GCSE PHYSICS

mA

V
45
Name:

vibration generator
(connected to signal
generator)

Practical Handbook
VERSION 2022-1
Compiled by Demetris Demetriou 2017, updated 2022

Includes material adapted from:

 AQA
 Institute of Physics
 Training courses
 Nuffield Foundation
Specified Practical work Date Completed
Density
Density of a regular object

Density of: a liquid, an irregularly shaped solid

Electricity
How does the arrangement of resistors in series
and in parallel affect resistance?
Effect of length of wire on resistance

I-V characteristics of electrical components

The characteristic of a lamp

The characteristic of a diode

The characteristic of a resistor

Specific Heat Capacity

Measuring the specific heat capacity of a metal
by an electrical method
Thermal Insulation
Investigating the effectiveness of different
materials as thermal insulators
Factors that may affect the thermal
insulation properties of a material
Force and Extension
Investigate the relationship between force
and extension of a spring.
Investigation of the relationship between force and acceleration
How are force, mass and acceleration related?

Investigating waves in a ripple tank and waves in a stretched string

Observing water waves in a ripple tank

Observing waves on a stretched string or elastic cord

Investigating the reflection and refraction of light

Investigate the reflection of light by different
types of surfaces
Investigate the refraction of light by different
substances.
Investigating the emission and absorption of infra-red radiation by different surfaces
Investigating the amount of IR radiation radiated
from different surfaces.

1
2
3
Resolution

Resolution = ± ____________ Resolution = ± ____________

Resolution = ± ____________ Resolution = ± ____________

Precise versus Accurate

A measurement result is considered accurate if it is close to the true/accepted value.
Precise results are clustered together. You can only determine if your results are precise by
repeating the measurement.

Error versus Uncertainty

Error in a measurement refers to the difference between the measurement and the true/accepted
value.
Uncertainty refers to an interval within which the true value can be expected to lie.
Analogue apparatus typically have an uncertainty of ± half the smallest graduation BUT if taking a
measurement that requires you to set the zero value then the uncertainty is ± smallest graduation.
The uncertainty of the digital apparatus is ± the resolution of the apparatus.

Systematic error versus Random error

A systematic error is due to the measured value differing from the true value by the same
amount each time. A systematic error does not affect precision, as it is the same error each time.
A zero error is when the measuring device indicates a value when the quantity being
measured is zero. A zero error is a systematic error.
Random error is due to small uncontrollable effects and is always present in a measurement.
Calculating the mean for repeat measurements can reduce the effect of random error.

4
Range – Uncertainty – Percentage Uncertainty

In Maths the range is the difference between the biggest and smallest value of a variable.

For repeated readings, ignore ay anomalous data points (outlier) and find the range.
uncertainty = ½ range
You can reasonably claim the value to be mean ± uncertainty

Significant Figures and Units

Raw data – record in a table to the resolution of the instrument, units must appear in headings.
Calculated values – give final answers to the same number of significant figures as the data with the
least number of significant figures.

Measuring Length
If > 5 cm: use a ruler graduated in mm and record all raw data to the nearest mm e.g. 15.0 cm
If < 5 cm: can use vernier calipers (typical resolution 0.1 mm)
If < 0.5 cm: can use a micrometer (typical resolution 0.01 mm)

In both cases before using check for a zero error.

To reduce random errors and check for uniformity, repeat readings and find the mean.
When measuring the diameter of a wire (cylinder) do so at several points and orientations.

Vernier scale = 106 +

8
10
= 106.8 mm
mm
Main scale

Close the gap between the anvil and the spindle of the micrometer using the ratchet and not
the thimble (manual micrometer only) to avoid the object being measured to be distorted.

The resolution on the

micrometer scale is
0.5 ÷ 50 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 mm

0.5
9.5 +15 × = 9.65 mm
50

The resolution of the main scale on

the micrometer screw gauge is 0.5 mm
5
Measuring Mass
Use a laboratory balance with an appropriate resolution.
Before taking a reading place on a level surface and check for a zero error (tare the balance).

Measuring Volume of a liquid or an irregularly shaped object

Use a measuring cylinder with an appropriate resolution – measure form the bottom of the
meniscus and avoid parallax error.
ml
Reading= ________________

How can you avoid parallax error?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

For a large irregular solid object use a displacement can and a measuring cylinder.

 Put the displacement can on your desk.

 Put an empty beaker under the spout and fill the can with water. Water should be dripping
from the spout and you should wait until you see this stop.
 Then put a measuring cylinder that will give the most accurate reading under the spout
instead of the beaker.
 Very carefully lower the object into the displacement can so that it is completely submerged.
 Collect all of the water that comes out of the spout in the measuring cylinder.
 Measure the volume of the collected water. This volume is equal to the volume of the object.

If the mass of the object is also required, measure the mass of the object first. Why?

6
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Working Scientifically

1) Give two reasons why taking repeat readings could provide more accurate data.
[2 marks]
Reason 1

Reason 2

2) In an experiment to investigate the reflection of light by a plane mirror the following data was
recorded.

(a) For each angle of incidence, the angle of reflection has a range of values.
This is caused by an error. What type of error will have caused each angle of reflection to
have a range of values?
[1 mark]

(b) Estimate the mean angle of reflection when the angle of incidence is 50°.
[2 marks]

Angle of reflection = ______________ °

(c) The mean angle of reflection is 42° when the angle of incidence is 40°. Calculate the value X.
[2 marks]

X = ______________ °

(d) Estimate the uncertainty in the angle of reflection when the angle of incidence is 50°.
Show how you determine your estimate.
[2 marks]

Uncertainty = ± ______________ °

7
3) A student investigated how the total resistance of identical resistors connected in parallel varied
with the number of resistors.
The student used an ohmmeter to measure the total resistance of the resistors.

The student repeated each reading of resistance three times. The table shows some of the
results.

(a) Calculate value X in the table.

[2 marks]

X = ______________ Ω
(b) Estimate the uncertainty in the readings. Show how you determine your estimate.
[2 marks]

Uncertainty = ± ______________ Ω

(c) The student thought that taking a fourth reading would improve the precision of the results.
The fourth reading was 16.2 Ω. Explain why the student was wrong.
[2 marks]

4) The diagram shows the scale on a moving coil ammeter at one time in an investigation.
What is the resolution of the moving coil ammeter?

[1 mark]

Resolution = __________________ A

8
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Measuring Length , Mass and Volume

1) In an experiment a student investigated how the resistance of a wire varies with length.
The student used crocodile clips to make connections to the wire.
They could have used a piece of equipment called a ‘jockey’.
The picture shows a crocodile clip and a jockey in contact with a wire.

How would using the jockey have affected the accuracy and resolution of the
student’s results compared to using the crocodile clip.
Tick two boxes.
[2 marks]

2) The diagram shows the position of the student’s eye when taking volume
measurements. Explain what type of error would be caused if the student’s
eye was not in line with the level of the liquid in the tube.
[2 marks]

9
3) In an experiment to calculate the density of an irregular object a student only measured the
volume of the object once. The volume measurements cannot be used to show that the method
to measure volume gives precise readings. Give the reason why.
[1 mark]

4) The picture below shows a micrometer screw gauge used to measure the diameter of a pencil.

(a) State the reading on the micrometer.

[2 marks]

reading = _________________ unit________________

(b) The micrometer has a zero error.
Describe how to determine an accurate measurement for the diameter of the pencil using
this micrometer.
[4 marks]

10
The density of a material is defined by the equation:
mass 𝑚
density = 𝜌 =
volume 𝑉
density, ρ, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
volume, V, in metre cubed, m3

Alternative unit: g/cm3 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

Core Practical 1a: Finding the density of regular shaped solids

 For two different regularly shaped objects measure and record:
the length, width and height using a 30 cm ruler marked in mm
or digital vernier calipers
mass using a laboratory balance.
 Calculate and record to an appropriate number of significant
figures the density of each object.

 Standard units of density are kg/m3.

Use the data to calculate the density of the object in these units.

Object Length Width Height Mass Volume Density in Density in

/cm /cm /cm /g /cm3 g/cm 3
kg/m3

Core Practical 1b: Finding the density of a liquid

 Measure the mass of the empty measuring cylinder and record the value.
 Pour about 100 cm3 of the sugar solution into the measuring cylinder.
Record the volume accurately.
 Measure and record the mass of the measuring cylinder and liquid.
From this calculate and record the mass of just the liquid.
 Calculate and record to an appropriate number of significant figures the density of the liquid
in g/cm3.
 Standard units of density are kg/m3. Use the data to calculate the density of the
object in these units.

Mass of empty Volume of Mass of cylinder Mass of liquid Density in Density in

cylinder /g liquid /cm3 plus liquid /g /g g/cm3 kg/m3

 The density of pure water is 1.0 g/cm3. Compare this with your value and comment.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11
Core Practical 1c: Finding the density of irregular shaped solids
 Measure the mass of one of the irregular shaped object using a laboratory balance.
Record your results in the table.
 Use a measuring cylinder or a displacement can + measuring cylinder to find the
volume of the irregularly shaped object. Record your results in the table.
 Calculate and record to an appropriate number of significant figures the density of
the object.

 Standard units of density are kg/m3.

Use the data to calculate the density of the object in these units.

Mass of object Density in g/cm3 Density in kg/m3

/g

Core Practical 1: Task

a) Write a paragraph to describe and explain the differences in density you have seen between
solids and liquids. You might consider how particles are arranged in the different states of
matter – see CGP textbook if necessary.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

b) Use Google to identify some of the samples of solid objects you used.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

c) Using your results from activity 1c, determine the mass of sugar per cm3 dissolved in the water.
The density of pure water is 1.0 g/cm3. Assume the sugar does not affect the volume of the
water.

Mass of sugar per cm3 = _________________ g

12
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Density
1) A student measured the width of a solid metal cube using a digital micrometer shown below.

(a) Write down the resolution of the micrometer.

[1 mark]
Resolution = _______________________ mm
(b) The student could have used a metre rule to measure the width of the cube. Explain how
using a metre rule would have affected the accuracy of the student’s measurement of width.
[2 marks]

(c) The mass of the metal cube was measured using a top pan balance.
The balance had a zero error.
Explain how the zero error may be corrected after readings had been taken from the balance.
[2 marks]

(d) The width of the cube was 18.45 mm. The density of the cube was 8.0 × 103 kg/m3
Calculate the mass of the cube.
[5 marks]

Mass = ________________________________ kg

13
2) The diagram below shows a hydroelectric power station.

The reservoir stores 6 500 000 m3 of water. The density of the water is 998 kg/m3.
Calculate the mass of water in the reservoir. Give your answer in standard form.
[4 marks]

Mass = ________________________________ kg

3) The diagram shows a wind turbine. At a particular wind

speed, a volume of 2.3 × 104 m3 of air passes the blades
each second. The density of air is 1.2 kg/m3.
Calculate the mass of air passing the blades per second
correct to 2 significant figures.
[3 marks]

Mass of air per second =_______________________ kg

14
4) Cube B has the same volume as cube A.
The mass of cube B is ten times greater than the mass of cube A.
Compare the density of cube B with cube A.
Use the equation for density to help your explanation.
[2 marks]

5) Daria carries out an experiment on density using the apparatus shown below.

Before lowering the test-tube into the water Daria uses a laboratory balance to find its mass.
She records the mass of the test-tube as 20.87
Unfortunately Daria failed to realise that the balance has a zero error as shown.
Use the results to calculate the density of the glass used to make the test-tube.
Give your answer in kg/m3.
[5 marks]

Density = ________________________ kg/m3

15
Independent variable – Dependent variable – Control variables
Independent variable is the variable which is deliberately changed by the person in the planning of
a practical activity.
 The independent variable is recorded in the first column of a results table.
 In a graph, the independent variable is usually plotted on the x-axis.

Dependent variable is the variable which is measured whenever there is a change in the
independent variable.
 The dependent variable is recorded to the right with processed data in the far right columns
of a results table.
 In a graph, the dependent variable is usually plotted on the y-axis.

Control variables are variables or conditions which are kept the same in a practical activity.
Changes in these conditions could affect the validity of your method and results.

Line of best fit

If you have to decide on scales:
 draw the axes without using difficult scale markings (eg multiples of 3, 7, 11 etc.)
 the plots should cover at least half of the grid supplied for the graph
 label the axes with the variable and unit

In a graph, the independent variable is usually plotted on the x-axis

with the dependent variable on the y-axis.

Data points should be marked with a cross. Both  and  marks are acceptable, but care
should be taken that data points can be seen against the grid.

A line of best fit is a line drawn on a graph that passes as close as possible to the data points. It
represents the best estimate of the underlying relationship between the variables.

A line of best fit can be a straight line or a curve.

This differs from GCSE Maths, where a line of best fit is always a straight line.

When finding the gradient of a line of best fit, you should show your working by drawing a triangle
on the line. The hypotenuse of the triangle should be at least half as big as the line of best fit.
The gradient informs on the rate of change of y-axis variable with respect to the x-axis variable.
∆𝒚
𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 =
∆𝒙
For a curve you can find the gradient at a point by drawing a tangent at that point and working out
the gradient of the tangent.

For a curve you can find an average rate of change between two points by drawing the line
segment joining the two points and finding its gradient.

16
A electric kettle was switched on. The graph below shows how the temperature of the water inside
the kettle changed. Determine the gradient od the straight section of the line and give the unit.

The graph below shows the results from an investigation into how the total resistance of identical
resistors connected in parallel varied with the number of resistors. Show that that the number of
resistors in parallel is inversely proportional to the mean total resistance.

17
A bus is taking some children to school. The bus has to stop a few times.
The graph shows the distance–time graph for part of the journey.

250

200

150
Distance
in metres

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time in seconds

(a) Calculate the gradient at 45 seconds. Give the unit and comment on your answer.
Show clearly how you obtained your answer.

(b) Calculate the average rate of change of distance between 30 and 60 seconds.
Give the unit and comment on your answer.
Show clearly how you obtained your answer.

18
Linear relationship - Directly proportional – Inversely Proportional

A straight line graph not through the origin shows a linear

relationship but not a directly proportional relationship.

The relationship is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑚 is the

gradient of the graph and 𝑐 is the 𝑦-intercept
(where the graph crosses the y-axis).

A straight line graph through the origin (0, 0) shows that

the two variables are in direct proportion, i.e. directly
proportional.

The relationship is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, where 𝑚 is the

0 gradient of the graph.
0

Directly proportional using a calculation

Variable 𝐴 is directly proportional to variable 𝐵  𝐴 ∝ 𝐵

This can be written as 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵 where 𝑘 is the constant of proportionality.

𝐴
Rearranging, gives 𝐵 = 𝑘 = constant

To show that 𝐴 ∝ 𝐵 using a calculation

𝐴
 work out the ratios
𝐵
 observe that, within experimental uncertainty, the ratios are equal

Inversely proportional using a calculation

1
Variable 𝐴 is inversely proportional to variable 𝐵  𝐴 ∝ 𝐵
𝑘
This can be written as 𝐴 = 𝐵 where 𝑘 is the constant of proportionality.

Rearranging, gives 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘 = constant

1
To show that 𝐴 ∝ 𝐵 using a calculation

 work out the products 𝐴𝐵

 observe that, within experimental uncertainty, the products are equal

19
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Data Analysis
1) A student investigated the acceleration of a trolley. The table shows the results.

The figure below is an incomplete graph of the results.

(a) Complete the graph. [4 marks]

 Choose a suitable scale for the x-axis.
 Plot the results.
 Draw a line of best fit
(b) Describe the relationship between the resultant force on the trolley and the
acceleration of the trolley. [1 mark]

(c) Calculate the gradient of the line of best fit and give the unit.
Show clearly how you obtained your answer.
[4 marks]

Gradient = ___________________ unit ___________

20
2) A student investigated how the pressure of a gas varied with the volume of the gas.

(a) What is the resolution of the syringe?

[1 mark]

_________________ cm3
The student compressed the gas in the syringe and read the pressure from the pressure gauge.
the graph shows the student’s results.

(b) What conclusion can the student make from the data?
Use data from the graph in your answer.
[3 marks]

21
Current is the flow of electrons (charge, 𝑄) around a circuit. It is measured in amperes (A). The
higher the current, the greater the flow of charge – the more electrons pass round the circuit every
second.
charge flow (C) = current (A) × time (s) 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡

The magnitude of the charge of one electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C

Small currents can be measured in milliamperes (mA): 1000 mA = 1A 1 mA = 1 × 10−3 A

A current of 0.3 A is 300mA. A current of 120 mA is 120 × 10−3 = 0.12 A
Current is measured using an ammeter connected between (in series with) the component you
want to measure the current through.

For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit the circuit must include a source of potential
difference (voltage). Potential difference is energy transferred per coulomb of charge between two
points in a circuit.
𝐸
potential difference (V) = energy (J) ÷ charge (C) 𝑉=𝑄

Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter connected

across (in parallel with) the component you want to measure
the potential difference.

The current through a component depends on both the

resistance of the component and the potential difference across
the component. The greater the resistance of the component the
smaller the current for a given potential difference (p.d.) across
the component.

By definition,
𝑉
Resistance (Ω) = potential difference (V) ÷ current (A) 𝑅= 𝐼

Large resistances can be measured in kiloohms (kΩ): 1 kΩ = 1 × 103 = 1000 Ω

Even larger resistances can be measured in megaohms: 1 MΩ = 1 × 106 =1 000 000 Ω

A multimeter can be set up and used as an ammeter, a voltmeter or an ohmmeter.

An ideal ammeter has zero resistance. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

cell battery lamp resistor

ammeter voltmeter switch

variable resistor (rheostat)

22
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Current – Charge – Potential Difference
1) Information about the lightning strike is given in the
box. Calculate the energy transferred by the lightning
strike.
[3 marks]

Energy transferred = _____________________ J

2) An LED torch worked for 4.0 hours before the cells needed replacing.
The current in the LED was 50 mA.
Calculate the total charge flow through the battery.
[4 marks]

Total charge flow = _____________________ C

3) A defibrillator can transfer a charge to regulate a person’s heartbeat.

When the defibrillator is in use, a potential difference of 4800 V is
applied across the person’s chest. A charge of 0.16 coulombs passes
through the person’s chest in 4.0 ms

Calculate the resistance of the person’s chest.

[5 marks]

Resistance = _______________________ Ω

23
Circus of experiments
 Visit each setup and record your observations to indicate the brightness of each lamp.
 You can assume that the lamps are identical and the p.d. of the source is the same.

What conclusions can you draw from the above experiment?

Why are some lamps brighter and some lamps dimmer?

24
Core Practical 2a: Resistors in series and parallel

 Use the circuit diagram to set up and connect the circuit with one resistor.
 Switch on and record the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
 Calculate the resistance of the resistor.

Only 𝑅1 𝐼 /mA 𝑉 /V 𝑅1 /Ω

 Add the second resistor so that you have two resistors in series 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 .
 Switch on and record the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
 Calculate the total resistance of the series circuit.

𝑅1 and 𝑅2 in series 𝐼 /mA 𝑉 /V Total Resistance /Ω

 Set up the circuit for two resistors in parallel. Use the circuit diagram below.

 Switch on and record the readings of the ammeter and the voltmeter.
 Calculate the total resistance of the parallel circuit.

𝑅1 and 𝑅2 in parallel 𝐼 /mA 𝑉 /V Total Resistance /Ω

 What conclusions can you make about the effect of adding resistors

in series

in parallel

25
Teacher Demo or Circus of experiments

V
S
P

A1 A4

Q R
A2 A3
X Y Z

V1 V2 V3

𝑉 /V 𝑉1 /V 𝑉2 /V 𝑉3 /V

𝐴1 /A 𝐴2 /A 𝐴3 /A 𝐴4 / A

𝑅𝑥 /Ω 𝑅𝑦 /Ω 𝑅𝑧 /Ω Total Resistance /Ω

(a) What conclusion can you make about the ammeter readings?
What do you think could be said about current in any series circuit?

(b) Keeping the power supply on, break (or open) the circuit at point P and then Q.
What do you notice and what conclusion can you draw from this?

(c) Before adding an extra lead joining points R and S predict what you think will happen
to lamps X, Y, Z and each of the ammeters.

(d) Record what actually does happen. Explain why you see this pattern? (use the term resistance)

26
V

A1 A4
V1

Q
A2
X
Y Z
A3
R S

V2 V3

𝑉 /V 𝑉1 /V 𝑉2 /V 𝑉3 /V

𝐴1 /A 𝐴2 /A 𝐴3 /A 𝐴4 / A

𝑅𝑥 /Ω 𝑅𝑦 /Ω 𝑅𝑧 /Ω Total Resistance /Ω

(e) What conclusion can you make about the ammeter readings?
What do you think could be said about current in any parallel circuit?

(f) What conclusion can you make about the voltmeter readings?
What do you think could be said about p.d. in any parallel circuit?

(g) Keeping the power supply on, break (or open) the circuit at point P and then Q and then at R.
What do you notice and what conclusion can you draw from this?

27
(h) Before adding an extra lead joining points R and S predict what you think will happen
to lamps X, Y, Z and each of the ammeters.

(i) Record what actually does happen. Explain why you see this pattern? (use the term resistance)

Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Resistors in Series and in Parallel

1) A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is used to turn

on an outside lamp when it gets dark.

Part of the circuit is shown.

(a) What is the resistance of the LDR when the

potential difference across it is 4.0 V?

Give a reason for your answer

[2 marks]

Resistance = Ω
Reason

(b) Calculate the current through the LDR when the resistance of the LDR is 5000 Ω.
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
[4 marks]

Current = ____________________________ A
Use your answer to (b) to calculate the charge that flows through the battery in 1 hour when
the resistance of the LDR is 5000 Ω. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
[4 marks]

Charge = ____________________________ C

28
2) A student set up the electrical circuit shown below.

(a) The ammeter displays a reading of 0.10 A. Calculate the potential difference across the 45 Ω
resistor.
[2 marks]

Potential difference = _________________ V

(b) Calculate the resistance of the resistor labelled R.
[3 marks]

Resistance = _________________ Ω
(c) State what happens to the total resistance of the circuit and
the current through the circuit when the switch S is closed.
[2 marks]

3) Explain why adding resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance.

[2 marks]

4) The diagrams shows a circuit with a switch

connected incorrectly.

Explain how closing the switch would affect the

current in the variable resistor.
[2 marks]

29
5) The diagram shows a circuit containing a 6 V battery.
Two resistors, X and Y, are connected in parallel.
The current in some parts of the circuit is shown.

(a) What is the potential difference across X?

[1 mark]

Potential difference across X = ______________ V

(b) Calculate the resistance of X.

[2 marks]

Resistance = _________________ Ω

(c) What is the current in Y?

[1 mark]

Current in Y = ______________ A

(d) Calculate the resistance of Y.

[1 mark]

Resistance = _________________ Ω

(e) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.

[1 mark]

Resistance = _________________ Ω

(f) When the temperature of resistor X increases, its resistance increases.

What would happen to the:
o potential difference across X
o current in X
o total current in the circuit?
Tick () three boxes.

[3 marks]

30
6) The diagram shows resistors A and B connected in parallel with a 6.0 V battery.

(a) What is the potential difference across each resistor?

[1 mark]

Potential difference = ______________ V

(b) Each resistor has a resistance of 30 Ω.

Determine the current in resistor A.
[3 marks]

Current in A = ______________ A
(c) Determine the total resistance of the circuit.
[3 marks]

Total resistance = _________________ Ω

7) The diagram shows two resistors and identical cells connected as a series circuit and connected
as a parallel circuit. Compare the potential differences and currents in the series circuit with the
potential differences and currents in the parallel circuit.
[4 marks]

31
Core Practical 2b: effect of length of wire on resistance
 Use the circuit diagram to set up and connect the circuit.

bulldog clip securing

fixed copper contact resistance w ire
taped to metre ruler

clip attached to fixed

copper contact
clip attached to free
copper contact

 Keep the current small so that the temperature of the wire does not increase.
You can do this by adjusting the power supply or adding a safety resistor in series.
Use the switch to disconnect the power supply between readings.

 Record the voltmeter and the ammeter reading for 30.0 cm, 40.0 cm … in the table.
The length of the wire is the distance between the copper contacts.

 Calculate the resistance for each length of wire using the equation:

 Plot a graph of resistance against length of wire.

 You should be able to draw a straight line of best fit although it may not go through the
origin. Why might this be the case?

 What type of relationship is there between resistance and length?

32
set power unit to 4 V

use wire B or wire C

Length of wire /cm p.d. /V Current / …… Resistance /
30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

What is the resistance, when the length is 0.0 m ?

33
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Resistance of a wire

A student investigates how the length of a piece of wire affects its resistance using the apparatus
below.

(a) What is the length of wire between the two crocodile clips shown above?
[1 mark]

Length = _________________ cm

(b) Explain why the student needed to adjust the variable resistor each time she changed the
length of the wire.
[3 marks]

(c) The student used constantan wire.

The resistance of constantan only changes a small amount when its temperature changes.
Suggest why using constantan is an advantage in this experiment.
[2 marks]

34
The table shows the student’s results.

(d) One of the results in the table is anomalous.

For what length of wire is the resistance anomalous?
[1 mark]

Length = _________________ cm

(e) What could have caused the anomalous result? Tick one box.
[1 mark]

35
Core Practical 3: IV characteristics of electrical components
The characteristic of a filament lamp
 Use the circuit diagram below to set up
your circuit.

 Record the readings on the ammeter and voltmeter in the table.

 Adjust the variable resistor (or the power supply) and record the new readings on the
ammeter and voltmeter.
 Repeat this to obtain at least four pairs of readings.
 Swap the connections on the battery/power supply. The ammeter is now connected to the
negative terminal and variable resistor to the positive terminal. The readings on the ammeter
and voltmeter should now be negative.
 Continue to record pairs of readings of current and potential difference with the battery
reversed.
 Plot a graph of current against potential difference. As the readings include negative values
the origin of your graph will be in the middle of the graph paper.
 You should be able to draw a line of best fit through the origin. This is the characteristic of a
filament lamp.

The characteristic of a resistor

Replace the filament lamp with the fixed resistor and repeat the experiment.

The characteristic of a diode

Use the circuit diagram below to set up your circuit and repeat the experiment.

36
The characteristic of a filament lamp

V /V I /……… V /V I /………

0.00

37
The characteristic of a resistor
V /V I /……… V /V I /………

0.00

38
The characteristic of a diode
V /V I /……… V /V I /………

0.00

39
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: IV characteristic

1) A student investigated how the current in a filament lamp varied with the p.d. across the filament
lamp.

(a) Complete the circuit by adding an ammeter and a voltmeter. Use the correct circuit symbols.
[3 marks]

(b) The graph shows some of the results. The student reversed the connections to the power
supply and obtained negative values for the current and potential difference. Add a line on
to show the relationship between the negative values of current and potential difference.
[2 marks]

40
(c) Determine the resistance of the filament lamp when the p.d. across it is 1.0 V.
[4 marks]

Resistance = _________________ Ω
(d) A second student did the same investigation. The ammeter used had a zero error.
What is meant by a zero error?
[1 mark]

2) The figure shows a current – potential difference

graph for a filament lamp.

Explain how the resistance of a filament lamp changes

as the p.d. across it increases.

[3 marks]

3) The graph shows the results of the characteristic of a resistor. Experimental data can contain
random errors and systematic errors. Explain how the data shows evidence of random errors and
systematic errors.
[4 marks]

41
4) Student A investigated how the current in
resistor R at constant temperature varied
with the potential difference across the
resistor.

Student A recorded both positive and

negative values of current.

The diagram shows the circuit Student A

used.

(a) Describe a method that Student A

could use for this investigation.
[6 marks]

(b) Student B repeated the investigation.

During Student B’s investigation the temperature of resistor R increased.
Explain how the increased temperature of resistor R would have affected Student B’s results
[2 marks]

42
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to change the temperature of one
kilogram of the substance by one degree.

change in thermal energy (J) = mass (kg) × specific heat capacity (J / kg °C)
× change in temperature (°C)

∆𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝜃

power (W) = potential difference (V) × current (A) 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

Energy transferred (J) = power (W) × time (s) ∆𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡

Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Specific Heat Capacity

1) Electricity is used to increase the temperature of 4.0 g of deuterium by 50 000 000 °C.
specific heat capacity of deuterium = 5200 J/kg °C
Calculate the energy needed to increase the temperature of the deuterium by 50 000 000 °C.
[3 marks]

Energy = ______________________ J

2) The picture shows a coffee machine. The coffee machine uses an electric
element to heat water.
The coffee machine heats water from 20 °C to 90 °C.
The power output of the coffee machine is 2.53 kW.
The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg °C.
Calculate the mass of water that the coffee machine can heat in 14 s.
[5 marks]

Mass = _______________________ kg

43
Core Practical 4: Specific Heat Capacity of a metal using an electrical method
Health and Safety
The heater and metal block will get hot.
Do not to touch hot objects and use a heatproof mat to protect working surfaces.

Metal of block

Mass of block /kg

Current reading on the ammeter /A

p.d. reading on the voltmeter /V

Power (W) = current (A) × p.d. (V)

 Record (measure and record if you are using a metal block) the mass and type of metal in the
table.
 Wrap the insulation (if available) around the block.
 Place the heater (if necessary – metal block only) in the larger hole in the block.
 Connect the ammeter (high dc current range) power pack and heater in series.
 Connect the voltmeter (20 V range) across the heater.
 Use the pipette to put a small amount of water in the other hole.
 Set the power pack to the potential difference written on the card.
 Use the circuit diagram to set up and connect the circuit.
Switch on the power pack to turn on the heater.
 Record the ammeter and voltmeter readings. These shouldn’t
change during the experiment.
 Measure the temperature and start the stopclock.
 Record the temperature every minute for 10 minutes.
Record your results in the table.
 Complete the table.
 Plot a graph of the temperature in ℃ against energy transferred in J.

44
Time /s 𝜃 /℃ ∆𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 in J Time /s 𝜃 /℃ ∆𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 in J
0 360
60 420
120 480
180 540
240 600
300

45
 Draw a line of best fit. Take care as the beginning of the graph may be curved.

energy transferred in J
 Calculate the gradient of the straight part of your graph and give the unit.

Gradient = _____________________ unit ___________

 Look carefully at the equation describing the experiment
∆𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝜃
∆𝜃
Rearrange and use gradient = ∆𝐸
∆𝐸 1 1 1
𝑐= × = ×
∆𝜃 𝑚 gradient 𝑚

Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal block.

Specific heat capacity of ___________________ = ___________________ J /kg ℃

Metal Specific heat capacity in J /kg ℃ Density in kg /m3

Aluminium 900 2700

Brass 380 8800

Copper 385 8930

Steel 460 – 510 7860

 Look at the following hypothesis:

The denser materials have higher specific heat capacities.
Do you agree with him? Write a short paragraph to explain your reasoning.

46
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Specific heat capacity using an electrical method

An electric kettle was switched on.

The graph shows how the temperature of the water inside the kettle changed.

(a) When the kettle was switched on the temperature of the water did not immediately start to
increase. Suggest one reason why.
[1 mark]

(b) The energy transferred to the water in 100 seconds was 155 000 J.
specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg °C
Determine the mass of water in the kettle.
Use the graph. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
[5 marks]

Mass of water (2 significant figures) = ___________________ kg

(c) The straight section of the line can be used to calculate the useful power output of the kettle.
Explain how.
[3 marks]

47
Whenever there are energy transfers in a system only part of the energy is usefully transferred. The
rest of the energy is dissipated so that it is stored in less useful ways. This energy is often described
as being wasted.
Unwanted energy transfers can be reduced in a number of ways, for example, through lubrication
and the use of thermal insulation.
The rate of cooling of a building is affected by the thickness and thermal conductivity of its walls.
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material; the higher the rate of energy transfer by
conduction across the material.
Health and Safety
Take great care when pouring the near-boiling water from the kettle. If you splash any on yourself,
immediately wash the affected area with cold water.

Core Practical 5a: Investigating the effectiveness of different materials as thermal insulators

In this experiment you will measure the rate of cooling of a beaker of hot water when insulated with
different materials. You will record the temperature of the water every 4 minutes for 20 minutes . You
will collaborate with four of your classmates so that you can obtain data and compare different
insulators.

For this experiment identify:

Independent variable ......................................................................................................................................

Dependent variable ......................................................................................................................................

Control variable(s) ......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

You will collaborate with three of your classmates so that you can obtain data and compare different
insulators. You will only do the “control experiment” or one with one type of insulator.

 Use the kettle to boil water. Put 150 ml of this hot water into the 250 ml beaker (this is inside
the large beaker, unless it is the control).

 Use a piece of cardboard as a lid for the large beaker. The cardboard has a hole for the
thermometer. Insert the thermometer through the hole in the cardboard lid so that its bulb is in
the hot water.

48
 Let the temperature on the thermometer stabilise. After reaching a maximum value of about
90℃ it will start to drop. When the temperature is 85℃ start the stopwatch.

 Record the temperature of the water every 4 minutes for 20 minutes.

Add your results to the table.

Temperature in °C
Material used for
insulation At the After 4 After 8 After 12 After 16 After 20
start minutes minutes minutes minutes minutes

No insulation

 Plot cooling curve graphs for each material with:

“Temperature in °C” on the y-axis and “Time in minutes” on the x-axis

49
 Use your graph to determine which material is the best insulator.

 Why do you think this material was a particularly good insulator?

Core Practical 5b: How thickness of material affects the thermal insulation
In this experiment you will measure the rate of cooling of a beaker of hot water when insulated with
different thicknesses of the same material. You will record the temperature of the water every 4
minutes for 20 minutes. You will collaborate with three of your classmates so that you can obtain
data and compare different thicknesses.

For this experiment identify:

Independent variable ......................................................................................................................................

Dependent variable ......................................................................................................................................

Control variable(s) ......................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................

You will collaborate with three of your classmates so that you can obtain data and compare different
thicknesses of the same materials.

 Use the kettle to boil water. Put 300 ml of this hot water into a 500 ml beaker.

 Use a piece of cardboard as a lid for the beaker. The cardboard has a hole for the thermometer.
Insert the thermometer through the hole in the cardboard lid so that its bulb is in the hot water.

50
4 2 1
 Let the temperature on the thermometer stabilise. After reaching a maximum value of about
90℃ it will start to drop. When the temperature is 85℃ start the stopwatch.

 Record the temperature of the water every 4 minutes for 20 minutes.

Add your results to the table below.

Number of Temperature in °C
layers of
material used At the After 4 After 8 After 12 After 16 After 20
for insulation start minutes minutes minutes minutes minutes

 Plot cooling curve graphs for each different numbers of layers of insulation with:
‘Temperature in °C’ on the y-axis and ‘Time in minutes’ on the x-axis

51
 Use your graph to state the relationship between the numbers of layers of insulation and the
overall change in temperature over the 15 minutes period

Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Thermal insulation

A student investigated the insulating properties of newspaper using the apparatus shown
below. The student’s results are shown in the graph.

52
(a) Describe a method the student could have used to obtain the results shown in the graph.
[6 marks]

(b) The student could have used a datalogger with a

temperature probe instead of the digital thermometer.
The photograph shows the readings on the digital
thermometer and the datalogger. Explain why it was
not necessary to use a temperature probe and
datalogger for this investigation.
[2 marks]

53
A change in the shape of a stationary object (by stretching, bending or compressing) can only happen when
more than one force is applied.
Elastic deformation occurs when an object returns to its original shape and size after the forces are removed.
Hooke’s Law:
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly proportional to the force applied, provided that
the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
Force (N) = spring constant (N/m) × extension (m) 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒

difference between experimental value and accepted value

% error = × 100
accepted value

A force that stretches (or compresses) a spring does work and elastic potential energy is stored in the spring.
Provided the spring does not go past the limit of proportionality the work done on the spring and the elastic
potential energy stored are equal.
Elastic potential energy (J) = 0.5 × spring constant (N/m) × (extension (m))2
1 1
𝐸𝑒 = 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 2
2 2

How can you ensure the ruler is vertical?

How can you ensure that the string between the pulley and the ruler is horizontal?

54
Core Practical 6: Investigate the relationship between force and extension of a spring

Clamp

Pointer
Mass
hanger

Vertical scale 4

 Set up your apparatus as in the diagram making sure that the ruler is vertical

 Attach the 50 g mass hanger with no extra masses .

The bottom of the mass hanger acts as a pointer.

The zero on the ruler needs to be at the same height as the pointer.

 Add gently a 50 g mass to the hanger and take the new reading of the pointer.

Ensure that the spring is stationary each time when recording the new pointer reading.

 Repeat until 350 g have been added to the hanger.

 Record the results in the table. Length should be recorder to the nearest 0.1 cm

 Repeat and record readings during unloading.

 Use your results to plot a graph with:

• “extension of spring in cm” on the y-axis.

• “weight in N” on the x-axis.

 Write a conclusion stating what relationship can be seen in the results.

 Calculate the spring constant (force = spring constant × extension)

Give your answer in newtons per metre.

Spring constant = ______________________ N/m

55
Pointer reading /cm Weight added Extension of
Mass added to
Loading Unloading Mean to spring /N spring /cm
hanger /g

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

56
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Extension of a spring

1) A student carried out an investigation to determine the spring

constant of a spring.

The table gives the data obtained by the student.

(a) Describe a method the student could have used to obtain the
data given in the table. Your answer should include any cause
of inaccuracy in the data. Your answer may include a labelled diagram.
[6 marks]

(b) The student measured the extension for five different forces rather than just measuring the
extension for one force. Suggest why.
[1 mark]

57
The graph shows some of the data obtained by the student.

(c) Complete the graph by plotting the missing data from table. Draw the line of best fit.
[2 marks]
(d) Calculate the spring constant of the spring that the student used.
Give your answer in newtons per metre.
[4 marks]

Spring constant = ____________________ N/m

(e) Hooke’s Law states that:
‘The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied, provided the
limit of proportionality is not exceeded.’
The student concluded that over the range of force used, the spring obeyed Hooke’s Law.
Explain how the data supports the student’s conclusion.
[2 marks]

(f) The student repeated the investigation using a different spring with a spring constant
of 13 N/m. Calculate the elastic potential energy of the spring when the extension of the
spring was 20 cm.
[3 marks]

Elastic potential energy = _______________ J

58
2) A student suspended a spring from a laboratory stand and then hung a weight from the spring.
The diagram shows the spring before and after the weight is added.

(a) Measure the extension of the spring.

[1 mark]

Extension = ________________ mm

The student used the spring, a set of weights and a ruler to investigate
how the extension of the spring depended on the weight hanging from
the spring. Before starting the investigation the student wrote the
following prediction:

The extension of the spring will be directly proportional to the

weight
hanging from the spring.

The picture shows how the student arranged the apparatus.

(b) Before taking any measurements, the student adjusted the ruler to
make it vertical. Explain why adjusting the ruler was important.
[2 marks]

(c) Describe one technique that you could have used to improve the accuracy of the
measurements taken by the student.
[2 marks]

59
The student continued the investigation by increasing the range of weights added to the spring.
All of the data is shown plotted on the graph below.

(d) At the end of the investigation, all of the weights were removed from the spring.
What can you conclude from the graph about the deformation of the spring?
Give the reason for your conclusion.
[2 marks]

Reason

(e) Calculate the increase in elastic potential energy of the spring when the weight was changed
from 3.0 N to 6.0 N
[4 marks]

Elastic potential energy = _______________ J

60
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation:
∆𝑣
acceleration (m/s2)= change in velocity (m/s) ÷ time taken (s) 𝑎 =
𝑡

An object that slows down is decelerating.

Newton’s Second Law:

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on the object, and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

resultant force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s 2 ) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Equally spaced tape marks (20 cm apart

To investigate the effect of force on acceleration with constant mass.

Variables for the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an object.

Independent variable ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Dependent variable ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Control variable(s) ………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

To investigate the effect of mass on acceleration with constant force.

Variables for the effect of varying the mass on the acceleration of an object.

Independent variable ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Dependent variable ………………………………………………………………………………………………

Control variable(s) ………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

61
A light gate connected to a datalogger and computer will be used to obtain the average
acceleration of the toy car (trolley) . The trolley carries a double sided flag.
The software automatically calculates the acceleration.

The length of the flag must be entered into the software by the user.

To compensate for the friction between the trolley and the bench use a slopping runway.

An air-track eliminates the friction but there is still the effect of air drag on the moving trolley.

62
Core Practical 7a: Measuring the effect of force on acceleration at constant mass
Repeat the experiment with different masses on the end of the string placing the mass removed
from the hanger on the top of the car so that the total mass of the car and hanger is constant.

Accelerating Accelerating Acceleration m/s2

Mass /g Force /N First reading Second reading Mean

 Plot a graph with: “Acceleration in m/s2” on the y-axis versus “Force in N’ on the x-axis”.
 Add a line of best fit and comment on your results.

63
Core Practical 7b: Measuring the effect of mass on acceleration at constant force
To investigate the effect of mass on acceleration with constant force, use the same mass on the
string and add different masses to the top of the car.

Accelerated mass Acceleration m/s2

/g First reading Second reading Mean

 Plot a graph with: “Acceleration in m/s2” on the y-axis versus “mass in g’ on the x-axis”.
 Add a line of best fit and comment on your results.

64
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: How are force, mass and acceleration related?

1) A student investigated the acceleration of a trolley.

The diagram shows how the student set up the apparatus.

(a) Before attaching the mass holder the student placed the trolley at the top of the runway. The
trolley rolled down the runway without being pushed.

What change to the apparatus could be made to prevent the trolley from starting to roll
down the runway?
[1 mark]
Tick () one box.

(b) The student attached the mass holder to the string.

The string rubbed along the edge of the bench as the mass holder fell to the floor.
Suggest what the student could do to prevent the string from rubbing.
[1 mark]

The light gate and data logger were used to determine the acceleration of the trolley.
The student increased the resultant force on the trolley and recorded the acceleration of the
trolley. The table shows the results.

(c) Complete the graph.

• Choose a suitable scale for the x-axis.
• Plot the results.
• Draw a line of best fit. [4 marks]

65
(d) Describe the relationship between the resultant force on the trolley and
the acceleration of the trolley. [1 mark]

(e) Describe how the investigation could be improved to reduce the effect of random errors.
[2 marks]

(f) Write down the equation that links acceleration (𝑎), mass (𝑚) and resultant force (𝐹).
[1 mark]

(g) The resultant force on the trolley was 0.375 N. The mass of the trolley was 0.60 kg.
Calculate the acceleration of the trolley. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
[4 marks]

Acceleration (2 significant figures) = __________________ m/s2

66
2) A student investigated how the acceleration of a trolley depends on the force applied to the
trolley. The figure below shows some of the equipment used by the student.

(a) Write a list of any other equipment the students will need in order to
complete the investigation. [2 marks]

(b) Describe a method the students could have used for their investigation.
[6 marks]

67
Waves are described by their amplitude, wavelength, frequency and period.
The amplitude of a wave is the magnitude of the maximum displacement of a point on a wave away
from its undisturbed position.
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the equivalent point on the
adjacent wave.
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point each second.
1 1
Period (s) = 𝑇=
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (Hz) 𝑓
The period of a wave is how long it takes for one wave to pass a point.
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or the wave moves) through the
medium.

All waves obey the wave equation:

wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m) 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
You can visualise water waves in a ripple tank.

Circular wave

Plane wave

 

You can visualise waves in a solid using a string attached to a vibration generator.


2

Health and safety: The frequency of a stroboscope can trigger an epileptic fit (7-15 Hz).

68
Core Practical 8a: Measuring the speed of waves in a ripple tank

Our ripple tank includes a signal generator and a stroboscope.

For a given setting of the signal generator we know the actual frequency of the plane wave dipper
and hence the frequency of the waves.
The stroboscope can be used to produce a stable pattern.
 Measure across as many waves as you can. Then divide that length by the number of waves.
This gives the wavelength of the waves. Record this value in the table below.
With the stroboscope on and synchronised with the frequency of the dipper
the pattern becomes stable.
 Count the number of waves passing a point in the pattern over a given time (say 10 seconds).
Then divide the number of waves counted by 10. This gives the frequency of the waves.
In our case read the frequency from the signal generator.
Record this value in the table below.
Calculate the speed of the waves.
 Repeat for a different frequency.

f  25 Hz

f  30 Hz

Frequency in Hz
𝜆 in cm
𝑣 in m/s
 Comment on your results.

69
20 Hz 25 Hz
Core Practical 8b: Measuring the speed of waves in a solid
In this practical, you are observing standing waves.
These can occur at a variety of resonant frequencies (harmonics).

vibration generator
(connected to signal
generator)

 With 𝑙 = 120.0 cm switch on the vibration generator. The string starts to vibrate.
 To see a clear wave pattern, adjust the frequency of the signal generator. The waves should look
like they are not moving – standing wave. Adjust the frequency until there is one loop.
 One loop = ½ wavelength. Record the frequency and the wavelength in the table.
 Repeat for 2, 3, 4 and 5 loops.

Frequency Wave pattern on 1.20 m string Wavelength Speed

in Hz in m in m/s

 Comment on your results.

70
1.20 m

11.3 Hz

22.6 Hz

33.9 Hz

45.2 Hz
Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Waves in water and in solids

1) A teacher demonstrated some features of waves using a ripple tank.

 The teacher measured the time taken for 10 wave fronts to pass the mark.
The teacher repeated this measurement three times and calculated the mean.
What is the advantage of repeating measurements and calculating a mean?
[1 mark]

 The teacher’s measurements for the time taken for 10 wave fronts to pass the mark were:
8.4 s 7.8 s 8.1 s
Calculate the mean frequency of the wave. Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
[5 marks]

Mean frequency (2 significant figures) = _________________ Hz

 In a different investigation, the teacher wanted to determine the speed of water waves in the
ripple tank. The teacher did not measure the wavelength of the wave.
Explain how the teacher could determine the speed of the wave.
[3 mark]

71
2) The picture shows the equipment a teacher
used to determine the speed of a water
wave.

The equipment includes:

 a ripple tank filled with water
 a wooden bar that creates ripples on
the surface of the water
 a light source which causes a shadow
of the ripples on the screen.

(a) Describe how equipment can be used

to measure the wavelength, frequency
and speed of a water wave.
[6 marks]

72
(b) The teacher put a plastic duck in the ripple tank as shown.
The plastic duck moved up and down as the waves in the water passed.

(c) How does the movement of the plastic duck above demonstrate that water waves are
transverse?
[1 mark]

(d) The teacher measured the maximum height and the minimum height of the plastic duck
above the screen as the wave passed.

The teacher repeated his measurements.

The table shows the teacher’s measurements.

(e) Calculate the mean amplitude of the water wave.

[3 marks]

Mean amplitude = _________________ mm

(f) Estimate the uncertainty in the mean amplitude of the water wave.
[3 marks]

Uncertainty in mean amplitude = ± _________________ mm

73
3) The diagram below shows the apparatus used to investigate the waves in a stretched string.

The frequency of the signal generator is adjusted so that the wave shown above is seen.
(a) The wavelength of the wave shown was measured as 80 cm
What piece of apparatus would have been suitable for measuring this wavelength?
[1 mark]

(b) Write down the equation which links frequency, wavelength and wave speed.
[1 mark]

(c) The string above vibrates at 55 Hz. Calculate the wave speed of the wave shown.
Use data given in the diagram.
[3 marks]

Wave speed = _____________________ m/s

(d) The frequency of the signal generator is increased.
This makes the wavelength of the wave change. The wave speed stays the same.
Describe how the apparatus could be adjusted to show one complete wave without reducing
the frequency.
[2 marks]

(e) A student wants to investigate how the speed of a wave on a stretched string depends on
the tension in the string. The student uses this apparatus.
Describe a method the student could use for this investigation. [4 mark]

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Waves can be reflected at the boundary between
two different materials.

Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction

is called specular reflection.
Reflection from a rough surface causes scattering this
is called diffuse reflection.

Refraction is due to the difference in velocity of the

waves in different substances.

Refraction does not happen when a wave enters a

medium at 90o to the surface.

1 0 0 10 20
20 Normal
Normal 30
30 40
40
50
50

60
60

Incident ray Weak reflected

70
0

ray
Weak
90 80 7

Incident Incident ii Reflected

Ray
side
Incident
80 90

side
Ray Point of
Point of
incidence
Incidence

Rectangular
Rectangular
Glass Block Refracted
glass block ray
Refracted
r Ray
r
90 80 7
80 90

Emergent
Side Point of
Emergent Emergence
side I2
70

Emergent ray
Emergent
60
60

Ray
50
50

40
40 30
30 Normal
Normal 20
0
10 2 0 10

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Physics theory suggests that the angles of incidence and
reflection should be the same for a material, but the angles of
refraction for that material should be different.

For a ray of light entering an optically denser medium

e.g. air to glass,

angle of refraction < angle of incidence

For a ray of light entering a less optically dense medium

e.g. glass to air,

angle of refraction > angle of incidence

Health and safety

 The ray box will get hot – be careful when you move it.
Switch it off when you don’t need.
 Never look directly into a laser beam, potential to
damage the eye.
Experiments should be arranged to minimise reflected
beams.
Switch it off when you don’t need.

Teacher Demo

Angle of incidence in degrees Angle of reflection in degrees Angle of refraction in degrees

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Core Practical 9a: Investigate the reflection of light by different types of surfaces.
Core Practical 9b: Investigate the refraction of light by substances.
 Place the glass or Perspex block on the paper as shown and carefully draw around it without
moving it.

glass or Perspex block

 Set up the ray box, slit and lens so that a narrow ray of light is produced or use a battery
powered laser.
 Direct a ray of light along the line at the point where the normal meets the block.
 Mark the reflected ray with at least two crosses.
One cross needs to be near the block and the other cross further away.
 Mark the emerging ray from the block with at least two crosses.
One cross needs to be near the block and the other cross further away.
 Use a ruler and sharpened pencil to draw the reflected ray and construct the transmitted ray.
 Measure and record the angle of incidence, angle of reflection, angle of refraction on the table.
 Repeat for the other block.

Angle of incidence in degrees Angle of reflection in degrees Angle of refraction in degrees

Glass

Perspex

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glass
Perspex
 How well do your results support the physics theory for the two different materials that you
have tested?

Reflection

Refraction

 Consider the apparatus and method that you used. Are there any improvements that you could
make to improve the accuracy of the angles you measured if you were to repeat this experiment.

Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: Reflection & Refraction of Light

1) The picture shows the apparatus a student used to investigate the reflection of light by a plane
mirror. The student drew four ray diagrams for each angle of incidence. The student measured
the angle of reflection from each diagram. The table gives the student’s results.

(a) For each angle of incidence, the angle of reflection has a range of values.
This is caused by an error.
What type of error will have caused each angle of reflection to have a range of values?
[1 mark]

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(b) Suggest what the student may have done during the investigation to cause each angle of
reflection to have a range of values.
[1 mark]

(c) Estimate the uncertainty in the angle of reflection when the angle of incidence is 50°.

Show how you determine your estimate.

[2 marks]

Uncertainty = ± _____________________ °

(d) The student concluded that for a plane mirror, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. Explain whether you agree with this conclusion.
Use examples from the results in the table in your answer.
[2 marks]

(e) What extra evidence could be collected to support the student’s conclusion?
[1 mark]

(f) State one change the student should make to the apparatus if he wants to use the same
method to investigate diffuse reflection.
[1 mark]

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2) A student investigated the refraction of light at the
boundary between air and glass.

The picture shows the ray box used.

(a) The ray of light from the ray box should be as narrow
as possible.

Explain why using a wider ray would give less accurate

results than using a narrower ray.

[3 marks]

The graph shows the results.

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(b) Estimate the angle of refraction when the angle of incidence is 80°.
Show on the graph how you obtained your answer. [2 marks]

Angle of refractions = ________________ °

(c) Describe a method the student could have used to obtain the results shown on the graph.
[6 marks]

(d) What property of the light wave changes when it is refracted?

[1 mark]

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Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to
an absorber.
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum and all types of electromagnetic wave travel at
the same velocity through a vacuum (space) or air.
Going from long to short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are: radio,
microwave, infra-red, visible light (red to violet), ultra-violet, X-rays and gamma-rays.
The radiation mainly associated with heating is the infra-red (IR).This was discovered in 1800 by the
English astronomer Sir William Herschel (1738-1822) when he placed a blackened thermometer bulb
just outside the red end of the visible spectrum. The wavelength of course is longer than visible light
(10–6 to 10–3 m), and the waves are more readily absorbed by matter.
All objects, no matter what temperature, emit and absorb infra-red radiation. The hotter an object is
the more infra-red radiation it radiates in a given time.
When radiant energy falls on an object, some of it is reflected, some is transmitted and some is
absorbed. It is the latter that causes the associated heating effect. Infra-red give up their heat energy
on collision with matter, causing greater vibrational movements in the molecules of the absorbing
material and leading to an increase in internal energy levels and a rise in temperature.
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. The object does
not reflect or transmit any radiation. Since a good absorber is also a good emitter a perfect black
body would be the best possible emitter.
Police and rescue services find thermal imaging helpful in some situations. A special camera (IR
thermal camera) can be used to detect the infrared radiation from a person trapped beneath the
rubble of a collapsed building, or buried under snow after an avalanche. Military personnel also use
infrared equipment to locate aircraft, detect or destroy missiles in the dark, etc.
In weather forecasting use is made of the fact that infrared radiation penetrates mist and fog.
In the study of waves we have very large and very small numbers. To avoid many zeroes we use
standard form and/or prefixes.

e.g. 550 nm = 550 × 10−9 m 2.45 GHz = 2.45 × 109 Hz

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Teacher Demo

Time Black Silver

/minutes Temperature / ℃ Temperature / ℃

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

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Core Practical 10: Investigating the amount of IR radiation radiated from different surfaces

 Collect an infra-red thermometer. Your teacher will demonstrate the correct use.
 Go to one of the Leslie cubes. The Leslie cube is filled with very hot water on a heat proof mat .
 Use the infra-red thermometer to measure the amount of infra-red radiated from each surface.
This is proportional to the recorded temperature.
Make sure that before a reading is taken the detector is at the same distance from each surface.
 Record your data on the table.

Surface Temperature /℃

Shiny silver

Matt black

Matt white

Shiny black

 Explain why it is important that before a reading is taken the detector is at the same distance
from each surface.

 Look at the data and draw a conclusion.

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Test Your Knowledge and Understanding: IR radiation radiated/absorbed by different surfaces

1) A student investigated the infrared radiation emitted from the sides of a hollow metal cube.
The sides of the cube are different colours or textures.
The equipment used is shown below.

Boiling water was poured into the cube. The amount of infrared radiation emitted from each
vertical surface was then measured.

(a) Boiling water is a hazard in this investigation.

Suggest how the risk of harm could be reduced in this investigation.
[1 mark]

(b) What is the control variable in this investigation?

[1 mark]

The table shows the results.

(c) The four temperature values in the table

cannot be used to show that the
infrared detector gives precise
readings.

Give the reason why.

[1 mark]

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(d) The student looked at the data in the table and concluded:

‘A black surface always emits more infrared radiation than a white surface.’

Explain how using an infrared detector with a resolution of 1 °C would have affected the
student’s conclusion.
[2 marks]

Albedo is a measure of the amount of solar radiation reflected by an object compared

to the total solar radiation incident on the object.

A perfect reflector has an Albedo value of 1.0

A perfect absorber has an Albedo value of 0.0

(e) What is the Albedo value of a perfect black body?

[1 mark]

(f) The diagram shows two points, A and B, just above the Earth’s surface

The average Albedo value of the Earth’s surface is 0.3

The Albedo value of thick cloud varies between 0.6 and 0.9
At night the air at point A cools faster than the air at point B.
Explain why.
[3 marks]

86
2) An ultraviolet wave has a wavelength of 300 nanometres.
The speed of ultraviolet waves is 3.0 × 108 m/s.
Calculate the frequency of the ultraviolet wave.
Give your answer in THz.
[5 marks]

Frequency = ___________________ THz

3) Some of the radio waves from the distant galaxy have a frequency of 1.2 gigahertz (GHz).
Radio waves travel through space at a speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s
Calculate the wavelength of the 1.2 GHz radio waves emitted from the distant galaxy.
[4 marks]

Wavelength = ______________________ m
4) The diagrams below show the ‘magic coin’ trick.

A coin is glued to the bottom of a bowl and an observer stands where they cannot see the coin
Another person fills the bowl with water. The observer and the coin do not move. After the water
is added the observer can see the coin. Explain why the observer can now see the coin.
[3 marks]

87