acts as a point source.

If the card is removed the lamp acts as a large or extended source (Figure 26.7b). The
shadow is then larger and has a central dark region, the umbra, surrounded by a ring of
partial shadow, the penumbra. You can see by the rays that some light reaches the
penumbra but none reaches the umbra.
Speed of light
Proof that light travels very much faster than sound is provided by a thunderstorm. The fl
ash of lightning is seen before the thunder is heard. The length of the time lapse is greater
the further the observer is from the storm.
The speed of light has a definite value; light does not travel instantaneously from one
point to another but takes a certain, very small time. Its speed is about 1 million times
greater than that of sound.
If we know how light behaves when it is reflected, we can use a mirror to change the
direction in which the light is travelling. This happens when a mirror is placed at the
entrance of a concealed drive to give warning of approaching traffic.
An ordinary mirror is made by depositing a thin layer of silver on one side of a piece of
glass and protecting it with paint. The silver –at the back of the glass – acts as the
reflecting surface.
Law of reflection
Terms used in connection with reflection are shown in Figure 27.1. The perpendicular to
the mirror at the point where the incident ray strikes it is called the normal. Note that the
angle of incidence i is the angle between the incident ray and the normal; similarly the
angle of reflection r is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
REFLECTION BY A PLANE MIRROR
Draw a line AOB on a sheet of paper and using a protractor mark angles on it. Measure
them from the perpendicular ON,which is at right angles to AOB.
Set up a plane (flat) mirror with its reflecting surface on AOB.
Shine a narrow ray of light along, say, the 30° line onto the mirror (Figure 27.2).
Periscope
A simple periscope consists of a tube containing two plane mirrors, fixed parallel to and
facing each other.
Each makes an angle of 45° with the line joining them (Figure 27.3). Light from the
object is turned through 90° at each reflection and an observer is able to see over a crowd,
for example (Figure 27.4), or over the top of an obstacle.
Regular and diffuse reflection
If a parallel beam of light falls on a plane mirror it is reflected as a parallel beam (Figure
27.5a) and regular reflection occurs. Most surfaces, however, reflect light irregularly
and the rays in an incident parallel beam are reflected in many directions (Figure 27.5b).

Irregular or diffuse reflection happens because, unlike a mirror, the surface of an object
is not perfectly smooth. At each point on the surface the laws of reflection are obeyed but
the angle of incidence, and so the angle of reflection, varies from point to point. The
reflected rays are scattered haphazardly. Most objects, being rough, are seen by diffuse
reflection.
REAL AND VIRTUAL IMAGES
A real image is one which can be produced on a screen (as in a pinhole camera) and is
formed by rays that actually pass through it.
A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen and is produced by rays which seem to
come from it but do not pass through it. The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from
a point on an object are reflected at the mirror and appear to our eyes to come from a
point behind the mirror where the rays would intersect when produced backwards (Figure
28.2).
IA and IB are construction lines and are shown as broken lines.

LATERAL INVERSION
If you close your left eye, your image in a plane mirror seems to close the right eye. In a
mirror image, left and right are interchanged and the image appears to be laterally
inverted. The effect occurs whenever an image is formed by one reflection and is very
evident if print is viewed in a mirror (Figure 28.3). What happens if two reflections
occur, as in a periscope?
Properties of the image
The image in a plane mirror is
(i) as far behind the mirror as the object is in front, with the line joining the object
and image being perpendicular to the mirror,
(ii) the same size as the object,
(iii)virtual,
(iv) Laterally inverted.
FACTS ABOUT REFRACTION
A. A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser
medium at an angle, for example from air to glass as in Figure 29.1a.The angle of
refraction r is less than the angle of incidence i.
B. A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium, for example from glass to air.
C. A ray emerging from a parallel-sided block is parallel to the ray entering, but is
displaced sideways, like the ray in Figure 29.1a.
D. A ray travelling along the normal direction at a boundary is not refracted (Figure
29.1b).
Note ‘Optically denser’ means having a greater refraction effect; the actual density may
or may not be greater.

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

Rays of light from a point O on the bottom of a pool are refracted away from the normal
at the water surface because they are passing into an optically less dense medium, i.e. air
(Figure 29.3). On entering the eye they appear to come from a point I that is above
O; I is the virtual image of O formed by refraction.
The apparent depth of the pool is less than its real depth.
REFRACTIVE INDEX
Light is refracted because its speed changes when it enters another medium. An analogy
helps to explain why.
Suppose three people A, B, C are marching in line, with hands linked, on a good road
surface.
If they approach marshy ground at an angle
(Figure 29.5a), person A is slowed down first, followed by B and then C. This causes the
whole line to swing round and change its direction of motion.
In air (and a vacuum) light travels at
300 000 km/s (3 x108 m/s); in glass its speed falls to 200 000 km/s (2 x 108 m/s) (Figure
29.5b). The refractive index, n, of a medium, in this case glass, is defined by the
equation

The change in the direction of travel of a light ray when its speed changes on entering
another medium suggests that light may also be a type of wave motion.
Refraction by a prism
In a triangular glass prism (Figure 29.6a), the bending of a ray due to refraction at the
first surface is added to the bending of the ray at the second surface (Figure 29.6b); the
overall change in direction of the ray is called the deviation.
The bendings of the ray do not cancel out as they do in a parallel-sided block where the
emergent ray, although displaced, is parallel to the incident ray.
Dispersion
When sunlight (white light) falls on a triangular glass prism (Figure 29.7a), a band of
colourscalled a spectrum is obtained (Figure 29.7b).
The effect is termed dispersion. It arises because white light is a mixture of many colours;
the prism separates the colours because the refractive index of glass is different for each
colour (it is greatest for violet light).

CRITICAL ANGLE
When light passes at small angles of incidence from an optically dense to a less dense
medium, such as from glass to air, there is a strong refracted ray and a weak ray reflected
back into the denser medium (Figure 30.1a).Increasing the angle of incidence increases
the angle of refraction.
At a certain angle of incidence, called the critical angle, c, the angle of refraction is 90°
(Figure 30.1b).
For angles of incidence greater than c, the refracted ray disappears and the entire incident
light is reflected inside the denser medium (Figure 30.1c). The light does not cross the
boundary and is said to undergo total internal reflection.
Light pipes and optical fibres
Light can be trapped by total internal reflection inside a bent glass rod and ‘piped’ along
a curved path (Figure 30.5). A single, very thin glass fibre behaves in the same way.

If several thousand such fibres are taped together, a flexible light pipe is obtained that can
be used, for example, by doctors as an ‘endoscope’ (Figure to obtain an image from
inside the body , or by engineers to light up some awkward spot for inspection. The latest
telephone ‘cables’ are optical (very pure glass) fibres carrying information as pulses of
laser light.
Lenses
CONVERGING AND DIVERGING LENSES
Lenses are used in optical instruments such as cameras, spectacles, microscopes and
telescopes; they often have spherical surfaces and there are two types. A converging (or
convex) lens is thickest in the centre and bends light inwards (Figure 31.1a).
You may have used one as a magnifying glass (Figure 31.2a) or as a burning glass. A
diverging (or concave) lens is thinnest in the centre and spreads light out (Figure 31.1b);
it always gives a diminished image (Figure 31.2b).
The centre of a lens is its optical centre, C; the line through C at right angles to the lens is
the principal axis.
The action of a lens can be understood by treating it as a number of prisms (most with the
tip removed), each of which bends the ray towards its base, as in Figure 31.1c and 31.1d.
The centre acts as a parallel sided block.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS
When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis passes through a converging lens it is
refracted so as to converge to a point on the axis called the principal focus, F. It is a real
focus. A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the lens, from which the
refracted beam seems to diverge.
Since light can fall on both faces of a lens it has twoprincipal foci, one on each side,
equidistant from C.
The distance CF is the focal length f of the lens (see Figure 31.1a); it is an important
property of a lens.
The more curved the lens faces are, the smaller is f and the more powerful is the lens.
Images formed by a converging lens
In the formation of images by lenses, two important points on the principal axis are F and
2F; 2F is at a distance of twice the focal length from C.
First find the focal length of the lens by the ‘distant object method’ just described, then
fix the lens upright with Plasticine at the centre of a metre rule. Place small pieces of
Plasticine at the points F and 2F on both sides of the lens, as in Figure 31.4.
Place a small light source, such as a torch bulb, as the object supported on the rule
beyond 2F and move a white card, on the other side of the lens from the light, until a
sharp image is obtained on the card.
Note and record, in a table like the one below, the image position as ‘beyond 2F’,
‘between 2F and F’ or ‘between F and lens’. Also note whether the image is ‘larger’ or
‘smaller’ than the actual bulb or ‘same size’ and if it is ‘upright’ or ‘inverted’. Now
repeat with the light at 2F, then between 2F and F.

So far all the images have been real since they can be obtained on a screen. When the
light is between F and the lens, the image is virtual and is seen by looking through the
lens at the light. Do this. Is the virtual image larger or smaller than the object? Is it
upright or inverted? Record your findings in your table.
Ray diagrams
Information about the images formed by a lens can be obtained by drawing two of the
following rays.
1 A ray parallel to the principal axis which is refracted through the principal focus, F.
2 A ray through the optical centre, C, which is undeviated for a thin lens.
3 A ray through the principal focus, F, which is refracted parallel to the principal axis.
In diagrams a thin lens is represented by a straight line at which all the refraction is
considered to occur.
In each ray diagram in Figure 31.5, two rays are drawn from the top A of an object OA.
Where these rays intersect after refraction gives the top B of the image IB. The foot I of
each image is on the axis since ray OC passes through the lens undeviated.
In Figure 31.5d, the broken rays, and the image, are virtual. In all parts of Figure 31.5, the
lens is a converging lens.
Electromagnetic radiation

Light is one member of the family of electromagnetic radiation which forms a continuous
spectrum beyond both ends of the visible (light) spectrum (Figure 32.1). While each type
of radiation has a different source, all result from electrons in atoms undergoing an
energy change and all have certain properties in common.
Properties
1 All types of electromagnetic radiation travel through a vacuum at 300 000 km/s (3 ×
108 m/s), i.e. with the speed of light.
2 They exhibit interference, diffraction and polarisation, which suggest they have a
transverse wave nature.
3 They obey the wave equation, v = f λ, where v is the speed of light, f is the frequency of
the waves and λ is the wavelength. Since v is constant for a particular medium, it follows
that large f means small λ.
4 They carry energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by matter to cause
heating and other effects. The higher the frequency and the smaller the wavelength of the
radiation, the greater is the energy carried, i.e. gamma rays are more ‘energetic’ than
radio waves. This is shown by the photoelectric effect in which electrons are ejected from
metal surfaces when electromagnetic waves fall on them.As the frequency of the waves
increases so too does the speed (and energy) with which electrons are emitted.
Because of its electrical origin, its ability to travel in a vacuum (e.g. from the Sun to the
Earth) and its wave-like properties (i.e. point 2 above), electromagnetic radiation is
regarded as a progressive transverse wave. The wave is a combination of travelling
electric and magnetic fields. The fields vary in value and are directed at right angles to
each other and to the direction of travel of the wave, as shown by the representation in
Figure 32.2.
Transformers
Definition: A transformer is a device which is used to change the voltage of an appliance
(load) by mutual induction
Structure of a transformer
A transformer consists of two coils (primary coil and secondary coil) wound on a soft
iron core.
The coil that is connected to the alternating current input is called primary coil and the
coil that provides the alternating current output is called the secondary coil.

Types of transformers
There are two types of transformers
1. Step - up transformer
This is a transformer which increases the voltage of an appliance
The voltage in the primary coil (input) is lower than the voltage in the secondary coil
(output)
The number of turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the secondary
Coil
2. Step - down transformer
This is a transformer which reduces the voltage of an appliance
The voltage in the primary coil (input) is higher than the voltage in the secondary coil
(output)
The number of turns in the primary coil is greater than the number of turns in the
secondary coil

Principle of operation of a basic iron - cored transformer

A transformer functions by mutual induction. That is;
An alternating voltage applied to the primary coil causes an alternating current to flow in
the coil. The alternating current induces a changing magnetic field.
The changing magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. This
causes flow of alternating current in the secondary coil

Circuit symbols
(a) Step - up transformer
Np< Ns
Vp<Vs
Ip> Is

(b) Step - down transformer

Np> Ns
Vp>Vs
Ip< Is
Note
 Np = Number of turns in primary coil
 Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil
 Vp = Voltage of primary coil
 Vs = Voltage of secondary coil
 Ip = Current in primary coil
 Is = Current in secondary coil
 A transformer will not operate using a direct current input because direct current
produces a steady magnetic field which cannot induce a voltage in the secondary
coil.
 Transformers are used to transmit electricity because they can easily convert the
type of voltage needed. For domestic purposes, a step down transformer can be
used to drop a very high voltage to a suitable voltage in our homes. A step up
transformer can be used to amplify the voltage so that industrial areas can utilize
such high voltages

Factors that cause energy loses in a transformer and how this can be minimized
If a transformer has efficiency 100%, it is called ideal transformer.
However, no transformer is ideal. This means that a transformer cannot be 100% perfect.
It has energy loses. The following are factors that can cause energy loses in a transformer
and how they can be minimized
1. The resistance of the coils. As the coils have resistance, they give off heat when
current flows through. Coil resistance and energy loses can be minimized by
making the coils from thick copper because thick copper does not heat up easily.
2. Magnetization and demagnetization of the core. Work has to be done to alter
sizes and direction of domains and heat is released in the process. These energy
loses are reduced by making the core from soft iron because soft iron is easy to
magnetize and easy to demagnetize
3. Eddy currents in the core. Eddy currents are small currents produced within the
iron. These occur because the core itself is a conductor in a changing magnetic
field. The energy loses are reduced by laminating the iron core.

Advantage of transmitting electrical energy using high voltage

This can reduce energy loses due to long distances since the energy is transmitted from
long distances, the wires offer resistance. Some energy will be lost in the cables due to
heating effect.

Advantage of transmitting electrical energy using alternating current

Alternating current can be transformed to higher voltage; which is efficient to transmit

Transformer equations

1. =

2. IpVp= IsVs

Note
Np = Number of turns in primary coil
Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil
Vp = Voltage of primary coil
Vs = Voltage of secondary coil
Ip = Current in the primary coil
Is = Current in secondary coil
Transformercalculations
Examples

1. The figure below represents a transformer with a primary coil of 400 turns and a
secondary coil of 200 turns

(a) If the primary coil is connected to a 240V a.c mains supply, calculate the
secondary voltage
(b) Distinguish between the step-down and step-up transformers
(c) Explain carefully how a transformer works
(d) Why is the core made of iron?

Solution

(a) =

Vs =
Vs =

Vs = 120V
(b) A step down transformer reduces the voltage of an appliance while a step up
transformer increases the voltage of an appliance
In the step down transformer, the voltage in the primary coil is higher than the
voltage in the secondary coil while in the step up transformer the voltage in the
primary coil is lower than the voltage in the secondary coil
In the step down transformer, the number of turns in the primary coil is greater
than the number of turns in the secondary coil while in the step up transformer;
the number of turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the
secondary coil.
(c) An alternating voltage applied to the primary coil causes an alternating current to
flow in the coil. The alternating current induces a changing magnetic field.
The changing magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
This causes flow of alternating current in the secondary coil
(d) Because soft iron can magnetize and demagnetize easily.

2. The primary coil of a transformer is connected to a 240V a.c mains and a current
of 5A passes through. If the voltage at the secondary coil is 12V, calculate the
secondary current.
Data Solution
Is =? IsVs= IpVp

Ip = 5A Is =
Vs = 20V
Is =
Vp = 240V
Is = 100A

Exercise
1. The primary coil of a transformer has 800 turns; its secondary coil has 2400
turns. Voltage in the primary coil is 50V;
(a) Calculate voltage in the secondary coil;
(b) Given that the current in the secondary coil is 12A, determine the current
in the primary coil.
2. A step down transformer is required to transform 240V a.c to 12V a.c for a
model railway. If the primary coil has 1000 turns. How many turns should the
secondary coil have?