Preamble

Physics is the foundation of all other sciences. It is the natural philosophy: the development of an
understanding of fundamental operations in nature both by imagination and mathematics.By
imagination we create models which are simplified systems which correspond in part to the
Universe we perceive and which can be analysed using mathematical techniques.

UNITS
To compare mathematical models with the real world we make measurements of
observable physical quantities. These measurements are comparisons, usually with a
standard or unit.

MEASUREMENTS
There are three basic quantities in measurement, namely:

 Length
 Time
 Mass

These quantities have their Systemè Internationale d’ Unites (SI) units. The SI unit of a quantity
can be made smaller or larger by using a multiplying power of 10. All SI units have one of the
following prefixes denoting a multiplying factor.

Examples:

 atto (a-) = x 10-18

 fermto (f-) = x 10-15
 pico (p-) = x 10-12
 nano (n-) = x 10-9
 micro (μ-) = x 10-6
 milli (m-) = x 10-3
 centi (c-) = x 10 -2
 deci (d-) = x 10-1
_____________________________________
 Deca (D-) = x 101
 Hecto (h) = 102
 Kilo (K-) = x 103
 Mega (M-) = x106
 Giga (G-) = x 109
 Tera (T-) = x 1012
 Peta (P-) = x 1015

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 Exa (E-) = x 1018

BASIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITIES SI UNIT OTHER UNITS

Millimetre (mm)= x 10-3m
Centimetre (cm) = x 10 -2m
LENGTH Metre (m)
Micrometre (μm) = x 10-6m
Nanometre (nm) x 10-9m
Microgram (μg) = x 10-9 kg
MASS Kilogramme (Kg) Nanogram (ng) x 10-12 kg
Gram (g) = x 10-3kg
Millisecond (ms)= x 10-3s
Minute (min) = 60 s
TIME Second (s)
Year (yr) = 31 536 000 s

Other quantities and their SI units are as follows:

FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL STANDARD INTERNATIONAL UNITS

PROPERTIES (SI UNITS)
Mass kg
Time s (seconds)
Length m
Volume m3
Area m2
Weight N (Newton)
Density Kg/m3
Velocity m/s (ms-1)
Speed
m/s
Acceleration ms2 (ms-2)

NOTE: Units must be included in every measurement of a physical quantity. They should also be
written at every stage in calculations since they include the unit of the final answer.

ACCURACY

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No measurement is exact. All measurements of calculations should be given to the accuracy
obtained. Accuracy is the smallest possible unit an instrument can measure.

difference between two succesive large divisions

Accuracy =
number of small divisions∈between them

Example

Find the accuracy of the ruler below

difference between two succesive large divisions

Accuracy =
number of small divisions∈between them

(1−0)cm
Accuracy =
10

Accuracy = 0.1 cm

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MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
The ruler, measuring tape, click-wheel, vernier calipers and the micrometer screw gauge are used
to measure length.

The Ruler

When using a ruler, your eye must always be directly above the mark being read to avoid
parallax error. The ruler is accurate to 0.1cm (1mm).

Sources of Error in Measurement of Length

 Parallax error
 Zero error

Vernier Callipers

It is used to measure smalllengths where an ordinary ruler cannot be used, e.g the internal and
external diameter of a cylinder. The vernier calipers is accurate to 0.01cm (0.1mm).It has two
sets of jaws: the upper jaws used to measure the internal diameter and the lower jaws used to
measure the external diameter. It also has two scales:

 The Main scale

 The Vernier scale

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Taking a Reading from a Vernier Callipers

 Take the main scale reading (MSR) that appears just before the zero mark of the vernier
scale.
 Record the vernier scale reading (VSR) that is in line with a reading on the main scale.
Multiply it by the accuracy of the instrument which is 0.01cm
 Calculate the overall reading (OR) by adding the MSR and the VSR.

Example 1

MSR = 0.30 cm
VSR = 8 X 0.01cm = 0.08cm
OR = 0.30 cm + 0.08cm
= 0.38cm

Example 2

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MSR = 1.50 cm
VSR = 8 X 0.01cm = 0.08cm
OR = 1.50 cm + 0.08cm
=1.58cm

EXERCISE

Study the venier calipers below and write down their readings.

a.

b.

c.

d.

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MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

It is used to measure very small lengths where vernier callipers cannot be used. It measures small
lengths such as the thickness of a coin, diameter of a wire, etc. It has two scales: main scale and
the rotating scale. It is accurate to 0.01mm

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A MICROMETER

RATCHET—it slips when the grip of the jaws is enough to give an accurate reading.

MAIN SCALE (Along the sleeve)—is numbered in mm and ½ mm marks.

(Range 0-25mm or 0-2.5cm)

Precautions when using a micrometer screw gauge

a) Instrument may have a zero error: Hence zero error reading must
always be checked and recorded and, if necessary, a + or– correction
applied to the final answer.
b) Before use the faces of anvil and spindle should be wiped clean to
remove dirty particles which will cause false reading.

Taking a Reading from a Micrometer Screw gauge

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 Take the main scale reading (MSR) that comes just before thimble
 Identify the rotating scale reading (RSR) that is in line with the central mark of the main
scale. Multiply it by the accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge which is 0.01mm
 Add the MSR and the RSR to obtain the overall reading (OR).

Example 1

MSR = 5.00 mm
RSR = 33 X 0.01mm = 0.33mm
OR = 5.00mm + 0.33mm
= 5.33mm

Example 2

MSR = 9.00 mm
RSR = 44 X 0.01mm = 0.44mm
OR = 9.00 mm + 0.44mm
= 9.44 mm

EXERCISE

Study the micrometer screw-gauges below and write down their readings.

a.

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b.

c.

d.

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EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

1. Error due to the instrument used (instrumental error) that is the instrument may be having an
error on its calibration, therefore the scale used becomes incorrect. An error due to improperly
marked instrument is called systematic error. This error can also be caused by the environment

2. Random error- this error which arises from observer’s estimate because the instrument will not
be having any calibrations from certain section of the scale. Averaging would reduce/minimize
this error.

3. Parallax error-it is an error that accumulates as the observer fails to position his/her point of
focus on the instrument being used correctly. For example, the measurement of length using the
rule note this, when taking a reading from a rule the eye has to be positioned at right angle to the
place of the rule as shown below.

4. Zero error-this error which exists in an instrument from manufacturer. The instrument will be
giving a reading of a certain value before any object has been placed/ button pressed to take a

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reading, which is not at a zero mark before the measurement of an object. Negative zero error
exists when the instrument gives a reading before the zero mark. Positive zero error is when the
instrument gives a reading after or beyond the zero mark. The positive zero error is always
subtracted from the reading given by the instrument, while the negative zero error is added to the
reading.

Illustration: Positive Zero error

The scales of the micrometer screw gauge

shown has a positive zero error of +0.83mm.
The size of the object measured = 4.43 mm –
(+0.83 mm)

=4.43 mm – 0.83 mm

=3.60mm

5. Human reaction time error-this is the error that arises if the reading is taken earlier or after an
event has taken place. This error is caused by inconsistency in the reaction time of a person, ie a
person may react too soon or later than the actual event being observed/monitored has occurred.
Examples of experiments which involve human reaction error include using the stopwatch while
observing another event. This error is treated by taking several readings and then finding the
average value.

Measurement of time
Clocks and watches are used to measure time. The SI unit of time is the second (s).

Errors in measurement of time

 Human reaction time – experimenter too slow or too fast

 Zero error – instrument not set to zero (reset)

Pendulum

A pendulum is a thread of length (l) fixed at one end and tied to a metal ball called the bob at the
other end. The bob is free to swing from one end to another.

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The length of a pendulum is from the fixed position to the centre of the bob.

The amplitude is the angle between one extreme end and the rest position

The period,Tof a pendulum is the time taken by the bob to swing from one extreme end to
another and back.

T = 1/f,T in seconds,f- frequency in Hertz

An Oscillation is the movement of a pendulum from one extreme end to another end and back.
(or a swing by the pendulum from one extreme end to another end and back)

DETERMINING THE PERIOD OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM

- Time is taken for a number of oscillations, say 20 times

- This is to improve on accuracy
- The time measured is then divided by the number of oscillation to calculate the period.
- The above procedure is then repeated for a number of times and an average calculated.
This is to improve o accuracy too.

RESULTS

Length /m t1 /s t2 /s t /s T /s T2 /s2
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00

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Plot a graph of length l/m against T2/s2

Calculate the gradient of the graph

CONCLUSION

From the experiment it is observed that:

i. The period of the pendulum does not depend on the amplitude,

ii. The period of the pendulum does not depend on the size of the bob,
iii. The period of the pendulum depends on the LENGTH. When the length increases the
period also increase, when the length decreases the period also decrease.

EXERCISE

1. A student performs an experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum. She

uses a stopwatch to record the time taken to produce 20 oscillations. The figure below
shows the face of the stopwatch

a. What is the time recorded by the stop watch?

b. Calculate the period of the pendulum

c. State one factor that affect the period of the pendulum.

2. The figure below shows a simple pendulum moving between a and c.

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It takes 0.20s for the pendulum to swing from a to c.
a. Calculate the period of the pendulum

b. Calculate the time it takes the pendulum to swing from a to c and back to b.

Motion
Scalars and Vectors

Scalar: it is a quantity that is defined by size or magnitude only, e.g. mass, speed, temperature,
distance.

Vector: it is a quantity that is defined by magnitude (size) and direction, e.g. displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, work done, etc.

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Distance and Displacement

Distance is the length between two points while displacement is the distance in a specified
direction

Speed and Velocity

Speed is the distance moved per unit time.

Velocity is the distance per unit time in a specified direction

or speed in a specified direction

or displacement per unit time. The SI unit of speed and velocity is the metre per second (ms).

Acceleration

If the velocity of a body changes with time, the body is said to be accelerating. If it changes such
that it increases the body is said to be moving with positive acceleration or just accelerating.

If the velocity of a body changes such that it decreases the body is said to be moving with
negative acceleration or just decelerating or retarding.

Acceleration is therefore the rate of change of velocity or change of velocity with time.

final velocity ( v )−initial velocity (u)

Acceleration (a) =
timetaken(t )

v−u
a= t

The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m/s2).

Example

A car accelerates from 20m/s to 40m/s in 5 seconds. Calculate its acceleration.

v−u
a= t

40 m/s−20 m/ s
a= 5s

a = 4.0 m/s2

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Equations of motion
First Equation

If the body starts with an initial velocity (u) and ends with a final velocity (v) over time (t) then
v−u
its acceleration is given by:a =
t

Making v the subject of the formulae we get,

v = u + at……………………………………………… (1)

where u = initial velocity

v = final velocity

a = acceleration

t = time taken

Second Equation

If a body moves with uniform acceleration its average velocity equals half of the sum of the
initial velocity and final velocity.

v +u
ṽ=
2

s
v = t , therefore substitute for v,

s u+ v
=
t 2

s= ( u+2 v )t ……………………………………………………………………………………. (2)

From equation 1, v=u+at , therefore substitute for v

s= ( ( u+at2 ) +u ) t
s= ( 2u+2 at )t=( 2u2 + at2 ) t
2
at
s = ut +
2

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1
s = ut + 2 at 2…………………………………………………………………………… (3)

Third Equation

It is found by eliminating “t” from equations 1 and 2,

Square both sides of equation 1

(v)2 = (u + at)2

v2 = (u + at)(u + at)

v2 = u2 + uat + uat + a2t2

v2 = u2 + 2uat + a2t2

Factor out 2a

1 2 1
v2 = u2 + 2a(ut + at ) but (ut + at 2) = s
2 2

v2 = u2 + 2as………………………………………. (3)

v = u + at (1)
v +u
s=( 2
¿t (2)
1 2
s = ut + 2
at (3)

v2 = u2 + 2as (4)

where u = initial velocity

v = final velocity

a = acceleration

t = time taken

s = displacement

Examples

1. A car accelerates from rest for 10 s at a rate of 2 m/s2. Find

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a. Final velocity
v = ? u = 0 m/s a = 2m/s2 t = 10s
v = u + at
v = 0 m/s + (2m/s2)10s
v = 20 m/s
b. Distance travelled
u = 0 m/s a = 2m/s2 t = 10s s=?

1 2
s = ut + at
2

1
s = (0m/s)10s + (2m/s2)(10s)2
2
s = 100m
2. A car accelerates at 5 m/s2 starting with a velocity of 10m/s. Find the velocity reached
after the car had travelled a distance of 50m.

a = 5 m/s2 u = 10 m/s s = 50m v=?

v2 = u2 + 2as

v2 = (10m/s)2 + 2 * (5m/s2)(50m)

v2 = 600 m2/s2

v =√ 600(m/ s)2

v = 24.5 m/s

Motion graphs
Important information about the motion of a body can readily and easily be obtained from
motion graphs.

Velocity-Time graphs

These graphs give the acceleration of a body. The acceleration is also found by calculating the
gradient of the graph.

a. Body at rest

v/m/s

t/s
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b. Constant or uniform velocity

v/m/s

t/s

c. Constant or uniform acceleration

v/m/s

t/s

d. Constant deceleration
v/m/s

t/s
e. Increasing acceleration

v/m/s

t/s
f. Decreasing acceleration

v/m/s

t/s

g. Increasing deceleration

v/m/s

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t/s
h. Decreasing deceleration

v/m/s

t/s

DISTANCE - TIME GRAPHS

These graphs normally give the velocity or speed of a body. The velocity or speed is calculated
using the gradient of the graph. Important shapes of these graphs are shown below.

a. Body at rest

d/m Distance does not change so

the graph remain at the same
level
t/s

b. Constant or uniform velocity

d/m
Rate of change of distance =
velocity. It is given by the
gradient
t/s
c. Increasing velocity

d/m

t/s

d. Decreasing velocity

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d/m

t/s
Distance travelled

The distance travelled in a particular time is calculated by finding the area under the graph.

Example

1. A car accelerates steadily from rest to 8m/s in 10s and then travels with constant velocity
for another 10s. Find the total distance travelled.
v/m/s
Distance travelled = Area under the graph
Dist = ½ (a+b)h
8 Dist = ½ (10s + 20s)*8m/s
Dist = 120 m

2. A car moving at 10m/s accelerates at 4m/s2 for 10s. It then travels at a constant velocity
for 60s and finally decelerates at 1m/s2 until it stops.
t/s
10 20

v/m/s

10

t/s
a. Calculate the10maximum 70 velocity of the car
2
v=? a = 4m/s t = 10s u = 10m/s
v = u+at
v = 10m/s + (4m/s2)10s
v = 50m/s
b. What is the time taken by the car during its deceleration?
u = 50m/s a = -1m/s2 v = 0m/s
t=?
v = u+at
t = (v-u)/a
t = (0m/s – 50m/s)/(-1m/s2)
t = 50s

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c. Calculate the distance travelled by the car.

EXERCISE

1. Usain starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 100 m/s in 10 s. Calculate:
a. His acceleration

b. The distance he covers in that time

2. Calculate the total distance travelled in the diagram shown below

a. Calculate the acceleration of the body during the first 10 seconds.

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Acceleration due to gravity (g)
This is the acceleration in the body on account of the force of gravity. It is denoted by ‘g’. At a
given place, the value of acceleration due to gravity is the same for all bodies irrespective of their
masses. However, it differs from place to place. On or close to the Earth’s surface ‘g’ is
approximately 10m/s2.

For bodies projected vertically downwards, ‘g’ is 10m/s2 and for bodies projected vertically
upwards ‘g’ is -10m/s2.

Free falling bodies

All bodies that fall freely from rest do so due to gravitational force (weight) on them. If there is
no air friction (resistance) they accelerates uniformly at a value close to 10m/s 2.

Examples of free falling bodies include:

a. A fruit falling from a tree

b. A stone lifted above and left to fall on its own.
c. An object dropped from a tower.

For a free falling body and assuming that there is no air resistance then the equations of motion
changes to:

v=u+¿

(u+ v)
h= t
2

1 2
h=ut + g t
2
2 2
v =u +2 gh

Problems on acceleration due to Gravity

1. A stone falls from the top of a cliff and takes 6 s to reach the ground.
a. Calculate the height of the cliff
t = 6s g = 10 m/s2 u = 0 m/s h =?
2
h = ut + ½ gt
h = (0m/s *6s) + ½ (10 m/s2)*(6s)2
h = 180 m
b. Calculate the velocity of the stone just before it hits the ground

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v = u + at
v = 0m/s + (10m/s2)* 6s
v = 60 m/s
2. A brick falls from the top of a building, 45 m high.
a. How long does the brick take to reach the ground?

u = 0 m/s g = 10 m/s2 h = 45 m t =?

b. Calculate the velocity of the brick on impact with the ground.

3. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the ground with a velocity of 30m/s.
a. How long will it take to reach the highest point?
v = u + at
t = (0m/s – 30 m/s)/(-10m/s2)
t = 3s
b. What is the maximum height reached?
v2 = u2 + 2as
s = (v2 – u2)/2a
s = [(0m/s)2 – (30m/s)2]/(2*-10m/s2)
s = 45 m

c. What is its velocity as it strikes the ground?

v = u + at
v = 0m/s + (10m/s2 * 3s)
v = 30 m/s
4. A stone is thrown upwards from a cliff top with a velocity of 40m/s.
a. What is its height above the cliff after
i. 3s
h = ut + ½ gt2
h= (40m/s)*(3s) + ½ * (-10m/s2) * (3s)2
h = 120m – 45m
h = 75m

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ii. 5s
h = ut + ½ gt2
h= (40m/s)*(5s) + ½ * (-10m/s2) * (5s)2
h = 200m – 125m
h = 75m

iii. 8s
h = ut + ½ gt2
h= (40m/s)*(8s) + ½ * (-10m/s2) * (8s)2
h = 320m – 320m
h = 0m

b. If the stone strikes the sea after 10 seconds, what is the height of the cliff?
h = ut + ½ gt2
h = 40m/s * 2s + ½ (10m/s2)*(2s)2
h = 80m + 20m
h = 100m

Terminal Velocity

When a body falls through the force of gravity pulls it toward the earth. Its initial velocity is
zero, but it soon speeds up. It starts to accelerate due to gravity.
A force is required to make a body accelerate (this an example of Newton’s first law)
The only force acting on the body when it first starts to fall is the gravity, or the weight.

As the body falls through air, it begins to experience air resistance.

As it accelerates the force due to air resistance starts to increase. In the beginning

Weight > air resistance

Then there is a resultant force and it accelerates downwards. But after some time air resistance
increases and at some point
Weight = air resistance
There is no resultant force (again see Newton first law) and it stops accelerating. It moves with a
constant velocity, so we call this terminal velocity.

Air resistance is a form of friction; it is an upward force which opposes the downward force thus
slowing down the rate at which the body accelerates.

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Remember: if there is no resultant force then a body cannot accelerate. It must therefore move
with a constant velocity, in this case we call it the terminal velocity orsteady speed.

Note: Bodies falling through a liquid also experience resistive force due to viscosity (viscous
forces) of the liquid.

Therefore all bodies falling through a fluid experience terminal or steady velocity after
sometime.

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Mass, Weight& Center of mass
Mass

Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The SI unit of mass is the kilogramme (kg). It is
measured using a triple beam balance, digital scale, top pan balance, lever arm balance and
bathroom scale.

Weight

This is the force with which the earth attracts everybody towards its centre. It is the force of
gravity or gravitational pull acting on an object. The SI unit of weight is the NEWTON (N). It is
measured using a forcemeter or spring balance. Weight is calculated using the formula:

Weight = mass x gravitational field strength

W = mg

It is very important to realize that the mass of a body, being the amount of matter it contains
always remains the same. However, the gravitational field strength ‘g’ changes as one move
away from the earth.

N.B. on or close to the earth’s surface, the gravitational field strength is approximately 10 N/kg.
This is to say that every kilogram of matter weighs approximately 10 N.

Differences between mass and weight

Mass Weight
 Amount of matter in an object  Force of gravity
 SI unit of mass is the kilogramme  SI unit is the Newton
 Does not change with position  Changes with position
 Measured using triple beam balance  Measured using forcemeter or spring
balance

Exercise

1. Calculate the weight of a 50kg bag of cement on

a. Earth (g = 10N/kg)
b. Moon (g = 1.7N/kg)
c. Space (g = 0N/kg)
2. A rocket has a weight of 1200N on Earth.
a. Calculate its mass
b. What is its mass on the moon?
c. What is its mass in space?

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Inertia

It is the reluctance of the body to change its motion. That is an object will try to remain at rest if
it was at rest or move with uniform motion if it was moving in a straight line. Inertia depends on
mass: the larger the mass the larger the inertia and the smaller the mass the smaller the inertia.

Centre of mass (gravity)

Centre of mass or gravity of an object is the point in the body where the mass or weight appears
to be concentrated. When an object is supported from its centre of mass it balances. This point
can either be in the body or outside the body.

Eg.

The centre of mass is not always at the centre of an object.

Centre of gravity for any REGULAR Object of UNIFORM Mass Distribution

The centre of gravity or mass of a regular object of uniform mass distribution lies exactly at its
centre. This centre of the object (centre of gravity) can be located by two methods namely;
i) Balancing: The object is pivoted on a sharp edge until it balances. This shows that the
moment of the weight about the pivot is zero i.e. no turning effect since the weight acts
directly at the pivot.

ii) Symmetry: the intersection of two lines of symmetry is the centre of the object and this is
the position of centre of gravity (cog). Perpendicular and or angular bisector can be used to
locate the centre of a regular object.
Centre of gravity for an IRREGULAR lamina- plumbline method
The centre of gravity for an irregular lamina can be determined by the PLUMBLINE method as
illustrated
below.

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If a plane lamina or any object is freely suspended at one point it will always come to rest with
the centre of mass directly under the point.

METHOD

 The lamina is freely suspendedfrom a point and a plumbline is suspended from the same
point
 The position of the plumbline is marked on the lamina with a pencil, and a line drawn
along which lies the centre of mass
 The procedure is repeated using another point of suspension
 Where the two lines meet is the centre of mass

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Stability

A body is said to be more stable if it does not topple over easily and unstable if even a very small
displacement can upset it. Stability of an object depends on:

 Base area
 Centre of mass

Body B is more stable than body A

Body A is more stable than body B.

Consider a brick resting on a flat surface.

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The brick remains at rest. If however, the brick is tilted slightly, it returns to its original position.

If now the brick is tilted so far that its centre of mass is beyond the edge of its base, it falls over.

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Forms of Equilibrium

There are three equilibrium

positions for objects as shown in
the diagram.

a) Stable equilibrium is where an

object can go back to its original stable position when tilted slightly and then released.

b) Un-stable equilibrium is when an object topples when tilted slightly.

c) Neutral equilibrium is where the position of centre of gravity always falls within the same
position along the plane of support of the object.

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Forces
We normally experience forces in our everyday lives as a “push or pull”. Force is measured
using a forcemeter or spring balance. The SI unit of force is the NEWTON (N).

EFFECTS OF FORCES

A force can:

 Change the shape of an object

 Change the size of an object
 Change the direction of an object
 Change the speed of an object
 Start or stop motion

THE EFFECT OF FORCE ON THE SIZE OF A SPRING.

The experiment was set up as shown below.

Different masses were hung on to the bottom end of the spring and corresponding pointer
readings recorded. Each time the extension was calculated by subtracting the initial reading
(when there was no mass) from the corresponding pointer reading. The load (weight) was
calculated using W = mg. the results were tabulated as below:

Mass/kg Weight/N Length of spring/cm Extension/cm

0 0
0.1 1
0.2 2
0.3 3
0.4 4
0.5 5

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When a graph of extension against weight was plotted, a straight line passing through the origin
obtained showing that extension is directly proportional to the weight (they show a relationship
of direct proportionality). However, once the weight reached a certain value, the graph deviates
as shown below.

Exten
sion/ L
cm

Weight/N

The point “L” is called the Limit of Proportionality because beyond this point extension is no
longer directly proportional to weight. This point also corresponds to the Elastic Limit of the
spring as the spring no longer returns to its original length. i.e. it is permanently deformed.

Any material whose extension is directly proportional to its weight is said to obey Hooke’s Law.

Hooke’s law states:

“Within the elastic limit the extension of a material is directly proportional to the applied force
(load)”.

Force is directly proportional to extension

Fαe

F = ke

k = F/ e where k = spring constant,

e = extension

F = applied force

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EXAMPLES.

1. A spring of unstretched length 3.0 cm becomes 5.0 cm when a mass of 10g is hung on its
end. How long will it be if a mass of 25g is hung on it?

10g cause an extension of 2.0 cm

25g cause an extension of e

10g : 2.0cm

25g : e

e = (25g x2.0cm)/ 10g

e = 5.0 cm

length = original length + extension

L = 3.0cm + 5.0 cm

L = 8.0 cm

2. What is the force constant of a spring which is stretched 2mm by a force of 4N?
k = F/e
k = 4N/ 2mm
k = 2 N/mm

EXERCISE

1. Find “L” assuming that all springs obey Hooke’s law.

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2. The figure below shows four identical springs which all obey Hooke’s law.

What is;
a. The length ‘X’?

b. The mass ‘M’?

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c. The original length of the spring?

ELASTIC MATERIALS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

If “n” identical springs of the same force constant (k) are put in series, their total extension “e” is
the sum of the extensions of the individual springs

Total extension = x1 +x2+ x3

For 1 spring, extension = x

For 2 springs, extension = 2x

For 3 springs, extension = 3x

For n springs, extension = nx

For 1 spring, F = ke

For n springs, F = nke

k = F/ne

PARALLEL SPRINGS

If springs are put in parallel, the total extension will be divided by the number of springs.

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1 spring =x

2 springs = x/2

3springs = x/3

N springs = x/n

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Isaac Newton was the first person to relate force to motion in a precise way in his two laws first
published in 1687.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

‘If no resultant (external) force acts on a body, the body remains at rest (v = 0) or it continues
forever in a straight line with constant velocity.’

Implications of 1st law:

 Constant velocity means ZERO acceleration and NO resultant force

 A body moving with constant velocity does not need a force to keep it moving

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

If an external (resultant) force acts on a body, the body accelerates such that force is given by the
product of acceleration and mass.

Resultant Force = mass x acceleration

F = ma

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

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“To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction”

This means that if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will exert an equal but opposite
force on body A or Forces always act in pairs.

RESULTANT FORCE

If two or more forces act on a body, it is necessary to find the effective (resultant) force acting on
the body.

1. If two forces act on a body and act in the same direction, the resultant is found by adding
their magnitudes. The direction of the resultant force will be in the direction of the two
forces.

2. If two forces act on a body and act in opposite directions, the resultant is found by
subtracting the smaller force from the larger force. The direction of the resultant force
will be in the direction of the larger force.

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the resultant force of the following forces.
a. 3N
5N

8N

b.
3N
5N

2N

2. A car of mass 1500 kg moves with a constant velocity of 120 km/h for 5 minutes.
a. What is its acceleration?
a = 0 m/s2 because the velocity is constant.
b. What is the resultant force acting on it?
F = 0 N, because there is no acceleration
3. A trolley of mass 15 kg is pushed from rest on a frictionless surface by a force of 10
N. Calculate the acceleration of the trolley.
F = ma

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a = F/m
a = 10N/15kg
a = 0.67 m/s2

EXERCISE.

1. What resultant force produces an acceleration of 5 m/s2 in a car of mass 1000kg?

2. A force of 30N acts on a body of mass 2kg. Calculate the acceleration of the body.

3. A car of mass 500kg accelerates steadily from rest to 40 m/s in 20s.

a. What is its acceleration?

b. What is the resultant force acting on it?

4. A space shuttle of mass 3000kg moves through space with a constant velocity of 0.18c
(where c = 3x108 m/s, speed of light in vacuum). What is the resultant force acting on the
body?

FALLING BODIES

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Many people believe that heavy things fall faster than light things. Galilei Galileo proved this
assumption to be false by his famous Tower of Pisa experiment.

Isaac Newton then used his Second Law to show why. He said “the only force acting on a falling
body (and therefore its resultant force) is its weight”.

Resultant force = Weight

ma = mg

a=g

On or close to the Earth’s vicinity g = 10 N/kg = 10 m/s2

UNIT OF FORCE - NEWTON.

The unit of force, the NEWTON, is defined by Newton’s Second Law. The NEWTON is the
resultant force that gives a body of mass 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

1 N = 1 kgm/s2

FRICTIONAL FORCE (Ff)

Frictional force is the force that opposes motion. It is the force that acts between surfaces which
rub against or tend to slide over each other. When two surfaces come together, friction may be
acting between them.

It is friction between our shoes and the ground that enables us to walk, it is friction between tyres
and the road that propels a car forward.

Advantages of friction

 It can start/stop motion

 It can increase /decrease speed

Disadvantages of Friction

 Causes unnecessary heat

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 Wears off surfaces
 Expensive as one has replace worn out parts and buy lubricants

Frictional force (Ff) = Applied force (FA) – Resultant force (FR)

Ff = FA – FR

Examples.

1. A box of mass 5kg is pushed by a force of 10 N and accelerates at a rate of 1.5 m/s2. Find
the frictional opposing it.
Resultant force FR =ma
FR = 5 kg x1.5 m/s2
FR = 7.5 N

But Ff = FA – FR

Ff = 10 N – 7.5 N

Ff = 2.5 N

2. A man pushes a table at constant velocity by applying a force of 80 N. what is the

frictional force opposing its motion?
Constant velocity implies ZERO RESULTANT FORCE

Ff = FA – FR

Ff = 80 N – 0 N

Ff = 80 N

CIRCULAR MOTION

The velocity of a body moving in a circle is constantly changing, so it must be accelerating.

Although the speed is may be constant, its direction is changing as it traverses along its circular
path.

Since it is accelerating, there must be a force causing this acceleration. This force is called the
CENTRIPETAL FORCE. The centripetal force is also called the CENTRE-SEEKING FORCE
and it is always directed towards the centre of the circle in which the body is traversing. The
CENTRIPETAL VELOCITY of the body is always tangential to the circle

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Where vc is the centripetal velocity
Fc is the centripetal force

For a body of mass m, travelling with a velocity v, around a circle of radius r, the centripetal
force is given by

Centripetal force may be increased by:

- increasing the mass of the body,

- increasing the velocity of the body

- decreasing the radius of the circle

Turning effects (moments)

So far we have only considered forces acting on bodies treated as particles. However, an
extended body may have forces acting at different parts where we must consider the turning
effects of forces measured by their MOMENTS.

The MOMENT of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from its
line of action to the point.

d P
The moment of force F about point P is the product Fd

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Moments are therefore measured in NEWTON-METRES (Nm)

NOTE:

a. Moment may act in a clockwise direction about a point or in an anticlockwise direction.

b. The moment of a force about a point is given by the product

M = Fd
Example: Find the moment of force F below about point P

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

The Principle of Moments states that:

“The sum of clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of anti-clockwise
moments about the same point for a system (body) in equilibrium or system that is
balanced”.
EXAMPLES:
1. Find the force F necessary to balance the metre-rule pivoted at centre as shown below

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Clockwise moment = Anti-clockwise moment
F x 20 cm = 2 N x 30 cm
F = 60 Ncm / 20 cm
F=3N
2. Calculate the distance d

Fig. 3.2

Ans: Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anti-clockwise moments

10N x 7.5m = 15N x d

d = 75Nm / 15N

d = 5.0m

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EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

A metre rule was supported by a pivot as shown below and different masses were hung on both
sides in such a way as to balance the ruler.

When balanced, the masses and their distances from the pivot were recorded below. The
distances were calculated by subtracting their positions on the ruler from 50 cm.

Results

M1 /g W1 /N d1 / cm Moment / M2 /g W2 /N d2 / cm Moment /
Ncm Ncm

From the results, the Principle of moments was verified in that the ‘sum of clockwise moments
was equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moment. Where the two were not equal could be
attributed to experimental error.

EXAMPLES.

1. The beam below is balanced with forces acting on it at the positions shown. Calculate the
distance “d”.

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NB: Here we must be careful to measure all distances between the forces
and the pivot.

Sum of Clockwise moments = Sum of Anti-clockwise moments

3N x 3m = (3N x 2m) + 1N x (2m +d)

9Nm = 6Nm + 2Nm + d N

9Nm = 8Nm + d N

d N = 1Nm

(d N)/1 N = 1Nm/ 1N

d = 1m

2. An axle forced to a wheel as shown below. What load can be lifted by the rope wound
round the axle when the rope wound round the wheel is pulled with a force of 100N?

Maximum load is lifted when the wheel rotates at constant rate

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Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
Load x 0.1 m = 100N x 1.0 m
Load = 100Nm/0.1m
Load = 1 000N

3. Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 below show beams balanced with forces acting on them at the positions
shown.
a. Calculate the force F

Fig. 3.1

Ans: Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anti-clockwise moments

3N x 3m = [(2N x 3m) + (F x 5m)]

9Nm = 6Nm + F x 5m

9Nm - 6Nm = F x 5m

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3Nm = F x 5m

F = 3Nm / 5m

F = 0.6 N

4. Figure 4.1 shows a man of mass 80kg stands on a plank of negligible weight. The plank
is supported at two points A and B in positions shown. What is the reaction at each pivot?

Fig 4.1

Redraw the diagram

R1 R2

2.5 m 1.5 m

A 800 N B

Moments about B (R1) Moments about A (R2)

Clockwise mom = anticlockwise mom Clockwise mom = anticlockwise mom

F1d1 = F2d2 F1d1 = F2d2

800N x1.5m = R1 x 4m 800m x 2.5. = R2 x 4m

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R1 = 1200Nm / 4m R2 = 2000Nm / 4m

R1 = 300N R2 = 500N

5. A man of mass 70kg stands on a 3m long plank whose weight can be neglected. The
plank is supported at two points A and B in positions shown. What is the reaction at each
pivot?

Fig 3.1

Redraw the diagram

Moments about A (R1) Moments about A (R2)

Clockwise mom = anticlockwise mom Clockwise mom = anticlockwise mom

F1d1 = F2d2 F1d1 = F2d2

700N x1.0m = R1 x 1.5m 700m x 0.5. = R2 x 1.5m

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R1 = 700Nm / 1.5m R2 = 3500Nm / 1.5m

R1 = 467N R2 = 233N

NOTE:
i. The reactions R1 and R2 add up to 700N as expected since there is no resultant
moment acting on the plank
ii. We notice that R2 = 2R1 since the man was twice as far from A as he was from B

When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point is equal
to the sum of the clockwise moments about that same point.

If an object/system is in equilibrium not only the moments should balance, the forces acting in
one direction must also balance forces acting in the opposite direction.
From above case: Upward force from the support = 467N

+ 233N = 700N

This means there are two conditions for equilibrium:

1. The principle of moments must apply
2. The sum of forces in one direction must equal the sum of forces in the opposite direction.

Scalars and Vectors

Scalar: it is a quantity that is defined by size or magnitude only, e.g. mass, speed, temperature,
distance. Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic e.g. 10kg +5kg = 15kg

Vector: it is a quantity that is defined by magnitude (size) and direction. It is completely

described only if both size and direction are stated. e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, work done, etc.

Vector representation

A vector can be represented by a straight line whose length represents the magnitude of the
quantity and whose direction gives its line of action. An arrow on the line shows which way
along the line it acts.

Vectors are added geometrically. The resultant vector is usually found if two or more vectors are
added at a point.

If two vectors act at an angle other than 0° and 180°, we construct a scale drawing and use the
PARALLELOGRAM RULE to determine the resultant.

PARALLELOGRAM RULE

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“If the two vectors are represented by the two sides of a parallelogram, the resultant vector is
represented by the diagonal”

EXAMPLES

1. Find the magnitude of the resultant of 4N and 5N acting at an angle of 90°. Find the angle
which the resultant makes with the 5N force.
Scale : 1cm : 0.5N

4N

Length of diagonal is 12.8cm

5N
1cm : 0.5N

12.8cm : R

R = (12.8cm * 0.5N)/1cm

R = 6.4N

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Alternatively, we could use the Pythagoras Theorem

R2 = 42 + 52
Tan Ɵ = 4/5
R2 =41
Ɵ = tan-1 (4/5)
R = √(41)

R = 6.41 N
Ɵ = 39⁰

2. Two oxen are pulling a tree stump by ropes tied round it. The tension on each rope is
1200N and 500N in that order. The two ropes make an angle of 20⁰ as shown below. Find
the resultant force of the tensions giving the magnitude and the angle it makes with the
larger force.

Scale drawing 1cm: 100N

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

WORK

When a force acts on a moving body, we say the force does work on the body. Work done is the
product of the applied force and the distance travelled in the direction of the force. The SI unit of
work done is the JOULE (J).

Work done = Force x distance

W = Fd

i.e. A work of 1J is done when a force of 1 N moves a body through a distance of 1 m.

Examples:

1. Find the work done against gravity by a girl of mass 50 kg climbing the staircase as
shown below.

Weight = W = mg

W = 50 kg x 10 N/kg

W = 500 N

Work done = Fd

Work done = 500 N x 5 m

Work done = 2 500 J

2. A block is pushed 2m across a bench at a constant velocity. The force of friction acting is
5N. find the work done.
Constant velocity means ZERO resultant force.
FR = FA – FF
FA = 5 N

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Work done = Fd
W = 5 N x 2m
W = 10 J

ENERGY

Energy is the capacity to do work.this means that energy is required for a force to do work.
When work is done, energy changes from one form to another. In fact, the amount of energy
changed equals work done.

Work done and energy transferred

When a body A does work on body B, body A transfers energy to body B. The amount of
energy transferred from body A to body B is equal to the work done by body A on body B.
WORK DONE = ENERGY
TANSFERRED

Energy is also measured in joules (J)

Forms of Energy

a. KINETIC ENERGY
This is the energy due to motion of a body. A moving body does work against any force
which opposes its motion. e.g. A brick sliding along a table has a kinetic enegry of 10 J.
Find the frictional force which brings it to rest after 1m.
Work done = Loss of KE =10J
W = Fd
F = W/d
F = 10J/ 1m
F = 10 N
If a force accelerates a body, the body gains KE and its velocity increases. It can be
shown that:
KE = ½ mv2
NB: It is often convinient to solve problems using this equation even when constant
acceleration equations may be used.
Example:
A car of mass 500kg travelling at 15m/s can apply a braking force of 1200N. Find the
distance in which it can be brought to rest
Work done = Loss of KE
Fd = ½ mv2
d = [½ x 500 kg x (15m/s)2]/1200N
d = 47 m

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b. Potential energy
Is the energy possessed by a body due to its position or condition. There are two kinds:- i)
gravitational potential energy ii) elastic potential energy
A stretched elastic rubber band has elastic potential energy
An object suspended above the ground has gravitational potential energy
The work done in lifting up a body is converted into gravitational potential energy of the body
Gravitational potential energy = weight X height
Pe = mgh

where g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2

m = mass of the object in kg
h = height in metres (m)

c. MAGNETIC/ELECTRIC ENERGY
This is the energy possessed by a body experiencing magnetic/electric forces.
d. CHEMICAL ENERGY
This is the energy possessed by particles arranged in molecules of compounds. e.g. fuel,
coal, batteries, food in the body.
e. NUCLEAR ENERGY
This is the energy possessed by the arrangement of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

f. HEAT ENERGY
This is the energy resulting in change in temperature or change of state. Heat energy is
produced whenever forces of friction or fluid resistance act or when bodies collide.
g. LIGHT ENERGY
This is energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
h. SOUND ENERGY
This is the energy of vibrations of particles in a longitudinal wave.

ENERGY CHANGES (CONVERSIONS)

All physical processes can be considered in terms of changes of energy, using the the forms of
energy described above.

Examples:

a. Falling bodies:

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 Its energy is all PE at the beginning of the fall
 Gains some K.E and loses P.E as it falls and its velocity increases and height
decreases.
 The increase in K.E is equal to the lose in P.E
 On reaching the ground all energy will be changed to K.E and P.E is zero.
*K.E = ½ mv2 = mgh
which follows that velocity on reaching the ground is given by:
½ mv2 = mgh
v2 = 2gh
 At any moment the total energy is constant; P.E at the beginning = K.E at time the
ball hits the ground = sum of K.E + PE at intermediate positions.
 When the ball bounces, only rises to a lower height showing that it has less GPE
now compared to the previous maximum height. This is because some energy is lost
during its impact with the ground mainly as heat and sound.

b. Simple Pendulum

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 Energy all PE at the extreme positions.
 All energy KE when passing the resting position.
 Partly KE and partly PE at the intermediate positions (the sum of the two is always equal
to the total energy)
 The pendulum will eventually stop swinging because all the energy would be lost to the
surrounding as heat energy due to doing work against friction (air resistance - drag).

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that:
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to
another”. Thus the amount of energy in the Universe always remains constant.
Example:
Water falls down a 100m waterfall. Calculate the speed with which the water reaches the
bottom. Neglect air resitance and take g = 10 N/kg
Initial PE = Final KE
mgh = ½ mv2
v2 = 2gh
v2 = 2x 10x100

v2 = (2x 10x100)
v = 44.7 m/s
NB: In a real waterfall, the velocity would be less than this value because air resistance
reduces the resultant force on the water.

Exercise

1. An object has a mass of 6kg. What is its gravitational potential energy

a. 4m above the ground?
b. 6m above the ground?
2. An object of mass of 6kg has a speed of 5m/s.

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a. What is its kinetic energy?
b. What is its kinetic energy if its speed is doubled?
3. A ball of mass 0.5kg has 100J of kinetic energy. What is the velocity of the ball?

ENERGY CONVERSIONS IN ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS

1. COAL POWER STATION
Coal is burnt to heat up water into steam. The kinetic energy of steam is used to turn the
turbinesof a generator hence producing electricity

2. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION

Water from high areas (e.g. waterfall, mountains, dams) has gravitational potential
energywhich is converted to kinetic energy as the water falls. The kinetic energy is used
to rotate the generator turbines providing electricity

3. GEO-THERMAL POWER STATION

Rocks under the earth in certain places heat up and water is pumped into these rocks to
boil it to steam. The steam is used to turn turbines hence producing electricity.

Other power staions are: Nuclear power station, Wind power station, etc.

Example:
1. a. What is the velocity of an object of mass 1kg which has kinetic energy of 200J?
Ke = ½ mv2
200J = ½ x 1kg x v2
v2 = 400m2/s2
v = √(400m2/s2)
v = 20 m/s

b. Calculate the PE of a 5kg mass when it is

i. 3m above the ground
PE = mgh
PE = 5kg x 3m x10N/kg
PE = 150J

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ii. 6m above the ground
PE = mgh
PE = 5kg x 10N/kg x 6m
PE = 300J

MAJOR SOURCES OF ENERGY IN BOTSWANA

ENERGY SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

SOURCE IMPACT
COAL (Morupule  Used for generating  Causes air pollution: CO2,
Power Station) electricity, cooking, SO2 and CO leading to
warming houses, greenhouse effect, global
boiling water warming leading to sea
 Sold for profit levels rising causing
 Source of employment floods
 Destroys landscape
FIREWOOD  Used for cooking,  Causes air pollution: CO2,
warming houses, SO2 and CO leading to
boiling water greenhouse effect, global
 Sold for profit warming leading to sea
 Cheap to obtain levels rising causing
 Source of employment floods
 Deforestation leading soil
erosion.
 Destroys landscape
SOLAR ENERGY  Used for warming
water, lighting,
charging car batteries
 Expensive to install but
cheap to use
 Solar companies make
profit
 Source of employment

POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done. It is also the rate at which energy is converted from
one form to another.
Work
Power =
time

Energy
Power=
time
W E
P= or P=
t t

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Fd
P=
t
The SI unit of Power is the WATT (W).
Power of 1 W is dissipated when a force of 1 N moves a body through a distance of 1 m in
1 s, or
Power of 1 W is dissipated when work is done at a rate of 1 J every second.
Example:
A car converts 10 000J of fuel to kinetic energy in 2 seconds. Calculate the power of the
car.
E
P=
t
10 000 J
P=
2s

P = 5 000 W

Exercise

1. A brick layer lifts 12 bricks each weighing 20N a vertical height of 1.2 m in 30s and
place them at rest on a wall. Calculate:
a. The work done,
b. The average power needed.
2. A block of mass 2kg slides from rest through a distance of 20m down a frictionless slope
as shown below.

What is the kinetic energy of the block at the bottom of the slope?

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Pressure

Pressure is the force exerted per unit area of a material.

Force
Pressure=
Area

F
P=
A

The SI unit of Pressure is the Pascal (Pa). A pressure of 1 Pa acts when a force of 1 N is exerted
on an area of 1 m2.

SOLIDS

A solid resting on a surface exerts a pressure equals to its weight divided by its area in contact
with the surface.

Example.

Find the pressure exerted by brick if it has a weight of 15 N

Area = 0.05 m x 0.05 m

Area = 0.0025 m2

10 cm

F
P=
A 5 cm
5 cm
15 N
P=
0.0025 m 2

P = 6 000 Pa

Note: if the brick above was turned on its side, the pressure would be less since the area of
contact would be greater while the weight remains the same.

LIQUIDS

Consider the area A at a depth h under the surface of a liquid of density ρ

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The force on area A is the weight of the column of the liquid above it.

F
P= but F = W = mg
A

mg
P= but m = ρv
A

ρvg
P= but v = Ah
A

ρAhg
P=
A

P=h ρg where P = pressure due to liquid Pa)

h = depth (m)

ρ = density of liquid in (kg/m3)

This equation shows that pressure due to the liquid does not depend on the area being
considered.

Example:

The pressure on the base of the two containers is the same since ρ, h and g are the same.
Likewise, the pressure of all the points marked x is the same since they are all at the same depth.

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NOTE:

a. At a point in a liquid, the pressure is the same in all directions,

b. To find the total pressure at a point in a liquid, one must add the pressure acting at the
surface of the liquid (atmospheric pressure).
Examples
a. What is the pressure due to the column of mercury (density = 13600 kg/m3) 760
mm high?
h = 0.76 m
ρ = 13600 kg/m3
g = 10 N/kg
P = hρg
P = 0.76m x 13600 kg/m3 x10 N/kg
P = 1.0 x 105 Pa.
b. To what depth must a diver descend in water for the pressure on him to be
doubled?
Atmospheric pressure = 1.0 x 105 Pa
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

P = hρg

h = (P/ρg)
h = (1.0 x 105 Pa)/(1000 kg/m3 x 10 N/kg)
h = 10 m

GASES

The pressure of a gas in container is the force of the rapidly moving particles acting on a unit
area of the walls of the container. Gas pressure is affected by a change in temperature or a
change in the volume of the container.

CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE

If the volume of the gas is kept constant and the temperature is increased, the gas particles gain
more kinetic energy. They therefore collide very vigorously with the walls of their container,
increasing the force exerted per unit area (Pressure).

Graph of Pressure against Temperature

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CHANGE IN THE VOLUME

A decrease in the container of a gas decreases the area in which the gas particles collide so the
force acting on unit area (pressure) is increased. Similarly, if the volume is increased, the surface
area is increased and so the pressure decreases.

Example.

A tank 4m long, 3m wide and 2m deep is filled to the brim with paraffin (density = 800 kg/m3)

a. Calculate the pressure on its base

P = hρg
P = 2m x 800kg/m3 x10N/kg
P = 16 000 Pa.

b. What is the thrust force on the base?

Volume of paraffin = lxwxh
V = 4 x 3x2 m3
V = 24 m3
Mass of paraffin = density x volume
M = 800 x 24 kg
M = 19 200 kg.

Therefore
Thrust Force = Weight
Force = mg
Force = 19200kg x10N/kg

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Force = 192 000 N

MANOMETER
A manometer is used to measure the pressure of gases or liquids. It is a U-shaped glass
tube filled with a liquid (mercury for example).

The gas or liquid pressure forces the manometer liquid (mercury)up the open side of the
tube until it remains steady. The pressure in mmHg (millimetres of mercury)is calculated
using the formula
Pressure = Difference + Atmospheric pressure
P = 40 mmHg + 760 mmHg
P = 800 mmHg.
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the volume if temperature
is kept constant.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The atmosphere is like a deep ocean of air which surrounds the Earth. This air exerts
pressure (atmospheric pressure) on bodies on or around the Earth.
Atmospheric Pressure
 Acts in all directions
 Gets less as one rides through it

EXPERIMENT

Bottle crushing

Boil water in an open bottle

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The steam drives out air.

Replace the stopper tightly

Cool down the bottle by pouring cold water over it.

OBSERVATION

The bottle crushes

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EXPLANATIUON

Cold water causes the steam to condense into water at low pressure (leaving some vacuum in the
bottle). Consequent to this, the atmospheric pressure outside the bottle forces the bottle to
collapse inwards.

USES OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

1. It is utilised when drinking through a straw

2. It is utilised when drawing a liquid from one container to another (like siphoning water)

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3. Used in vacuum pumps
4. Used in suction cap used for hanging rags

5.

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MEASURING ATMOSOHERIC
PRESSURE

Instruments used to measure

atmospheric pressure are called
BAROMETERS.

MERCURY BAROMETER

It is a glass tube sealed at one end all the air removed from it. The bowl is open to the
atmosphere and contains mercury.

With no air in the glass tube, there is nothing to stop the pressure of the atmosphere to push the
mercury up the tube. The mercury rises to a height such that the pressure it produces at point X
equals the atmospheric pressure. The height of the mercury column is measured in millimetre
scale. The higher the column, the greater the atmospheric pressure.

Tilting the glass tube does not affect the height of the mercury column, nor altering the width of
the tube.

PRESSURE AND WEATHER

Measurement of atmospheric pressure is always a good guide to future weather. i.e. steady rise in
atmospheric pressure predicts good weather, a rapid fall predicts bad weather. In weather
forecasts, the pressure map is drawn. Pressure readings are plotted on specific regions. Isobars
(lines joining areas of equal pressure) are then drawn in intervals of 4mb (millibars)

1b = 100kPa

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4mb = 4 x 10-3 b

The resulting weather pattern and other

weather readings show pressure situations which are then used to forecast future weather. e.g.
closely spaced isobars indicate a big pressure over a short distance.

Winds do not blow directly from a region of high pressure o a region of low pressure along
isobars. The rotation of the earth makes the winds to blow more or less along the isobars.

CYCLONE AND ANTICYCLONE

Cyclone (low): This is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than the average or
normal pressure. The lowest pressure is at the centre of the system. Cyclones are also called
depressions or lows (see fig above)

Winds blow spiralling inwards towards the low pressure centre.

Anticyclone (high): This is a region where the atmospheric pressure is higher than the average or
normal pressure. The pressure at the centre is higher than pressure in the surroundings.
Anticyclone is also called a high.

Winds blow or circulate round the high pressure centre spiralling outwards. Once an anticyclone
has formed it often does not move for several days and covers a wide area.

Exercise

1. What is the pressure 100 m below the surface of the sea? (Density of sea water = 1150
kg/m3)

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2. The pressure in the water pipe ground floor f a building is 4 x 105 Pa but three floors up
it is only 2 x 105 Pa. what is the height between the ground floor and the third floor.

GAS PRESSURE

Molecules of a gas are in continuous fast motion. As they move, they collide with each other
and with the walls of the container, exerting pressure on the walls. As the temperature rises,
the gas molecules move faster, the collisions become more violent and more frequent, hence
the pressure rises.

THE GAS LAWS

When dealing with a fixed mass of gas, there are always three factors to consider: pressure,
volume and temperature.

To study the relationship between the above factors, one is kept constant while the other two are
investigated.

Relationship between P and V (constant T)

i. Squashing the air warms it up. So before taking each reading, you have to wait a few
moments for air to return to its original temperature.
ii. The gauge measures pressure in the reservoir, but this is the same as in the tube because
the oil transmits the pressure.

Results Analysis

i. Results show that the relationship between pressure and volume is an inversely
proportional one.
ii. That is, - if volume halves, the pressure doubles etc.,
iii. P×V has the same value ( i.e. 10 000 in this case),
iv. PV = constant.
1
v. If P against V is plotted we get a straight line

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The finding can be expressed as a law:

For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional to the
volume.

This is known as Boyle’s law

1
Pα V
OR if pressure changes from
P1 to P2 , volume changes from V 1 to V 2 so that,

P1 V 1 =P2 V 2

E.g. a 10 cm3 container has an oxygen gas with pressure, 9 Pascals. If the volume is reduced to 2
cm3, how much pressure does the gas have?

P1 = 9 Pa P2 =?
V1 = 10cm3 V2 = 2cm3

P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V 1
P2 = V 2

9∗10
= 2

= 45 Pa

From kinetic theory, molecules are constantly striking and bouncing off the walls of the
container. The force of these impacts causes the pressure. If the volume is halved, as shown
below, there are twice as many molecules in each cubic meter. A gas that exactly obeys Boyle’s
law is called an ideal gas. Real gasses come close to this provided they have a low density, a
temperature well above their liquefying point, and are not full of water vapour. Unless these
conditions are met, attractions between molecules affect their behaviour. An ideal gas has no
attractions between its molecules.

Relationship between P and T (const. V)

The apparatus may be arranged as below in order to determine the relationship between pressure
and temperature.

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Conclusion

The graph if extended backward cuts through 0 k ( the behaviour of an ideal gas).

P1 P2
=
PαT OR T1 T2

o If kelvin temperature doubles, the pressure doubles etc.

P
=cons tan t
o T

These results are summed up by the pressure law:

For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to the kelvin
temperature.

Relationship between V and T ( P constant)

When dry air is heated and allowed to expand at constant pressure. An increase in the
temperature of a substance results in expansion. By expansion it means the volume increases.
This means the volume is directly proportional to temperature i.e.
V
Volume ( V ) α Temperature ( T ) hence T =constant
V V T T
OR if volume changes from 1 to 2 , temperature changes from 1 to 2 so that,

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
and this is kwon as Charles’s law:

For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to the kelvin
temperature.

Combined gas equation

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The three laws can be combined to give:

PV
=cons tant
T

P1 V 1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2

N.B: This is for a fixed mass of gas, and all variables change.

e.g. Some trapped air, of volume 4 cm3, has a pressure of 3 atm when its temperature is 27c.
What will its pressure be if it is compressed into half the volume and heated to 127c?

P1 = 3 atm P2 = ?

V1 = 4cm3 V2 = V1/2

T1 = (27+273) K T2 = (127+273) K
= 300 K = 400K

P1 V 1 P2 V 2 P V T
= P2 = 1 1 ∗ 2
T1 T2 > T1 V2

3∗4∗400
=300∗2

= 8 atm

Exercise:

1) How does the kinetic theory explain the following?

a) A gas exerts pressure on its container walls.
b) The pressure increases with temperature (assuming that the volume does not change).

2) According to the kinetic theory what is the pressure of an ideal gas at absolute zero? Why?

3) A gas in a fixed container is at a pressure of 4 atm and a temperature of 27 C. What will its
pressure be if it is heated to a temperature of 177C?

Absolute zero and kinetic theory

o According to the kinetic theory, if the temperature of a gas is reduced, the molecules
move more slowly.
o As a result they strike the container walls with less force, so the pressure drops
o Molecules almost stop moving at absolute zero, hence no pressure.

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o N.B. because of attractions between their molecules, real gases turn liquid before
absolute zero is reached.
o The volume-temperature and pressure-temperature graphs do not pass through the Celsius
temperature origin (0C). If they are produced backwards they cut the temperature axis at
about -273C. This temperature is called absolute zero because we believe it is the lowest
temperature possible. It is the zero of the absolute or Kelvin scale of temperature.
o Degrees on this scale are called Kelvin and are denoted by K. They are exactly the same
size as Celsius degrees. Since -273C = 0 K, conversions from C to K are made by
adding 273. For example
0C = 273 K
15C = 273+15 = 288 K

Kelvin temperatures are represented by the letter T and if θ stands for Celsius scale temperature
then, in general

T = 273 + θ
GAS LAWS-summary

BOYLE’S LAW

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if temperature is
kept constant.

1
P∝ → PV =constant
V
This means for a gas changing from an initial state 1 to final state 2 proportionality is maintained
such that;
P1 V 1 =P2 V 2
CHARLES’ LAW

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if
pressure is kept constant.

V
V ∝T → =constant
T
This means for a gas changing from an initial state 1 to final state 2 proportionality is maintained
such that;
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
PRESSURE LAW

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the
volume is kept constant.

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This means for a gas changing from an initial state 1 to final state 2 proportionality is maintained
such that;
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
COMBINED GAS LAW

If P, V, and T are all changing the above three equations can be combined to give the combined
gas law;
PV P V P V
=constant → 1 1 = 2 2
T T1 T2

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Thermal physics

Kinetic theory of matter

It has long been postulated that all matter is made up of discrete particles e.g. atoms, molecules,
etc. The kinetic theory of matter further postulate that these particles are always in fast random
motion.

Evidence for the kinetic theory

1. Brownian motion
When viewed under a microscope, pollen grains floating on water or smoke particles
suspended in air are found to move haphazardly in all directions. The observation can be
explained by considering that the pollen grains or smoke particles are bombarded by
molecules of water or air in fast random motion.

The light illuminates the smoke particles so that they can be seen through the microscope
moving in random paths as shown in diagram 2.
2. Diffusion
This is moving of fluids by the motion of their particles. It causes a phenomenon such as
the spreading of a smell throughout a room even when the air inside the room appears
still.
States of matter

Matter can exist in states, each of which has distinguishing properties. Kinetic theory proposes
that these properties can be explained by considering the:

c. Distance between the particles

d. Forces of attraction
e. Motion of the particles

A. Solids

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Generally they are incompressible and have a rigid structure and definite shape. These
properties can be explained by assuming that:
i. Particles are close together and have a fixed mean distance between them,
ii. There are strong attractive forces between particle (as shown by elasticity)
iii. The particles vibrate about a fixed position with energy dependent on
temperature.
B. Liquids
Generally they are incompressible, but they have no definite shape. Kinetic theory
postulates that:
i. Particles are a little further apart than in solids but the mean distance between
them does not change much
ii. There are attractive forces between (forces causing surface tension) but they are
much weaker than in solids,
iii. Particles are not in a fixed position but can move freely relative to one another.

C. Gases
They have no fixed shape or volume, they can be compressed and always fill the
container holding them. We consider that:
i. Particles are as far apart as the container allows,
ii. There are no forces between the particles except when they collide with each
other or the walls of the container,
iii. The particles are always in fast random motion.

Evaporation

This is the loss of more energetic particles from the surface of a liquid. A pure substance cannot
exist in liquid state above a certain temperature called boiling point. However, evaporation
occurs at all temperatures.

Evaporation versus Boiling

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a specific temperature
Occurs at any temperature
called boiling point
Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs at the surface of the liquid
Bubbles are formed No bubbles are formed

Evaporation and kinetic theory

Not all the particles in a liquid have the same amount of energy. The more energetic particles
close to the surface may escape from the liquid and move into the air in the vapour state, thus the
rate of evaporation is increased.

How to increase the rate of evaporation

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e. Increase in the surface area
This means that more of the energetic particles of the liquid are the surface and can
escape.
ii. Increase in temperature
An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the particles. This
means that more particles have enough energy to escape from the liquid.
iii. Decreasing the pressure above the liquid
Less energy is necessary to escape from the liquid since there is less force exerted
downwards on the liquid by the air.
iv. Draught (Wind current)
It blows away vapour molecules above the liquid surface preventing them from returning
to the liquid. This gives room for other molecules to escape from the liquid.

Cooling by evaporation

Evaporation requires latent heat which causes the liquid to cool e.g. perspiration cools down as
sweat removes heat from the body as it evaporates.

Cooling by evaporation can be explained by the kinetic theory of matter as follows:

Molecules which are more likely to escape are those with the most energy thus when a liquid
evaporates it loses energetic particles and so the average kinetic energy (temperature) of the
liquid decreases.

Experiment to demonstrate cooling by Evaporation

When air is blown through the ether (volatile spirit), the ether evaporates rapidly, acquiring heat
from the surroundings. Enough energy is drawn the film of water causing it to ice.

Applications of Evaporation

i. Perspiration

As we perspire, we lose latent heat and thus cool down

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THERMAL PHYSICS

Thermal Expansion

When matter is heated, the particles gain more kinetic energy and start moving more vigorously.
Forces of attraction between particles lessen and particles move apart. There is a general increase
in the volume (and decrease in density) of the body. This increase in the volume of the body is
called thermal expansion.

Expansion in Solids

Ball and Ring experiment

Before heating, the ball fits through the ring easily. After
heating, the ball does not fit in the ring, showing that the particles gained kinetic and moved
apart hence the solid expanded. When both the ball and ring are heated, the ball once again fits
through the ring showing that the internal diameter of the ring has also expanded.

Expansion in Liquids

Just like solids a liquid also expands or contract when heated or cooled. The diagram below can
be used to demonstrate expansion of liquids.

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Observation: When heat is applied there is a momentary drop in the level of the solution as flask
expands before the liquid can conduct heat. After a while the solution rises steadily as it expands
and rises through the capillary. When cooled the liquid contracts and occupy less space hence it
will drop back into the flask.

Expansion in Gases

Expansion of gases can be demonstrated by the following experimental set-up.

A round bottomed flask is filled with a solution of potassium per

manganate and then heated.

Observations: The level of potassium per manganate solution in the

tube goes down while the level of the solution in the beaker rises as
the solution is displaced by air. Eventually bubbles are seen as air
escapes through the solution.

Explanation: When air is heated it expands and occupies more space

thereby displacing the solution in the tube. This shows that air
expands as well. Note: When a cold cloth is placed over the flask, the
air contracts and occupies less space forcing the solution up into the tube.

Uses of Thermal Expansion

A. Bimetallic strip
A bimetallic strip is made of two equal lengths of different metal riveted together. The
two metals have varying linear rates of expansion.

When the bimetallic strip is heated

aluminium expands more than copper. To

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accommodate the extra length of aluminium the strip bends towards copper. When the
bimetallic strip is cooled (placing in liquid nitrogen at -196 oC), the metals contracts with
aluminium getting shorter than copper hence the strip bends towards aluminium.
Therefore, generally, a bimetallic strip always bends towards the less expanding metal
when heated and towards the more expanding one when cooled.

A thermostat is used to keep the temperature of an appliance or room constant, without getting
too hot or too cold. It uses a bimetallic strip as a temperature controlled switch.

Appliances which use a thermostat include electric iron, fire alarm, refridgerator, gas oven,
electric kettle

i. Electric iron
The temperature of an electric iron is
kept near-steady by the bimetallic strip
as it opens and closes the contacts with
temperature variations. As the base of
the electric iron gets hotter above the
temperature set by the control knob the
bimetallic strip bends downward and
breaks the contacts. When the
temperature drops, the strip cools and
contracts. It then goes back to its original position hence switching the electric current again.

Note: Brass expands more than iron so that the strip bends downwards to break open the circuit
when the temperature rises.

ii. Fire alarm

The bimetallic strip must bend and switch on the

circuit to sound the electric bell. Brass should
expand more than iron so that the strip bends
down. The bending should occur at a temperature
considerably higher than the average room
temperature to avoid false alarms.

B. Riveting

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A white–hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and its end
hammered flat and on cooling it contracts and pulls the
plate tightly together.

C. Shrink fitting
This is method to fit axles in gear wheel. An axle which is slightly too large to fit into the
gear wheel is cooled in liquid nitrogen. The axle contracts until it can easily fit into the
gear wheel. Then when the axle warms up later, it expands and this produces a very tight
fit between the wheel and the axle.

D. Liquid-in-glass thermometer
Mercury or alcohol expand when heated (or contract when cooled). This fact is used to
measure temperature.

E. Hot air balloon

Propane gas expands and becomes lighter when heated. It fills up a balloon which will
then because of the density difference between the propane inside and air outside will rise
upwards and fly around.

Everyday consequences of thermal expansion

1. Gaps on bridges and roads

Bridges are often made of steel bars that get longer when it is hot. There must be expansion gaps
in the road at the end of a bridge. Bridges are usually put on rollers to allow for easy movement
during expansion and contraction.

Roads are often

made of concrete
slabs hat expand and
contract too. There
are expansion gaps
between the slabs

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filled with a soft substance that can be squeezed easily in hot
weather as the slabs expand.

2. Electrical and power lines

When they are laid, the wires are hung slightly slack (loose) to allow for safe contraction
in winter or on cold nights without pulling the poles down or the wire snapping
(breaking). If they are put up in summer, they are tightened up a bit so that they do not
become too loose (slack) when they expand in summer or during the day.

3. Railway lines
When railway tracks were laid with the ends of individual rails closely and firmly fixed
together with no gaps between, expansion made the tracks buckle.To allow for expansion
and avoid destruction, gaps are left between the end of one rail and the next.

The rails are tapered at each end, then each end overlaps with the end of the next rail.
As the rails expand or contract their ends slide over one another.
4). Tyre bursting
Tyre bursts are more common during very hot days. They are caused by the excessive
expansion of air inside the tyre.

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5). Water pipe bursts
This is due to expansion of water as it freezes.
6). Creaking noises in the roofs of buildings
These are caused when the corrugated iron sheets slide over each other as they expand or
contract.
7). Freezing of water in the car radiators
Car radiator should have anti-freeze added to it to lower the freezing point of water.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. Thermometers are
devices which are used to measure temperature. Any physical property that depends on
temperature can be used to measure temperature. e.g.

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1. Change in length of a solid conductor
2. Change in volume of a liquid
3. Change in the pressure of a gas
4. Change in the resistance of an electrical conductor
5. Change in colour of substance

Calibrating a Thermometer

The Celsius scale thermometer has got two fixed points.

It has the lower fixed point which is the temperature of pure melting ice and is equivalent to 0°C.
It also has the upper fixed point which is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water
which is 100°C.

To calibrate a thermometer, the fixed points are first found. The lower fixed point is found by
putting the thermometer in pure melting ice. The thermometric liquid will rise (or drop) to a
certain level. When it has stabilized at that level, mark its level. The marked point is 0 °C.

thermometer

The upper fixed point is found by putting the thermometer in steam above pure boiling water.
The thermometric liquid will rise to a certain level which is marked upon stabilizing. The marked
point is 100 °C.

The distance between the two fixed points is then divided into 100 equal divisions, each division
being equivalent to 1°C.

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Liquid in glass thermometer

It has a bulb filled with thermometric liquid e.g. alcohol or mercury. The liquid should expand
when temperature rises and contract when temperature falls. The liquid should be:

a. Sensitive:- it should expand and contract rapidly by a large degree upon a small change in
temperature. Another way of making the sensitivity increase is to make the capillary tube
thinner.
b. The liquid should rise at the same rate per each increase in temperature
c. The liquid should expand and contract over a wide range of temperature without boiling
or freezing.

Laboratory Thermometer

Range: -10 °C to 110°C

Thermometric liquid: mercury or alcohol

Accuracy: accurate to the nearest whole number of degrees Celsius (1°C)

Clinical Thermometer

Range: 35 °C to 42 °C

Thermometric liquid: Mercury

Accuracy: 0.1 °C

Special feature: it has a constriction. The constriction allows the user to take a reading after the
thermometer has been removed from the patient’s body. The mercury thread breaks at the
constriction and flows back into the bulb.The mercury above the constriction remains intact and
allows the user to take a reading. After taking a reading, the thermometer is flicked over and this
allows the mercury above the constriction to return to the bulb.

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WAVES

A wave is a disturbance or an oscillation or a vibration that carries energy through matter from
one place to another without transferring matter itself.

There are two types of waves, namely;

 Longitudinal wave
 Transverse wave

Longitudinal wave

It is a wave in which the direction of vibration of the particles is parallel or along the direction of
wave propagation or wave travel. The particles vibrate back and forth along the direction of
wave travel. Compressions and rarefactions are formed. An example of longitudinal wave is the
sound wave.

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Transverse wave

It is a wave in which the direction of vibration of the particles is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation or wave travel. The particles vibrate up and down, at right angles to the
direction of wave travel. Crests and troughs are formed. Examples of transverse wave are water
waves and light.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WAVES

Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of a particle from the undisturbed or rest position. It
is measured in metre, cm, mm, km etc.

Wavelength (λ):

 It is the distance covered by one complete wave.

 It is also the distance between any two successive crests or troughs.
 It is the distance between the centre of one rarefaction and the centre of the next
rarefaction
 It is the distance between the centre of one compression and the centre of the next
compression.

It is measured in metres, cm, mm, km, etc.

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Frequency (f): it is the number of complete waves generated per second. The SI unit of
frequency is the HERTZ (Hz).

Speed / Velocity (v): this is the distance travelled by a wave per unit time it is measured in m/s,
cm/s, mm/s, etc.

Velocity is given by the relation:

Velocity = frequency x wavelength

v = fλ This is called the wave equation.

Period (T): this is the time taken to generate one complete wave. It is measured in seconds (s).

1 1
T = and f = ..
f T

Type equation here .

EXERCISE
Study the graph below and answer questions that follow

Determine:
a. The amplitude

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b. The frequency

c. The period of the wave

d. The speed if the wavelength is 0.

Wavefronts
These are parallel lines drawn to show the position of crests of waves. The lines either
straight for straight waves or circular for circular waves.

Sound waves
Sound is produced by any vibrating material, e.g. violin, drums, guitars, vocal chords,
tuning forks, etc. sound is an example of a longitudinal wave.
Audible frequency or limit of audibility
Human beings can hear things vibrating at frequencies between 20 Hz and 20000 Hz
(20kHz). This range of frequencies is known as the audible range or limit of audibility.

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The lower audible limit (20Hz) increase as one ages while the upper limit (20kHz)
decreases with age.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies below 20Hz are called infrasonic sounds or infrasounds.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sounds or ultrasounds.
Some animals such as dogs, cats, bats, dolphins, etc. can hear these frequencies while the
human beings cannot.

Some animals like elephants can actually hear infrasounds and even communicate
infrasonically.

Uses of Ultrasounds

a. Ultrasonic scanners: they are used to observe the development of the growing embryo
b. Ultrasonic Sonars (Sound NAvigation Ranging): they are used to determine the depth
of water bodies (e.g. seas and oceans). They are also used in mineral exploration.
c. Echolocation: bats and dolphins use ultrasounds to navigation their routes. They also
use them to locate their prey and predators.
d. Cleaning: ultrasonic sounds are used to clean delicate machinery and street light
covers without necessarily dismantling them. The machinery is placed in water
containing ultrasonic vibrators and they vibrate and dislodge dirt in the process.

Speed of sound

Sound has different speeds in different media.

Medium Speed of sound (m/s)

Air 330
Water 1500
Steel 6000

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Generally, sound travels faster in solids than liquids and gases.

DETERMINING THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

1. Echo Method
o Stand a known distance next to a cliff
o Shout into air and simultaneously switch on the stopwatch
o Upon hearing the echo (reflected sound) switch off the stopwatch
o Record the time taken by sound to move from you to the cliff and back.
o Divide the distance by the time
Speed = distance / (Time/2)

s = 2d/t

2. Gun Method

Two experimenters A and B stand a known distance away from each other.

o Experimenter A fires the gun into air

o When experimenter B sees the spark or sees the smoke at the tip experimenter A’s
gun he switches on the stopwatch
o When experimenter B hears the sound of the gun he switches off stopwatch
o The speed of sound in air is then calculated by dividing the distance by time

s = d/t

musical notes

Pitch: the pitch of a musical note depends on the frequency and wavelength. The higher
the frequency, the higher the pitch, and the lower the frequency the lower the pitch. (the
shorter the wavelength the higher the pitch, the longer the wavelength the lower the pitch.
Loudness: the loudness of a musical note depends on the amplitude. The larger the
amplitude, the higher the loudness, and the smaller the amplitude the lower the loudness.

Quality / Timbre: this is how pure a musical note is. A note of a single frequency is very
pure. The quality of a musical note is affected by multiple reflections (reverberations) and
multiple frequencies (overtones).

Acoustics: these are the characteristics of a building in relation to sound. Old halls and
cathedrals are poorly designed and have multiple reflections. This affects their acoustics.

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To improve acoustics of a building, use sound absorbing material like carpeting the floor,
putting curtains, using soft seats, etc.

Light

REFRACTION

Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from medium to another. Light bends because it
changes speed. Light travels at different speeds in different media. E. g. speed of light in air or
vacuum is 3x108 m/s while in glass it is only 2x108 m/s.

Experiment

Aim: To study refraction in glass

Apparatus: rectangular glass block, raybox, plain sheet of paper, drawing board, drawing pins,
power supply

Procedure:

a. Place the glass block at the centre of the plain sheet of paper
b. Draw the outline of the glass block (A,B,C,D)
c. Make a ray of light incident at an angle to the normal i.e. 30o and mark two
positions on the emergent ray on the CD side of the block

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d. Remove the glass block and draw a line joining the points
e. Draw a normal to the line and measure the angles

Observations

a. When a ray of light leaves a less dense medium and enters a more dense medium
it is refracted towards the normal.
b. When a ray of light leaves a more dense medium and enters a less dense medium
it is refracted away from the normal.
c. A ray of light incident along the normal is not refracted
d. The incident ray and the emergent ray are parallel for a parallel-sided glass prism.

REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

It is defined by the formula:

speed of light ∈a vacuum∨air

n=
speed of light ∈a material

e.g. for glass it is:

300 000 000 m/ s
n=
200 000 000 m/ s

n = 1.5

NB: it does not have units because it is a ratio.

Refractive index is also given by the relation:

sine of angle of incidence (i)

n=
sine of angle of refraction (r )

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sin i
n=
sin r

From the experiment, i = 30°, r = 20°

sin i
n=
sin r

sin 30
n=
sin 20

n = 1.46

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

Objects under transparent media such as water, paraffin, glass, etc. normally appear to be
shallower than they actually are. This is because rays of light bend away from the normal when
they leave a more dense medium. The eye traces the rays back to a virtual image which is
shallower than the real object. The shallower depth is called the apparent depth while the actual
or real depth is called the real depth.

The refractive index can also be calculated as:

real depth
n=
apparent depth

Fish in Pond

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TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

CRITICAL ANGLE

This is the angle of incidence which gives an angle of refraction of 90°. When it is exceeded, a
ray of light undergoes total internal reflection.

EXPERIMENT

AIM: To study total internal reflection in glass

APPARATUS: semi-circular glass prism, raybox, plain paper, power supply

PROCEDURE:

a. Place a semi-circular glass prism at the centre of the blank sheet of paper
b. Draw its outline AOBN, where O is the centre ON is the normal on the AB side
c. Make a ray of light incident at an angle, say 30°, to the normal towards the centre O

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OBSERVATIONS

a. When the angle of incidence (i) is less than the critical angle (c), [i<¿c],

Two rays are observed: A feint reflected ray and a refracted ray

b. When the angle of incidence (i) is equals to the critical angle (c), [i=c ],

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Two rays are observed: a reflected ray and a refracted ray perpendicular to the normal

c. When the angle of incidence (i) is greater than the critical angle (c), [i>c],

One ray is observed: only one reflected ray is observed. The ray is said to have
undergone total internal reflection

For the critical angle, the refractive index is given as:

sin 90
n=
sin C
But Sin 90º = 1

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1
n=
sin C

1
C = sin-1( )
n

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

MIRAGES.
They are common in hot days and deserts. They look like a pool of water on a long
stretch of road. This is caused by the hot layers of air near the surface and the cooler and
denser layers of air higher up.
A ray of light from the sun is gradually refracted away from the normal as it passes a
dense layer of air near the ground to a less dense layer. Eventually it meets a hot layer
near the ground at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle and suffers total
internal reflection.
The eye sees the ray to be coming from an image which looks like a puddle of water on
the road.

USES OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

a. PERISCOPE
A periscope gives a better picture than plane mirrors because it does not undergo
multiple reflections.

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b. Endoscope
They are thin flexible glass rods which channel a ray of light by total internal
reflection to see the internal organs of the body.

c. Reflectors
The rear reflectors on cars, bicycles and along roadside contain lots of tiny prisms.
These use total internal reflection to send light back in the opposite direction

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d. Crystals
They sparkle because they trap light inside by total internal reflection

e. Communications
Speech and other electronic messages can be converted to light and other
electromagnetic impulses and then transmitted along optical fibres e.g. in telescopes.
Optical fibres have several advantages over copper wires:
 They carry signals over long distances without need for amplification
 They are not disrupted by landmasses like microwaves
 Disturbed signals can be easily restored to their original quality unlike
electrical signals.

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LENSES

They are commonly used in optical instruments. They are of two types.

 Concave
 Convex

CONCAVE LENS

It is thinner at the centre and causes parallel rays of light to diverge hence it is sometimes
referred to as the DIVERGING LENS. It forms a virtual image which is diminished and behind
the lens

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CONVEX LENS

It is thicker at the centre and causes parallel rays of light to converge hence it is sometimes
referred to as the CONVERGING LENS. It forms a real image which is smaller or large in front
of the lens

TERMINOLOGIES

The optical centre of a lens L is the point midway between the lens surfaces on its principal axis.
Rays passing through the optical centre are not deviated.

The principal axis of a lens is the line passing through the optical centre which is perpendicular
to the lens.

The principal focus OR Focal Point F of a converging lens is the point to which all rays incident
parallel to the principal axis converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real.

The principal focus OR Focal Point F of a diverging lens is the point from which all rays incident
parallel to the principal axis appear to converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is virtual.

The focal length f of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the principal focus.

NB A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the lens. When drawing ray diagrams
the principal focus F is marked on both side of the principal axis.

DETERMINING THE FOCAL POINT

 Focus a distant object e.g. a window on the screen using a convex lens. Since parallel
rays of light from a distant object are parallel to each other, the distance between the lens
and the image (screen) would approximately be the focal length of the lens.

When the focal length is known, the following three (3) rays can be drawn:

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a. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis (F) which is refracted through the first
principal focus

b. A ray of light that passes through the optical centre

and is not refracted

c. A ray of light that passes through the first principal axis and is refracted parallel to the
principal axis

ALL RAYS COMBINED

CHARACTERISTICS

NB:

 For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on the object. In reality rays are from
every different on the object.
 Only two rays are needed to fix where the image is.
 For simplicity, rays are shown bending at the line through the middle of the lens. In
reality, bending takes place at each surface.

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Images formed by converging lens

Object O, uses Ray diagram Image i

a) o between F and L

i) virtual

i)magnifying glass ii)erect

ii)instrument eye piece iii)magnified

iii)Spectacles correction iv)on same side of

for long-sightedness lens as O and
further away

b) O at F

Produces a parallel beam

of light as in a spot light
with lamp at O. At infinity

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c) O between F and 2F i) real

ii) inverted

i) projector iii) magnified

ii) microscope objective iv) on opposite

lens side of lens to O,
beyond 2F.

i) real

d) O at 2F ii) inverted

iii) Same size as O.

Camera making equal iv) on opposite

size copies side of the lens to
O, at 2F.

e) O beyond 2F i) real

ii) inverted

i) camera iii) diminished

ii) the eye iv) on opposite

side of lens,
between F and 2F.

This is diagram c)
reversed.

f) O at infinity i) real

ii) inverted

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Objective lens of a iii) diminished
telescope.
iv) on opposite
side of lens at F.

This is diagram b)
reversed

MAGNIFICATION (M)

Magnification is the ratio of the size (height) of image to the size (height) of object?

size of image
magnification=
sizeof object

Linear magnification can have a value less 1 when the image is diminished, equal to 1 when the
object and image are the same size or greater than 1 when the image is magnified.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. They are formed when magnetic and electric fields
cut at right angles to each other.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 They are all transverse waves,
 They all travel at the speed of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s),
 They all travel in a vacuum and other media,
 They all obey the wave equation (c = fλ),
 They transfer energy from one place to another.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SUMMARY

Name of Origin Source Detection Properties Uses

Wave

Energy Radioactive Geiger- Most Examining

changes in sources e.g. Müller tube, penetrative, can materials for
the nuclei of uranium photographic penetrate solids, faults in
atoms film cause cell industry,
Gamma mutation, can sterilizing
ray destroy body medical
cells equipment and
food

High energy X-ray tube photographic Can affect a Radiography,

changes in film photographic treatment of
the electron film, can cancer,
X-ray structure of penetrate solids, inspecting metal
an atom can cause castings and
cancer welded joints for
faults

Fairly high Sun, sparks, photographic Make Sterilizing

energy mercury film fluorescent materials, helps
changes in lamps, very substances the body
Ultra the electron hot bodies glow, causes manufacture
violet structure of etc. sun tan, can vitamin D, used
atoms damage eyes for detective
work in forensic

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science

Energy Sun, flames, photographic Can affect a Used in the

changes in objects above film photographic operation of
Visible the electron red-hot film, causes optical
light structure of temperatures sensation of instruments,
an atom sight vision, etc.

Low energy All bodies photographic Has a warming Treating muscle

changes in above the film effect, found complaints, dry
the electron absolute beyond the car paint during
Infra-red structure of temperature visible red manufacture,
atoms colour of the taking pictures
spectrum in darkness

Electronic Radio Radio Short Radio

oscillations transmitting receiving wavelength communication,
in electric aerials signals radio waves cooking in
Radio circuits have a warming microwave
waves effect when ovens.
absorbed, long
wavelength
radio waves can
be reflected by
the ionosphere
Radio waves
The range of radio wavelengths is very wide, extending from about 1 cm to hundreds of
kilometres. Various parts of the radio wave spectrum have distinctive uses and well known
names such as microwaves, and VHF radio. Within the radio wave part of the E-M spectrum we
find another family of waves.
Micro waves
Microwaves have the shortest wavelengths in the radio wave family, being typically a few
centimetres. The microwaves used in microwave ovens of frequency 2450MHz and wavelength
12 cm can produce heating effect like infra-red radiation.
They are used particularly for communication. Radio links between satellites and ground stations
usually use microwaves. Radar systems use microwaves to find the direction and distance of
objects which reflect microwaves.

Ultra High Frequency UHF

Radio waves of frequency about 109Hz or 1GHz are called UHF radio waves. Television pictures
are transmitted as modulated radio waves of this frequency. They are detected by an aerial of
length equal to a quarter of this wavelength.

Very High Frequency radio waves VHF

These radio waves have a typical wavelength of about 3 metres and a typical frequency of about
108 Hz or 100 MHz. Radio waves using frequency modulation system of carrying sound waves
use this range of frequencies.

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Short wave radio waves
These waves occupy the same part of the radio wave spectrum. The different name is usually
used to indicate that the radio waves are amplitude modulated, AM.

Medium wave
Medium wave radio wave uses a frequency typically about 106 Hz or 1MHz. They are received
over much longer distances where direct reception is not possible because of the curvature of the
earth.

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Magnetism

Permanent magnets

Permanent magnets do not readily lose their magnetism with normal treatment. The first magnets
were made of steel (an alloy of iron).

a. Alloy Magnets contain metals, e.g iron, nickel, copper, cobalt, aluminium. They have
trade names such as Alnico and Alcomax
b. Ceramic Magnets are made from compounds called ferrites which consist of iron oxide
and barium oxide. They are brittle. One has the trade name Magnadur.

Properties of Magnets

a. Ferromagnetic and Non-ferromagnetic Materials

Materials which are attracted to magnets are called ferromagnetic materials. These
include iron, steel, cobalt, nickel and their alloys. Materials which are not attracted to
magnets are called non-ferromagnetic materials. Examples are sodium, wood, plastic etc

b. Magnetic Poles
The magnetic force of a bar magnet is strongest at the ends. These ends are known as
magnetic poles. If a bar magnet is suspended with a thin thread so that it can easily swing
freely in a horizontal plane, it comes to rest with one pole called the north seeking pole or
north pole or N-pole pointing towards the earth’s north pole and the other pole, called the
south seeking pole or the south pole or S-pole pointing towards the earth’s south pole.
c. Attraction and Repulsion
If a North Pole of a bar magnet is brought near a north pole of another magnet, repulsion
occurs. Similarly, a south pole and a south pole repel. However, a north pole and a south
attract. Therefore: LIKE POLES REPEL, UNLIKE POLES ATTRACT. (The law of
magnetic poles).

d. Induced Poles
When an iron nail and a steel nail are brought near a pole of a magnet, they are attracted
to the magnet and they get magnetized. The magnet is said to have induced magnetism
into the nails. Other nails can now be attracted to the induced magnets nails) and will
make a chain of iron nails and a chain of steel nails. Iron nails make a longer chain than
steel chain. The pole of the induced magnet attracted to the permanent magnet is an
unlike pole to the one attracting it.

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If both chains are removed at the same time by pulling the top nails from the permanent
magnet, the iron chain collapses immediately while the steel chain hold on for some time.

Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials

a. Soft Magnetic Materials
These are materials which are easy to magnetise and easy to demagnetise. e.g.
iron. They are used to make electromagnets which are used in scrap yards.
b. Hard Magnetic Materials
These are materials which are hard to magnetise and hard to demagnetise, e.g.
steel. They are used to make permanent magnets.

Magnetisation methods

a. Induced Magnetism
A magnetic material becomes a magnet by being attracted to a permanent magnet
b. Stroking
A steel bar is stroked with a permanent magnet several times in one direction. The pole
produced at the end of a stroke is always opposite to the stroking pole.

c. Solenoid Carrying Direct Current (dc)

The magnetic material to be magnetised is placed in a coil of wire carrying direct current
(solenoid).

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The polarity of the new magnet is predicted by using the right hand grip rule. The coil is
gripped such that the fingers point in the direction of the current and the finger will point
in the direction of the North Pole.

Demagnetisation methods

a. Heating
b. Hammering, Dropping, Hitting
c. Solenoid carrying alternating current

Magnetic theory

Magnetic materials are believed to be made of tiny magnets or molecular magnets. In a non-
ferromagnetic material, these magnets are in random order, their magnetism cancels out.

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In ferromagnetic materials, the molecular magnets are arranged in groups called domains. In
each domain the molecular magnets lie in one direction but the direction of the domains differ
for an unmagnetised material.

Domains of a magnetised material are in one direction.

Demagnetisation occurs when the domains of a magnetic material vibrate and lose their
alignment.

Magnetic saturation

When all the molecular magnets of a magnet are aligned in one direction, the material is said to
be magnetically saturated.

When the material is magnetically saturated, the magnetic force cannot be made stronger any
further.

Magnetic field

It is an area around a magnet where its magnetic force acts.

Magnetic field direction

It is the direction of a magnetic force that acts on a free north pole placed at any point in a field.

Detecting Magnetic field of a magnet

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A. Iron filings
These are sprinkled over a blank sheet over a bar magnet. The filings are arranged in a
pattern showing the magnetic field.

B. Plotting compass
A compass is placed near the end of a magnet.
The position at the end of a compass needle is
marked by a dot. The compass is moved such that its needle lines up with the previous
dot.

NB: Magnetic field lines run parallel to each other. They always run from North Pole to South

Pole.

Magnetic Field lines around a single bar magnet

Field lines of like poles (north and north)

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Field lines of like poles (south and south)

Point X is called the neutral point. Magnetic field cancels out at this point and any material
placed here will not experience a magnetic force.

Field lines of unlike poles

Magnetic keepers

The magnetic field of a magnet leaks over a period of time. Eventually the magnet will lose its
magnetism. To keep the strength of magnets for a long time we store them with soft iron keepers
across their poles.

If two magnets are placed side by side there will be mutual repulsion or attraction. This weakens
the strength of the magnet. To prevent this, bar magnets are placed side by side with opposite
poles near. A soft iron piece called a keeper is placed across the poles as shown in figure. This
soft iron piece provides a path for the magnetic field lines to form a continuous loop. Thus it
helps in preserving the magnetic field.

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Magnetism is induced in the soft iron and so a closed loop of magnetic material is formed in
which the magnetic dipole link up in closed chains.

Magnetic shielding or screening

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A magnetic material (e.g. iron ring) is used to protect a sensitive instrument from magnetic field
lines. The instrument is said to be shielded or screened from an external field.

Uses of magnets

 A magnet is used to reset the metal index in a maximum and minimum thermometer
 Freezer and refrigerator doors are fitted with a magnetic strip to keep the door closed,
 Magnetic ink is used on cheques so that bank machines can read the cheque number,
account number and the amount of money paid and automatically feed the information
into the bank’s computer.
 Magnetic tapes
 Magnetic detectors

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

a) The magnetic relay

When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, current flows through the electromagnet. This
pulls the iron armature towards it, which closes the contacts C. As a result the current flows
through the motor.

b) The circuit breaker

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A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a circuit if this rises above a
specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse but, unlike a fuse, can be reset after it has tripped.

In the type shown here, the current flows through two contacts and also through an
electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of the electromagnet becomes strong enough
to release the iron catch, so the contacts open and stop the current. Pressing the reset button
closes the contacts again.

c) Electric bell

An electric bell contains an electromagnet that

repeatedly switches itself off and on rapidly,
moving the bell hammer as it does so. The
arrangement is called a ‘make or break’ circuit. When you press the switch, current flows
through the electromagnet, which pulls the hammer across so that it strikes the gong. The
movement separates the contacts and switches off the electromagnet. So the hammer springs
back, the contacts close, the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again….. and so on.

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Similarities and Differences between permanent magnets and electromagnets

Similarities

 Each produce a magnetic field

 Each has a North Pole and South Pole

Differences

 Electromagnets can be turned ‘on’ and ‘off’ while permanent magnets are always ‘on’
 Electromagnets are made from soft magnetic material e.g. iron while permanent magnets
are made from hard magnetic materials e.g. steel
 Electromagnets require electrical power while permanent magnets do not need power.
 Strength of an electromagnet can be varied but that of a permanent cannot.

Making an electromagnet stronger

 Increase the number of turns of the wire

 Increase the current

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Electrostatics

Electrostatics deals with stationery (i.e. not moving) charges. Charge is measured in Coulombs
(C). There are two types of charges: proton (Positive) and Electron (Negative). Charges may
either be lost or gained. When an object loses electrons it becomes positively charged and when
an object gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.

When a positive charge and a negative charge are brought close to each other, they attract and
when two positive charges are brought close to each other they repel. By the same token, two
negative charges close to each other repel. Therefore, like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Charging by Rubbing

Insulators are charged electrostatically by rubbing. Electrons are either lost or gained. Polythene
and rubber become negatively charged whereas acetate and glass become positively charged
when rubbed. Conductors like copper cannot be charged by rubbing unless they are held an
insulator. Their charge flows out quickly.

Charging by Induction

Conductors are charged by induction. Electrostatic induction is whereby charges on an object

are charged with objects near them.

Bring a charged strip near the sphere and earth it by touching it with a finger. The electrons flow
out leaving the sphere with a positive charge.

Separation of charges (Separation Method)

Bring a charged strip near two metal spheres that are in contact with each other. Physically
separate the two spheres while the charged strip is in place so that they charged (one positive and
the other negative).

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The gold leaf electroscope

It is an instrument used to detect charges

When a polythene rod is brought near but not touching the metal cap, the cap is deflected away
from the metal plate.

The leaf is deflected because the negatively charged polythene rod repels electrons to the metal
plate and gold leaf. The plate and the leaf are both negatively charged so repel each other.

When an acetate rod is brought near but not touching the metal cap, the cap is deflected away
from the metal plate.

The leaf is deflected because the positively charged acetate rod attracts electrons from the metal
plate and gold leaf. The plate and the leaf are both positively charged so repel each other.

When the rod is removed from the cap the leaf collapses immediately because the charge goes
back to the cap.

Lightning and lightning conductor

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Lightning is caused by charged clouds. A lightning conductor is used to protect buildings, people
and their property against lightning strikes. It has a copper strip with spikes at the top. Charge is
concentrated in the spikes. The strip is connected to a metal plate underground.

If a negatively charged cloud passes near a building it repels the electrons in the copper strip to
the Earth leaving the spies with a positive charge. Electrons from the surrounding air will be
attracted to the spikes leaving the air molecules with a positive charge. An ‘electric wind’ is
created that rushes the positively charged air molecules to the cloud to neutralize it.

If lightning does strike, it will be less violent than it would have been had there been no
conductor. The spikes will conduct the charges and provide an easy passage for the charges to
the earth.

Electricity

Electrical circuit symbols

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Parallel and Series Connections

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Electric field

It is an area around a charged object where the electrostatic force of the object is effective or a
region on which an electric charge experiences an electric force.

The force is strongest near the charged object and weakens as one move further away from the
charged object. The electric field is represented by lines of a force. These lines start at a positive
charge and end at a negative charge. The field lines are parallel, they never touch.

Examples

Electric field of point positive and negative charges

Interaction of Unlike and Like

charges

Attraction
repulsion

Unlike charges like charges

Below are two parallel electrodes with unlike charges, the arrows show the direction of the
electric field. When the electric fields lines are closer it shows a stronger electric field.

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Electric current

Electric current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charges

electric charge (Q)

Current (I) =
time(t)

Q
I=
t

where I = current in Amperes (A)

Q = charge in Coulombs (C)

t = time in seconds (s)

The S.I unit of current is the Ampere (A). The instrument used to measure current is the ammeter
and its circuit symbol is

The ammeter measures current through a device therefore it is always connected in series with
other circuit components.

Electromotive force (emf)

This is the energy supplied by the source of electric power in driving a unit charge round the
circuit. The S.I unit of emf is the Volt (V). The instrument used to measure electromotive force is
the voltmeter and its circuit symbol is

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The voltmeter measures electromotive force across a device therefore it is always connected in
parallel with other circuit components.

Potential difference (pd)

It is the work done in driving unit charge around a circuit. It is also called voltage and is
measured in volts using a voltmeter.

Resistance (R)

It is the opposition to flow of electric current. The S.I is the OHM (Ω)

Voltage(V )
Resistance (R) =
Current (I )

V
R=
I

Examples:

1. Calculate the current that flows through a device if a charge of 12.0 C is dissipated every
10 s.

I=? Q = 12.0 C t = 10 s

Q
I=
t

12.0C
I=
10 s

I = 1.2 A

2. A current of 5.0 A flows when a heater is connected to 12 V mains supply. What is the
resistance of the heater?
I = 5A V = 12V R =?

V
R=
I

12V
R=
5A

R = 2.4 Ω

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Resistivity (ρ)

The resistance of a wire of a certain material:

 Increases with increasing length (l)

 Increases with decreasing cross-sectional area (A)

A long thin wire will have higher resistance than a short thick wire. Therefore, resistance is
directly proportional to the length.

1
i.e Rα l Rα
A

l
R= ρ
A

Where R = resistance in Ohms (Ω)

l = length in metres (m)

ρ = resistivity in Ohm-metres (Ωm)

exercise

1. How long does a charge of 90 C drive a current of 15 A around a complete circuit?

I = 15 A Q = 90 C t=?

Q
I=
t

Q
t=
I

90 C
t= t = 6.0 s
15 A

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2. A heater is connected to 220 V mains supply. A charge of 900C flow in 2 minutes.
Calculate the resistance of the heater.
V = 220 V t = 120 s Q = 900C
Q 900 C
I= I= I = 7.5 A
t 120 s

V 220V
R= R= R = 29.3 Ω
I 7.5 A

3. A power supply provides a radio with p.d of 12 Vfor 5 s. If the resistance of the radio is
6Ω, calculate the charge dissipated.
V = 12V t = 5s R = 6Ω Q =?
V V
R= I=
I R
12V
I= I = 2A
6Ω
Q = It
Q = 2A*5s
Q = 10 C

4. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire 100m of diameter 1.0 x 10-3m if the resistivity of
the copper wire is 1.7x 10-8Ωm
A =πr2

A=π (0.003 m 2
2 ) A = 7.85x 10-7m2

R=

100 m
R= 1.7x 10-8x
A

R = 2.16Ω

5. What charge is delivered if a current of 10 A flows for 5 seconds?

6. When a kettle is plugged into 230 V mains, the current through its element is 10A.
a. Calculate the resistance of the element.
b. Calculate the charge dissipated by the element in 5 minutes.
7. What are the SI units of the following?
a. Charge
b. Potential difference
c. Resistance
d. Electromotive force
8.

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Ohm’s law

Aim: To measure resistance using ammeter-voltmeter method

Apparatus: Ammeter, voltmeter, power supply, resistor, rheostat, connecting wires

Procedure

1. Connect the circuit as shown above

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2. Alter the rheostat to change the voltage and the current
3. Record the corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for six (6) times to obtain seven sets of readings
5. Record your results in an appropriate manner
6. Plot a graph of voltage (V/V) against current (I/A)

VOLTAGE V/V CURRENT I/A RESITANCE R/ Ω

0.9 0.08
1.3 0.12
1.6 0.16
2.2 0.23
2.7 0.27
3.1 0.31

y 2− y 1
7. Calculate the gradient of the graph given by G = . The gradient gives the
x 2−x 1
resistance.

8. Draw conclusion from the results.

Conclusion

When a graph of voltage against current is plotted, a straight line is obtained. This is true for all
metallic conductors and some alloys. The straight line can be explained by Ohm’s lawwhich
states that:

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“Current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across its ends
provided that temperature and other conditions are kept constant.”

V/V

I/A

Conductors which obey Ohm’s law are also known as OHMIC CONDUCTORS.

Non-ohmic conductors

Semi-conductors

It has low resistance when connected in one way and high resistance when connected in reverse.
Rise in temperature increases resistance.

I/A

V/V

Filament lamp

The resistance of a filament lamp increases with increasing current. This is because increasing
current increases temperature in a filament.

I/A

V/V
Thermistor

An increase in current (I) increases temperature and decreases resistance of a thermistor.

I/A

V/V

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Resistor

A resistor is a device of known or fixed resistance

Symbol

Resistors in series

R1 R2 R3

RT = R1 + R2 + R3+…+ Rn

Example

Find the total resistance of the following resistors in series

R T = R1 + R2 + R3
7Ω 2Ω 2Ω
RT = 7Ω+ 2Ω+2Ω

RT = 11Ω

Resistors in parallel

The inverse of the total resistance (1/RT) is the sum of the inverses of the resistances of all the
resistors

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In general the effective resistance of resistors in parallel is given by;
1 1 1 1
= + + .. .. . ..
R
R R 1 2 R N

R-1 = ( 42Ωx 4Ω)

Ω +2Ω

(R-1)-1 = (6/8)-1Ω

R= ( 2Ω +4 Ω )
4 Ωx 2 Ω

R = 1.33Ω

CONNECT THE CIRCUIT AS SHOWN BELOW AND MEASURE CURRENT FROM THE
SOURCE, CURRENT THROUGH LAMPS 1, 2, 3 AND CURRENT TO THE SOURCE.

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IA = 0.6 A

I1 = 0.6 A

I2 = 0.6 A

I3 = 0.6 A

IB = 0.6 A

CONCLUSION: CURRENT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT IS THE SAME AT EVERY POINT. IA =

I1 = I2 = I3 = IB

VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

CONNECT THE CIRCUIT AS SHOWN BELOW AND MEASURE VOLTAGE FROM THE
SOURCE, VOLTAGE ACROSS LAMPS 1, 2 AND 3

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V = 4.2V

V1 = 1.3 V

V2 = 1.3 V

V3 = 1.3 V

CONCLUSION: THE SUM OF VOLTAGES ACROSS EACH COMPONENT EQUALS THE

VOLTAGE FROM THE SOURCE.

V = V1+ V2+ V3

CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

CONNECT THE CIRCUIT AS SHOWN BELOW AND MEASURE CURRENT FROM THE
SOURCE, CURRENT THROUGH LAMPS 1, 2 AND CURRENT TO THE SOURCE.

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IA = 0.50 A

IB = 0.50 A

I1 = 0.25 A

I2 = 0.25 A

CONCLUSION: THE SUM OF CURRENTS AT THE BRANCHES EQUALS CURRENT

FROM THE SOURCE AND TO THE SOURCE.

VOLTAGE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

CONNECT THE CIRCUIT AS SHOWN BELOW AND MEASURE VOLTAGE FROM THE
SOURCE, VOLTAGE ACROSS LAMPS 1 AND LAMP 2.

V = 3.4 V

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V1 = 3.4 V

V2 = 3.4 V

CONCLUSION: THE VOLTAGE IS THE SAME AT EVERY BRANCH IN A PARALLEL

CIRCUIT

V = V1 = V 2

EXERCISE

1. WHAT IS THE READING AT METER X?

2. WHAT IS THE READING AT METERS Y AND Z?

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3. Study the circuit below and answer questions that follow.

a. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit

b. Calculate the current from the source
c. What is the voltage across the 4 Ω resistor
d. What is the voltage across the 7 Ω resistor
e. What is the current through the 12 Ω resistor

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USES OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity in Heating

Electrical energy can be converted to heat energy in appliances such as electric heater, kettle,
laundry iron, hair tongs, toasters, electric blanket, vacuum cleaner, hot wire cutter, etc.

Most appliances have an element made from nichrome wire. Nichrome does not oxidise and
become brittle when current makes it red hot.

a. Electric Kettle: The element is well insulated and put in a metal tube. This prevents the
element from getting in contact with water which can make the water live therefore
dangerous.
b. Electric Heater: It has an element wound round some rods. The radiation it emits is
directed into the room by polished (shiny) reflectors.
c. Laundry Iron: The element is made flat to present a large surface area to heat the side of
the iron. It is insulated to prevent it from being in contact with the side of the iron.

ELECTRICITY IN LIGHTING

a. Filament lamp: the filament lamp is a small coil of tungsten wire which becomes white
hot when current flows through it. Tungsten is used because it has high melting point.
The bulb is filled with nitrogen and argon gases (hot air)to reduce evaporation of tungsten
which would otherwise condense on bulb and blacken it.
b. Fluorescent Strip: It is a glass tube filled with mercury vapour and fluorescent powder.
When the lamp is switched on, the mercury vapour emits ultraviolet radiation which
fluoresces (glows) the fluorescent powder giving visible light.

ELECTRICITY IN MACHINES

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It is used in industry machines such as: drilling machines, printing machines, grinding
machines, ice machines, circular saws, etc.

ELECTRICITY IN SECURITY

It can be used in security systems like alarms, electric fence, cameras, laser beams, motion
sensors, security lights

ELECTRICITY IN INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY

In communication, electricity is used in appliances such as telephones, cellular phones,

radios, intercoms, public address system, TV, etc.

Electrical energy

We define voltage as:

Voltage = Energy/Charge

V = E/Q. therefore, E = VQ but Q =It

.’. E = VIt. Where E = Electrical energy

V = Voltage in Volts (V)

I = current in Amperes (A)

t = time in seconds (s)

Electrical power

Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted from one form to another.

Power = Energy / time

P = E/t but E = VIt

P = (VIt)/t

P = VI

Example: An electric kettle connected to 230V mains supply draws a current of 10 A.

Calculate:

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a. The power of the kettle

P = VI

P = 230V x 10 A

P = 2300 W

b. The energy transferred by the kettle in 2 minutes.

E = VIt
E = 230V x 10A x 120s
E = 276 000 J

Buying electricity
In buying electricity, energy is calculated or given in KILOWATT-HOURS (kWh). The
kilowatt-hour is the energy used by a 1kW appliance in one hour.
E = VIt
E = (VI) t where VI = P
E (KWh) = P (KW) x t (hr)
Example:
Tebogo uses a music system rated 500 W for 10 hours a day. Calculate the cost of
electricity paid by Tebogo in 30 days. In Botswana, 1 kWh costs P0.70 (February 2015).
E = Pt.
E = 0.5 kW x 10h = 5 kWh
In 30 days the energy is 5 kWh x 30 = 180 kWh
Cost = E x Rate
Cost = 180 kWh x P0.70/kWh
Cost = P126.00

The Fuse

A fuse is a short length of wire made from a metal with low melting point, often tinned copper.

Circuit symbol

A fuse is used to protect electrical appliances against high currents. When a current that is too
high for a device passes through the device, the fuse melts and breaks the circuit.

Fuse rating

The rating of a fuse is the maximum current it can carry without melting. Fuse ratings are 3A,
5A, 13A, 30A, etc.

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Exercise:
1. Mr. Pence connects a fridge rated 500W, a light bulb rated 200W and a TV rated
600W for 24 hours a day. After 30 days, calculate the cost of electricity used by Mr.
Pence if the cost of electricity is 70 thebe per Kilowatt-hour.
2. An electric fan is rated 1250 W and is connected to 240 V supply. Calculate:
a. The current through the fan
b. The energy dissipated by the fan in 10 minutes
c. The cost of electricity if the fan is used for 5 hours a day for 30 days. (1 KwH
= P0.70)
d. Which of the following fuses will be suitable for the fan to operate maximally
i. 3A
ii. 5A
iii. 13A
iv. 30A

DANGERS ASSOCIATED WITH CARELSS USE OF ELECTRICITY

 Touching electrical appliances with wet hands

 Uninsulated electrical cables/wires
 Unfused appliances
 Overloaded sockets
 Long exposed cables
 Poking electrical sockets with objects especially metals
 Replacing bulbs and other appliances with the POWER on.
 Electrical sockets and switches in the bathrooms

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN WHEN USING ELECTRICITY

 Do not touch electrical appliances with wet hands

 Make sure electrical cables/wires are insulated
 Fuse appliances
 Do not overloaded sockets
 No long exposed cables
 Do not poke electrical sockets with objects especially metals
 Do not replace bulbs and other appliances with the POWER on.
 No electrical sockets and switches in the bathrooms

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Example:

An electric fan is rated 1250 W and is connected to a 240 V supply. Calculate:

a. The current through the fan

I = P/V
I = 1250 W / 240 V
I = 5.2 A
b. The energy dissipated by the fan in 10 minutes.
E = Pt
E = 1250W x 600s

c. The cost of electricity if the fan is used for 5 hours for 31 days. (1 kwh = P0.65).
E = Pt
E = 1.250 Kwh x (5x31)h
E = 193.75 KWh
Cost = 193.75 KWh x P0.65 /KWh
Cost = P125.94
d. Which of the following fuses is suitable for the fan if it is to operate maximally?
A. 3 A
B. 5 A
C. 13 A
D. 30 A

Electricity at home

Electricity comes to our homes by means of two cables containing two wires: the neutral (N)
wire which is blue in colour. It is earthed at the sub-station and is less dangerous, and the live (L)
which is brown in colour. It is not earthed and carries alternating current (a.c.) and is very
dangerous.

In our homes the ring main circuit has the third wire, the earth (E) wire which is yellow/green in
colour. It is for safety. It carries current from the body of metal appliances to the ground when
there is an electrical fault. It goes out of the house through waterpipes to the ground.

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The earth is always connected to the metal casing of an appliance.

Main switch:It switches on/off all the circuits in the house. It should be switched off whenever
there is danger. Switches and circuit breakers are always in the live wire because if they were in
the neutral wire, switches and power circuits will be live when switches are off and fuses blown.

Double insulation

An appliancewhich is double insulatedhas the whole of the inside contained in plastic,

underneath an outer casing.

If anything goes wrong with the appliance, no live conductor can touch the outer casing because
of the insulating plastic.
Appliances which are double insulated include electric drills and hairdryers.
The symbol for double insulation is shown below.

Wiring a plug
The power point of the ring main circuit uses a three pinned plug. In wiring a plug, the earth wire
is at the top, the live wire is on the right connected to the fuse and the blue neutral wire on the
left.

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Diagnostic steps taken when there is an electric fault

 Switch off all appliances

 Pull down the main switch
 Check fuses (and replace if necessary)
 If the problem persists, call an electrician.

Electromagnetism

Connect a straight piece of wire to a sensitive meter (galvanometer).

fig.55.1 page 245

i. Move wire across a strong magnetic field.

ii. Move the wire along the field lines
iii. Hold the wire motionless in the field

OBSERVATIONS

i. When the wire cuts across the magnetic field lines there is a deflection
ii. When the wire cuts across the field lines in one direction, the deflection is in the other
direction

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iii. When the wire is held motionless in the field, there is no deflection
iv. When the wire moves along the field, there is no deflection

EXPERIMENT 2

Connect the coil of wire of a large number of turns to a galvanometer

i. Move a bar magnet into the coil

ii. Hold the magnet motionless in the coil
iii. Pull the magnet out of the coil
iv. Move the magnet quickly in and out of the coil

OBSERVATIONS

i. Moving the magnet into the coil causes the galvanometer to deflect in one direction
and in the opposite direction when the magnet is pulled out
ii. When the magnet is motionless, there is no deflection
iii. Increasing the speed of the magnet increases the deflection

Experiments show that induced magnetism increase with:

 The speed of motion of magnet or coil

 Number of windings (turn) of the coil
 Strength of the magnet

This can be summed up by Faraday’s law which states:

“The amount of potential difference (p.d) induced is directly proportional to the rate at which the
conductor cut across the magnetic field lines”.

Lenz’s law

Lenz’s law explains the direction of the induced current. It states:

“The direction of the induced current is so as to oppose the change causing it”.

When the magnet goes into the coil, the direction of the current is as if to repel the magnet.
When the magnet is withdrawn, the direction of current is reversed as if to attract the magnet
back into the coil.

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FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

The direction of current can be predicted using FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE as shown in
the diagram below.

pg 246, fig. 55.4

Hold the thumb, first finger and second finger such that they are at right angles to each other,
then;

 thuMb points in the direction of the motion of the wire

 First finger points in the direction of magnetic field,
 seCond finger points in the direction of current.

THE SIMPLE A.C. GENERATOR

The alternating current (a.c.) generator consists of a rectangular coil of wire that rotates between
the poles of a U-shaped magnet.

The coil is connected to slip rings which rub against carbon brushes. The brushes conduct away
the induced current to an external circuit. As the coil rotates inside the magnet, it cuts across the
magnetic field and the voltage is induced in it.

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fig. 55.5a, page 246

When the coil is in vertical position, with side “AB” in the uppermost position, the sides of the
coil are moving along the magnetic field lines and the induced voltage is zero (0V).

During the first quarter rotation, the p.d increases from 0V to maximum when the coil is
horizontal. The sides “AB” and “CD” are cutting the field at maximum rate.

In the second quarter rotation, p.d decreases from maximum to 0V when the coil is vertical with
side “CD” in the uppermost position.

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During the second half of the rotation, the induced p.d follows the same path as that in the first
half except that the direction of the p.d is reversed because the motion of “AB” is directed
upwards and “CD” downwards.

Fig.55.5b. page 246

Transformers

If two coils are side by side and the current in one coil changes, a voltage will be induced in
another coil. This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION.

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The voltage and the current are induced in the secondary coil because the change in the current
in the primary coil produces a changing magnetic field which cuts across the secondary coil.

The induction is used in transformers. A soft iron core is inserted in the coils to boost the
magnetic field of the coils.

A transformer transforms (changes) a.c voltage from one value to another.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

It changes voltage from a high value to a low value. It has more number of turns in the primary
coil than in the secondary coil.

Vp ˃ Vs

Np ˃ Ns

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STEP UP TRANSFORMER

It steps up the voltage from a low value to a high value. Voltage in the primary is less than the
voltage in the secondary coil and has more number of turns in the secondary coil.

Vp ˂ Vs

Np ˂ Ns

The induced voltage can be calculated using the equation:

secondary voltage secondary number of turns

=
primary voltage primary number of turns

Vs Ns
=
Vp Np

For 100% efficiency, power in the primary coil should equal power in the secondary coil.

Power in primary = Power in secondary

Pp = Ps

But Power = Voltage x Current

P = VI

VsIs = VpIp

The efficiency of real transformer is less than 100%. There are two reasons for this:

 The energy is lost in the form of heat in the primary and secondary coils and in the soft
iron core.
 There is a leakage of magnetic flux. Not all the magnetic flux produced by the primary
coil is linked to the secondary coil.

In order to increase the efficiency of a transformer, it should have:

 Low resistance (thicker) copper wire for primary and secondary coils so that the
heating effect is reduced,
 Primary and secondary coils wound on the same part of the soft iron core to reduce
leakage of magnetic flux.

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Causes of energy loss in transformers

The windings of copper wire have resistance which leads to energy loss in the form of heat as
current passes through them.

 Eddy currents
o These are currents induced in the soft iron core. Eddy currents cause energy loss
through heat. However, eddy currents can be reduced by laminating the core
made of sheets insulated from each other to have high resistance
 Leakage of Field lines
o Not all the field lines produced in the primary coil cut across the secondary coil
and thus leakage of some of the field lines occurs.
 Power loss in the Cables
o Electric power is normally transmitted over long distances. The resistance of a
wire increases with increasing length hence there will be power loss which is
proportional to the resistance of the wire and the square of the current. The power
is lost as heat in the cables
o P = VI but V= IR
o P = (IR)I
o P = I2R

To minimize power loss in the cables, HIGH VOLTAGE LOW CURRENT transmission is used.
Transformers are used to step up voltage from the power stations to about 350KV. The power is
transported in cables supported by pylons. At heavy industries, the power is stepped down to
about 33kV and to about 11kV at light industries, and coming to our homes and schools it is
stepped further down to about 240V.

WAVES

A wave is a disturbance or an oscillation or a vibration that carries energy through matter from
one place to another without transferring matter itself.

There are two types of waves, namely;

 Longitudinal wave
 Transverse wave

Longitudinal wave

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It is a wave in which the direction of vibration of the particles is parallel or along the direction of
wave propagation or wave travel. The particles vibrate back and forth along the direction of
wave travel. Compressions and rarefactions are formed. An example of longitudinal wave is the
sound wave.

Transverse wave

It is a wave in which the direction of vibration of the particles is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation or wave travel. The particles vibrate up and down, at right angles to the
direction of wave travel. Crests and troughs are formed. Examples of transverse wave are water
waves and light.

General properties of waves

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a. Amplitude (a): it is the maximum displacement of a particle from the rest or undisturbed
position. It is measured in metres (m).

b. Wavelength (λ):

i. it is the distance covered by one complete wave

ii.it is the distance between two successive crests or troughs
iii.
it is the distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions
iv.it is the distance between the centre of one compression and the centre of the next
compression
v. it is the distance between the centre of one rarefaction and the centre of the next
rarefaction

c. Frequency (f): it is the number of complete waves generated per second. It is measured in
HERTZ (Hz).
d. Speed / Velocity (v): it is the distance covered by a wave per unit time. It is measured in
metre per second (m/s). velocity of a wave is given by the relation:
Velocity = frequency x wavelength
v =fλ. This is called wave the wave equation
e. Period (T): it is the time taken to generate one complete wave. It is measured in seconds
(s)
1
T=
f
1
f=
T

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EXERCISE
Study the graph below and answer questions that follow

Determine:
a. The amplitude

b. The frequency

c. The period of the wave

d. The speed if the wavelength is 0.2m

Wavefronts
These are parallel lines drawn to show the position of crests of waves. The lines are either
straight for straight waves or circular for circular waves.

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Sound waves
Sound is produced by any vibrating material, e.g. violin, drums, guitars, vocal chords,
tuning forks, etc. sound is an example of a longitudinal wave.
Audible frequency or limit of audibility
Human beings can hear things vibrating at frequencies between 20 Hz and 20000 Hz
(20kHz). This range of frequencies is known as the audible range or limit of audibility.

The lower audible limit (20Hz) increase as one ages while the upper limit (20 kHz)
decreases with age.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies below 20Hz are called infrasonic sounds or infrasounds.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sounds or ultrasounds.
Some animals such as dogs, cats, bats, dolphins, etc. can hear these frequencies while the
human beings cannot.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies below 20Hz are called infrasonic sounds or infrasounds.

Some animals like elephants can actually hear infrasounds and even communicate
infrasonically.

Uses of Ultrasounds

a. Ultrasonic scanners: they are used to observe the development of the growing embryo
b. Ultrasonic Sonars (Sound NAvigation Ranging): they are used to determine the depth
of water bodies (e.g. seas and oceans). They are also used in mineral exploration.

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c. Echolocation: bats and dolphins use ultrasounds to navigation their routes. They also
use them to locate their prey.
d. Cleaning:

Radioactivity

It is a process in which certain elements emit ionizing radiation. These elements are said to be
radioactive, e.g. Uranium (238U), Radium (226Ra), Plutonium (239Pu) and Strontium (90Sr). When
these sources emit radiation, they are said to be undergoing radioactive decay.

Radioactive Decay: the disintegration of a radioactive nucleus into constituent nuclei

accompanied by radioactive radiation emission.

Facts about Radioactivity

Exposure to this radiation is a health hazard as kills living cells. In the laboratory, weak sources
are used and they must be:

i). handled carefully using forceps

ii). Directed away from the eyes

Sources can emit Alpha, Beta particles and Gamma rays. Radium (226Ra) emits all the three. A
Geiger- Mũller (GM) Tube can be used to detect the three radioactive emissions.

ALPHA () PARTICLE EMISSION

4
o It is a helium atom that has lost two electrons ( 2 He 2+)
o It is the least energetic and the heaviest of the three
o It is the most ionizing radiation
o It has less penetrating power

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o it is stopped by a thick sheet of paper
o it can be deflected by an electric field.
o Plutonium (239Pu) and Americium (24Am) are pure alpha ray emitters
o In a cloud chamber, alpha particles leave thick tracks showing that they have the most
ionizing effect due to their heavy mass

BETA (β) PARTICLE EMISSION

0
o They are high energy electrons (−1 β) ∴ negatively charged
o They are more energetic than alpha particle ∴ more penetrating
o Stopped by a few mm of Aluminium (Al) metal
o Can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
o Less ionizing than alpha particles
o Strontium (90Sr) is a pure Beta ray emitter
o In a cloud chamber beta leave thin tracks showing that their ionizing power is less than
that of alpha particles as they are light in mass

GAMMA (γ) RAY EMISSION

o This is just emission electromagnetic energy ∴ no charge

o Least ionizing of the three as there is almost no mass
o Most energetic ∴ most penetrating
o Stopped by few cm of lead (Pb) metal
o Cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields since they are not charged.
o Cobalt (60Co) is a pure gamma ray emitter
o They knock off all electrons from the air in a cloud chamber. The electrons in turn leave
tracks similar to those of beta rays

USES OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

INDUSTRY

o Used in the thickness gauge that controls the thickness of metal, paper/ plastic sheets
o Used as tracers for detecting leakages in water pipes

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AGRICULTURE

o Tracer elements to study/observe the uptake of water by crops

MEDICINE

o Cobalt (60Co) used cancer treatment

ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

o Uranium is used as a fuel in power station that produce electricity by nuclear fission

DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY

Beta and gamma rays are the most dangerous

i). Short Term Effects

o Large doses can cause instant death (atomic bombs)

o Small doses can cause radiation burns

ii). Long Term Effects

o Gene mutation that result in babies born with physical defects

o Small doses can cause eye cataracts and cancer and “slow death/vegetation”

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HALF LIFE OF A RADIOCTIVE ELEMENT

This is the time it takes for half the number of the radioactive nuclei to decay. Some half-lives
are long while others are short. E.g. radium has a half life of 1600 years, carbon-14 has half-life
5730 years, thorium has half-life of 52 seconds and uranium-238 has half-life of 4500 million
years.

Some more examples

Nuclide Half-life
Uranium-235 7 x 108 years
Radium-226 1620 years
Sodium-24 15 hours
Radon-220 52 s
Polonium-212 3 x 10-7 seconds

Examples

1. How long will 2g of radium sample take to decay to 0.5g? Radium has a half life of 1600
years.
Sol

1
2 *2g = 1g (1600 years)

1
2 * 1g = 0.5g (1600 years) ∴ it takes 3200 years.

1
2. Find the number of years it would take a carbon-14 sample to decay to 8 of its original
number of atoms. (let x be original number of atoms)

Sol

1 1
2 *x takes 5730 years ( 2 )

1 1 1
2 *( 2 * x) takes another 5730 years ( 4 )

1 1 1 1
2 *( 2 * 2 *x) takes 5730 years ( 8 )
This takes three (3) half-lives ∴ its 3 x 5730 years = 17190 years.

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3. A sample of thorium gas undergoes radioactive decay. If the radioactive mass is 64g,
what will be the radioactive mass left after 208 seconds? (Half-life of thorium is 52
seconds).

1
2 * 64g = 32g => this takes 52 seconds.
1
2 * 32g = 16g => this takes 52 seconds. (104s later)
1
2 * 16g = 8g => this takes 52 seconds. (156s later)
1
2 * 8g = 4g => this takes 52 seconds. (208s later)

Only 4g will be left.

DECAY CURVE

dN
Decay Rate = dt .

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The decay rate decreases as time passes. It shows the activity of an isotope.

SAFE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE

It can be safely disposed of by enclosing it in a lead container and burying it deep underground.
Throwing it in the ocean is a risk because some radioactive isotopes have long live. Another
problem is it cannot be ‘treated’ like other wastes.

THE NUCLEUS

This is the central part of an atom. It comprises of neutrons and protons. Together they are called
nucleons. Both particles have the same mass but protons are positively charged whereas neutrons
have no charge.

PROTON NUMBER

The number of protons in the nucleus is usually equals to the number of electrons in a neutral
atom. It is the atomic number, it is denoted Z.

NUCLEON NUMBER

This is the mass number: the number protons and neutrons added together, it is denoted A. A
A
representation of an atom showing its mass number and proton number is called a nuclide ( Z X )

ISOTOPE

It is an atom of an element that occurs more than once with different mass numbers but same
proton number.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

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Radioactive decay occurs when a nucleus breaks down / disintegrates into smaller nuclei. These
nuclei (daughters) are more stable than the larger (parent) nucleus.

ALPHA DECAY

238 234
92 U 90 Th + 42 He

226 4
88 Ra 222
86 Rn + 2 He

BETA DECAY

14 14
6C 7 N + −10 β

90 0
38 Sr 90
39 Y + −1 β

GAMMA is always released after the emission of an alpha or beta particle. The radiation is given
off when the nucleus comes out of the excited state to a ground state by emitting a photon.

NUCLEAR FISSION

This is where a nucleus splits into two or more constituent nuclei also called daughter nuclei.
235 1 144
E.g. 92 U +0n 56 Ba + 90 1
36 Kr + 2 0 n + Energy

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At the start, a single neutron is introduced to begin the reaction. From there on, the number of
neutrons keeps on increasing as each neutron reaction causes the production of another by
nuclear reaction.

This results in chain reaction which sometimes needs to be controlled by absorbing the neutrons
using boron rods.

NUCLEAR FUSION

This is joining together light nuclei.

2
1 H + 31 H 4
2 He + 10 n

For this process to start, very high temperatures are required (approximately 100 million ˚C).

NOTE:

Nuclear fission produces a lot of heat energy than nuclear fusion

Nuclear fission is used as a start up to nuclear fusion
A certain amount of mass is lost during these processes. It is the mass that causes
energy release.
E = mc2

The advantage of nuclear reactions is that a large amount of heat energy is

produced from very small amounts nuclear fuel.
Major disadvantage is that nuclear waste is very dangerous

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Radioact
ivity
(Discovered by French scientist Henri Becquerel and later developed by his students Pierre and
Marie Curie)

The nucleus of an atom is usually very stable; however there are some atoms which have
unstable nuclei, which throw out particles (energetic particles) to make the nucleus more stable.
This process is called radioactivity (The spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei).

Types of Radiation

o Alpha particle (-particle)

Fast moving particles emitted by unstable nuclei, these particles are helium nuclei.

o Beta particle (β – particle)

Very fast-moving electrons that are ejected from nucleus of unstable atom.

o Gamma-ray (γ-ray)
High - energy electromagnetic wave with short wavelength.

Examples of Radioactive material

Uranium, Thorium, Actinium, Neptunium, Cobalt-60, Carbon-14 etc.

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Properties of Emissions

Emissions Nature Mass Char Ionisatio Penetration Speed Stopped Range Deflecti Deflecti
ge n power by in air on in on in
magnetic Electric
field field
Alpha
particle Helium
nuclei 4 5% of Very
(- +ve strong weak paper 5-8 cm strong
4 2+ units C small
particle) 2 He

Beta
particle 1 3- Thin 500 –
Electron
(β – 1840 -ve medium medium 99% aluminiu 1000 Large medium
beam
article) units C m cm

Gamma-
Electro- No Thick Virtuall
ray
magnetic Nil char weak strong C lead y None None
(γ-ray)
wave ge sheet infinite

Deflection in Electric and magnetic Fields

A. Electric Field
Radium +ve plate
source + + + + + + + +
β – particle
Lead γ-ray
Block
_ _ _ -particle
_ _ _ _ _ _
-ve plate

NB:

-particle follows a parabolic path and deflects towards the negative plate.

β-particle move towards a positive plate following a parabolic plate.

γ-ray is not deflected by electric field because they have no charge

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B. Magnetic Field

N Magnet

Radium -particle
source
Lead
γ-ray
Block

β – particle

NB:

-particle is massive as compared to a lighter β-particle, therefore it has a small deflection,

while alpha is easily deflected hence deflected more.

γ-ray cannot be deflected by a magnetic field because it carries no charge.

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Detection Methods of Radiations

The 3-emissions cause ionisation in air to various degrees. Alpha particle produces high
ionisation, beta particle produces less ionisation and gamma ray produces weak ionisation. These
effects are used in various instruments for detecting radioactivity.

Instruments: Electroscope, Cloud chamber, Geiger-Muller tube

The Geiger-Muller tube (GM-tube)

aluminum

+ve anode 450V

radiation + + + + + +
-ve cathode
_ _ _ _ _ _
amplifier

Very thin mica

window
To Counter

A metal tube is filled with argon under low pressure, inside the tube there is a thin anode wire. A
potential difference of 450 V is applied between the inside and outside of the tube. When alpha,
beta or gamma radiation enters the tube argon atoms inside is ionised. These ions are then
attracted to the electrodes in the tube so a small current flows. This current is then amplified and
a counter can be used to count number of particles entering the tube.

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Background Radiation

Background radiation is low-level ionising radiation that is emitted by certain rocks, buildings
and cosmic rays. These may contain radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium and
potassium. Fortunately the level of background radiation does not cause serious health risk

The background count must always be deducted when measuring the activity from a specific
source.

Uses of radioactive materials

There are used in; medicine, agriculture, geology, archaeology and engineering.

A. Medicine
o Radioactive Tracers
Iodine -131 is used to check thyroid glands

Sodium -24 is used in the diagnosis of circulation problems.

o Gamma radiation are used to sterilise hospital equipment ( e.g. syringes, and
surgeon’s instrument)
o Cobalt - 60 emits gamma radiation is used to treat cancer.
B. Agriculture
o Phosphorus-32 is used to trace absorption of phosphates in plants.
o Gamma radiation is used to prolong shelf-life of food and to encourage mutations
in crops( GMF)
C. Industry
o Tracers are used to search for wear in machineries, leakages and lubrication
problems.
o Beta radiation can be used to monitor the thickness of paper sheet or aluminium
o Machines which automatically fill containers use radiations to stop flow of liquids
or powder.
D. Radioactive Dating ( Archaeology)
o Carbon-dating uses carbon-14 to determine the ages of wood, bones, cloth, seeds
found at sites of historical importance e.g. Tsodilo hills and ruins in Zimbabwe
o Argon-40 decays can determine the age of rocks, the greater the mass of argon-40
in the rock the older the rock.

Dangers of Radioactive materials

o Exposure to high doses

This can cause death, kill body cells in the gut and marrow, skin burns and affects
the normal function of the body.

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o Moderate doses (may not kill)
May cause cancer, hair loses and kill body cells.

o Low does ( less dangerous)

Increases chances of getting cancer, leukaemia can damage human genes leading
to mutations.

Precautions when using radioactive sources in schools

o Always store the sources in a lead-lined box, under lock and key, when not used.
o Always handle sources using tongs, holding the sources at arm’s length and
pointing it away from any bystander.
o Always work quickly and methodically with sources to minimise the dose to the
user.

Safer disposal of radioactive waste

Radioactive wastes come from uranium mines, nuclear power stations, hospitals and research
laboratories. It must be disposed of in a safe place where there is no health hazard. Waste with
long half-life can pollute the environment for future generations. They must be disposed of
safely or stored in concrete lead-lined containers.

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