Measurement Techniques [Introduction to Practical skills ]

Theoretical ideas in physics are generally tested by experiment before being fully accepted. All experiments
that are designed to obtain a quantitative result for a physical quantity involve measurements. These
measurements must be some combination of the basic quantities; length, mass, time, temperature and
current.
You should be able to make a sensible choice of the instrument to use to measure a particular physical
quantity.
Methods of measuring length
The metre rule (or half –metre rule)
This has the great advantages of being cheap, convenient and simple to use. The smallest division on the
meter rule scale is 1mm (0.1cm) thus while using a metre rule the uncertainty is ±0.5mm or ±0.05cm
However, you should be aware of three possible sources of error in using a meter rule;
✓ The first may arise if the end of the rule is worn out, giving rise to a zero error.
For this reason, it is bad practice to place the zero end of the rule against one end of the object to be measured
and to take the reading at the other end. You should place the object against the rule so that a reading is made
at each end of the object. The length of the object is then obtained by subtraction of the two readings.
A zero error like this is a systematic error, because it is involved every time a reading is taken from the
zero end (it comes with the instrument) In general, the zero reading of any instrument may be subject to an
error.
✓ The calibration of the metre rule may give rise to another systematic error because the
markings are incorrect.
Try comparing the 30cm graduated length of one rule with the same nominal length on another. You are quite
likely to find a discrepancy of one or two millimeters.
One of the reasons why wooden or plastic meter rules are cheap is that the manufacture does not claim any
great accuracy for the scale markings. If you compare an engineer’s steel rule with a plastic or wooden rule,
you will see at once that the engraved marks on the steel rule are much finer than the impressed marks on the
plastic or wooden rule. Ofcourse the extra care which has been taken in engraving the steel rule has to be paid
for that’s why a one metre steel rule is many times more expensive than a plastic or wooden rule.
✓ Another source of error with the meter rule is the parallax error
If the object to be measured is not on the same level as the graduated surface of the rule, the angle at which
the scale is viewed will affect the result. This is a random error because the angle of view may be different
for different readings. It may be reduced by arranging the rule so that there is no gap between the scale and
the object.
While taking measurements using a ruler the eye must be placed in line with the point where the reading is to
be taken. I.e position the eye perpendicularly to the scale in line with the mark on the scale to avoid parallax
errors. This has been clearly demonstrated below.

(a) No parallax error (b) Inaccurate measurement due to parallax errors

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Placing the eye in line with the point where the reading is being taken reduces the error due to
parallax. A mirror can also be placed alongside the scale so that when the object and scale are viewed
directly, the mark and its image in the mirror coincide. This ensures that the scale reading is always
taken at the same viewing angle.
In conclusion
The smallest division on the meter rule is 1mm. If you take precautions to avoid parallax error, you should be
able to estimate a reading to about 0.5mm.
If you are measuring the length of an object by taking a reading at each end, the uncertainties add to give a
total uncertainty of 1mm. The range of the meter rule is from 1mm to 1000mm. To measure a length of more
than 1m with a meter rule will introduce a further uncertainty, of perhaps 1mm or 2mm, because of the
difficulty in making a reference mark at the 1m end of the rule and moving the rule so that the zero exactly
corresponds with this reference. It is usually better to use a steel tape to measure lengths of more than 1m.

The meter rule can be used together with wooden blocks

to measure the diameter of a spherical or cylindrical
object. This can be illustrated as shown in figure
besides. The diameter of the spherical or cylindrical
object in this case is given by the length between the
two blocks ensuring that the line of sight when taking
the reading is vertically above the point where the
reading is being taken as discussed above.
In certain circumstances, average lengths can be found
by measuring a number of distances together then
dividing by the number of objects. E.g. a ream of
papers, spherical balls etc.

Example

For small distances, the vernier calipers or the engineers calipers is used. While for very small distances less
than a centimeter such as the diameter of copper wire, thickness of paper, the micrometer screw gauge is used.
Both the vernier calipers and the micrometer screw gauge give readings with reasonable accuracy.

The Vernier Caliper

A caliper is a mechanical device used to determine small lengths with reasonable accuracy. It is normally used
for measuring dimensions of an object, the diameter of a hole, or the depth of a hole.
Its range is up to 100mm, and it can be read to 0.1mm.

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Without a zero error, the zero of the main scale corresponds with the reference point on the vernier scale
After checking for the systematic zero error, the movable jaw is adjusted until it grips the object to be
measured tightly.
For the mechanical vernier, the reading is taken in three steps:
1. Read and record the main scale reading to the nearest mm at the zero end of the vernier scale. E.g
2.1cm.
2. Read and record the vernier scale reading to a tenth of a mm at the position on the vernier where a
mark on it coincides with a mark on the main scale. E.g let the 6th vernier division coincide with a
mark on the main scale. In tenths of millimeters, 6 become 6/10 = 0.6mm. In centimeters = 0.06cm.
3. Get the sum of the two readings (i.e. add the main scale reading and the vernier scale reading to get the
total reading).
Main scale reading = 2.10 cm
Vernier scale reading = + 0.06 cm
Total reading = 2.16 cm
Illustration of how to read the vernier calipers

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Example 1
The Yr.8 students of Nu-Vision high school measured the thickness of a desk top during a physics
lesson and found the main scale reading before the zero mark of the vernier scale to be 4.4 cm. Find
the thickness of the desk top if the 4th vernier mark coincides with one of the marks on the main scale.
Solution Main scale reading = 4.40 cm
4
Vernier scale reading 4th = = 0.04 cm
100
Total reading = 4.44 cm

Note: Instead of dividing the vernier reading by 10 to get the answer in mm and then by 10 to change
to cm, we can divide the value directly by 100 to get the answer once in cm.

Example 2
Find the readings of the verniers shown figures 2.7 (i) and (ii) below.
5 6 1 2

Fig. 2.7 (i) Fig. 2.47(ii)

Solution: (i) Main scale reading = 5.20 cm
4
Vernier scale reading 4th = = + 0.04 cm
100
Total reading = 5.24 cm
(ii) Main scale reading = 0.80 cm
8
Vernier scale reading 8th = = + 0.08 cm
100
Total reading = 0.88 cm

Example 3

State the reading of the vernier caliper.

Sometimes the mechanical vernier calipers have what we call zero error
The vernier calipers are said to have zero error if the zero marking on the main scale is not in line with
the zero mark on the vernier scale when the jaws are fully closed. Always remember that this error should
be subtracted from the final reading to give an accurate value or the measurement.
Before using the vernier calipers, it is important to check the instrument for zero error.

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Exercise
In the figure below state the reading of the vernier calipers by stating the zero error in each case and
the corrected reading.
(a) zero error = ………..........
observed reading = ………
corrected reading = ……...

(b) ) zero error = ……………..

observed reading = ………
corrected reading =……….

(a) (b)
The Micrometer screw gauge
The type of micrometer screw gauge available in school laboratory may be used to measure dimensions of
objects up to a maximum of about 50mm. E.g. diameter of fine wires, thickness of paper etc.
The micrometer screw gauge is calibrated in mm on the sleeve and some small divisions on the thimble scale.
There are two types of thimble readings:
(i) One with 50 divisions on the thimble scale and
(ii) The other with 100 divisions on the thimble scale.
However, the two types give the same reading when used to measure the same distance.
The diagram of the micrometer screw gauge is shown in the figure below.

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How to use the Micrometer screw gauge
- Place the object whose thickness is to be measured in
between the jaws (the anvil and the spindle) of the
micrometer as shown in figure 2.8 above.
- Rotate the ratchet clockwise until you hear a sound
(click).
- Take the reading in three steps as shown below.
Step I: Read and record the reading on the sleeve scale at the edge of the thimble in
millimeters and half millimeters e.g. 4.0 mm or 4.5mm
Step II: Read and record the reading on the thimble scale opposite to the centerline on the
sleeve scale (i.e. where a division on the thimble scale coincides with the center-line on
the sleeve scale) in hundredths of millimeters.
E.g. Let the 33rd division coincide with the center-line.
33
In hundredths0f millimeters, 33 becomes 100 = 0.33 mm
Step III Get the sum of the two readings i.e. sleeve scale reading and the thimble scale reading.
Sleeve scale reading = 4.00 mm
Thimble scale reading = + 0.33 mm
Total reading = 4.33 mm

Note: If the answer is required in cm or m, you can always convert it as required.

Example 1

Example 2
Find the reading on the micrometer screw gauge shown in the diagram below.

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Solution Sleeve scale reading = 5.50 mm
42
Thimble scale reading, = + 0.42 mm
100
Total reading = 5.92 mm
Example 3
Find the reading on the micrometer screw gauge shown in the diagram below.

Solution; Sleeve scale reading = 2.50 mm

38
Thimble scale reading , = + 0.38 mm
100
Total reading = 2.88 mm
Precautions when using a micrometer
✓ never tighten the thimble too much.
✓ clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before making a measurement.
✓ any dirt on either of surface could affect the reading.
✓ every time you use this instrument check zero error by closing the micrometer when there is
nothing between the anvil and spindle.
✓ The reading should be zero, but it is common to find a small zero error but the micrometer
screw gauge is likely to have a systematic error.
✓ correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement. I.e. subtracting the error from the final
reading.

Qn. You are provided with a thin copper wire. Determine the diameter of the wire. Show how you would
make your results more reliable.

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Exercise

Summary
Instrument Range Uncertainty in notes
length/ precision
Meter rule 1m (100cm) 1mm Check zero, calibration errors
Vernier caliper 100mm 0.1mm Versatile: inside and outside diameter, depth
Micrometer screw 50mm 0.01mm Check zero error
gauge

In deciding which instrument to use in a particular experiment, you should consider first the nature of
the length measurement you have to make. For example, if you need to find the diameter of steel
sphere, the screw gauge and calipers technique are obvious candidates. You should then consider
whether you need the greater precision of the instrument.

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SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. (b) Find the thickness of a text book measured using a vernier caliper if the main scale reading is
2.4 cm and the 8th vernier mark coincides with one of the marks on the main scale.
(c) Find the readings on the verniers shown in figure below.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)
2. Find the reading on the micrometer screw gauge shown in the figure below.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

Measurement of mass
Mass is measured with a balance. The balances compare the weight of the un-known mass with the weight of
a standard mass. Because weight is proportional to mass, equality between the unknown weight and the
weight of the standard mass means that the unknown mass is equal to the standard mass.
In the laboratory, there are a number of different types of balance, including the top-pan balance, the lever
balance and spring balance.

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Note also that some types of spring balance may be calibrate in force units (that is, in newton) rather than in
mass units (kilograms)
The top –pan balance is a direct –reading instrument, based on pressure
The top pan balance sensor, or sometimes a spring. The unknown mass is placed on the pan,
and its weight applies a force to the sensor. The mass corresponding to this
force is displaced on a digital read –out.
When using the balance, ensure that the initial (unloaded) reading
is zero. There is a control for adjusting the zero reading.
The uncertainty in the reading of a particular top–pan balance will be
quoted in the manufacturer’s manual. As with other digital instruments,
it is likely to be expressed as a percentage uncertainty of the reading
shown on the scale, together with the uncertainty in the final figure of
the display.

Spring balances are based on Hooke’s law; the extension of loaded

The spring balance spring is proportional to the load. Measurements are made directly by a
moving over circular scale.
As with any instrument using a scale and a pointer, you should take
care not to introduce parallax error when you take readings. Position
yourself so that your line of sight is perpendicular to the scale.

Before placing the object of unknown mass on the pan, check for
zero error. There is likely to be zero –error adjustment screw on the
Lever balances balance

Lever balances are based on the principle of moments. In one common type, the unknown mass is placed on a
pan, and balance is achieved by sliding a mass along a bar, calibrated in mass units, until the bar is horizontal.
This represents the condition in which the moment of the load is equal and opposite to the moment of the
sliding mass and the bar.
A reading is taken from the edge of the sliding mass on the divisions marked on the bar. In this case, parallax
error is less likely to be serious. Again, check for zero before taking a reading.
Another type of lever balance shown above has a pointer moving along a circular scale.

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An indication of the uncertainty in the reading with a particular balance can be obtained from the
smallest division on the scale. (The uncertainty in each reading is half of the smallest division.)
Choice of method
As stated above, the top –pan and spring balance are direct –reading instruments. This means that readings
can be obtained quickly and conveniently. The lever balance requires adjustment of the sliding mass, but
this takes only a very short time.
In general ensure that the pan is always dry before taking a measurement. Do not weigh out loose
chemicals on the pan; always use the container, the mass of which you have determined beforehand
then subtract the readings. Note the total uncertainty afterwards.
In general choose a balance of sensitivity appropriate to the experiment you are carrying out.

Measuring an angle
Angles are measured using a protractor. This looks like a semi –circular, or sometimes circular, ruler, with its
scale marked out in angular measure, invariably degrees rather than radians. The center of the circle is clearly
marked.

To measure the angle between two lines, the center of the circle of the protractor is placed exactly over the
point of intersection of the lines and one line is aligned with the 0o direction of the protractor. The angle
between the lines is then given by the reading on the scale at which the second line passes through the
circumference of the circle.
Most protractors used in schools are such that the interval between scale divisions is 1o. It is very easy to
make a reading to the nearest degree, and sometimes to half a degree, if the line being measured is fine
enough.

Methods of measuring time

The basic method of measuring a time interval is with a stopwatch or stop clock
Due to accuracy and ease in reading, the digital stopwatches are preferred. They measure to 0.01 second. Stop
watches and stop clocks come in several designs but all serving the same purpose. The most common ones in
an ordinary school physics laboratory are similar to the ones shown below.

Stop clock
A mechanical, spring –powered stopclock will have an analogue display as shown in (b); that is, a hand (or
hands) which move round a dial. Such an instrument is likely to read to the nearest one –fifth of a second

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The stopwatch or digital timer
This one has a digital display as shown in (a). It is based on oscillation of quartz crystal. It is likely to read to
the nearest one –hundredth of a second.

When using a stopwatch/clock, reset it to zero then start it immediately when the activity starts and stop it
when the activity is finished. Reset it again and repeat the experiment say three times.
• You should familiarize yourself with the way of operating the instrument before you start a timing
experiment in earnest.
Note:
• For repeated events, an average time can be found by measuring a number of repeats then dividing the
recorded time by the number of repeats/cycles. This gives a more accurate value of time.
• The oscillation of a simple pendulum is an example of regularly repeating motion.
• The time for 1 complete oscillation is referred to as the period of the oscillation.

Measurement of period of simple pendulum

displace the bob from rest position and then

release it. It begins to move to and fro
(oscillate) about its rest position in a vertical
plane
obtain time for say 20 oscillations using a stop
watch or stop clock. e.g. t = 48s
The period of oscillation T is obtained by
dividing this time by the number of
𝑡 48
oscillations. I.e; T = 20 = 20 = 2.4s
Alternatively one would count the number of
oscillations in say 20 seconds, and divide the
20s by that number.

Errors occurring in measuring time

Human timing is not precise and accurate because of reaction times in starting and stopping. The reaction
time of a human being is about 0.2s. To improve accuracy one would opt to use automatic timing light gates;
e.g time taken for a small object to fall a short distance is being measured by the timer which starts
automatically when the ball cuts one light beam and stops when it cuts another.
Another way of reducing the effect of reaction time would be to time enough events as shown by the
pendulum to make the interval being measured very larger than the experimenter’s reaction time.
• Note: A digital stopwatch is more accurate as it can measure time intervals of 0.01s. The analogue
stopclock measures time in intervals of 0.1s

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Application of measuring time: determination of the acceleration of free fall

A steel sphere is released from an electromagnet and falls

under gravity. As it falls, it passes through light gates which
switch an electronic timer on and then off. The acceleration
of free fall can be determined from the values of the timer
intervals and distances.

In this experiment, electronic switching is essential in order

to reduce the potentially very large error caused by reaction
time of the experimenter. Here timing to one hundredth of a
second is essential.

Note : You will look at this again under waves but detailed measurement of voltage using a cathode –ray
oscilloscope is only required in the A Level course so you will cover it under alternating voltages and
currents. In A’Level you will note that the c.ro is the best instrument to measure rapidly changing voltages of
any specification.

Methods of measuring temperature

The most common thermometer in the school labs is the liquid in glass thermometer (probably a
mercury in glass). The SI unit of temperature, the kelvin (K), is based on the thermodynamic scale
which may be arrived at using an instrument called a constant –volume gas thermometer. The equation
relating the celicius temperature scale to the thermodynamic scale is θ = T–273.15 where θ is in
degrees celsius and T is in kelvin.

• The liquid– in–glass thermometers are based on the thermal expansion and
contraction of a liquid. A liquid is contained in a bulb at the end of a thin
capillary tube. If the bulb is placed in a beaker of water which is gradually
heated, the liquid expands and the thread of liquid occupies more and
more of the capillary tube. The capillary tube is graduated and the position
of the end of the thread gives the temperature.
• Most thermal physics experiments will involve the measurement of
temperature between 0oC (the temperature of pure melting ice) and 100oC
(the temperature of steam above boiling water at a pressure of 1
atmosphere).

Some of the precautions you should take when using the thermometer include;
o Always allow time for the thermometer to reach thermal equilibrium with
its surroundings.
o If you are measuring the temperature of a beaker of liquid which is being
heated, the liquid must be thoroughly stirred before taking the readings.
(because of conventional currents, there is a temperature difference of
several degrees between the top and the bottom of the liquid so stirring is
vital)

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Note: Thermometers are relatively fragile. Because of their shape, they have a tendency to roll along the
bench top. Make sure that it does not roll down and fall to the ground. The mercury in the thermometer is
poisonous so do not play with the mercury from a broken thermometer.
To reduce the risk of breaking, do not use a thermometer as a stirrer. Wear gloves and grip the thermometer so
that, if it breaks, your wrist will not be cut

Examples

1. The temperature of a mixture of ice, salt and water is

measured using a mercury– in –glass thermometer. When
thermal equilibrium has been reached, the mercury thread in
the thermometer is as shown besides. What is the temperature
of the mixture? What is the uncertainty in this value?

Solution
By interpolation between the scale divisions, the temperature reading
is -2.5oC.
The uncertainty is about ± 0.5oC

2. The temperature of solidifying liquid is measured using a liquid –in –glass

thermometer. When thermal equilibrium has been reached, the liquid
thread in the thermometer is as shown in figure besides. What is the
solidification temperature? What is the uncertainty in this value?

Thermocouple thermometer

A thermocouple is an electrical device which can be used as the sensor of a thermometer.

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• When wires of two different conductors are joined together, two junctions are formed.
• When the two junctions are at different temperatures, an e.m.f (voltage) between the two free ends is
developed and can be measured using a voltmeter. The device is known as a thermocouple. The
greater the difference in temperature, the greater the voltage produced.
However this e.m.f may not vary linearly with temperature, i.e. a graph of e.m.f against temperature is not
usually a straight line as shown below. This is called the calibration curve of a thermocouple thermometer
Therefore a thermocouple may be connected
to a millivoltmeter which has not been
calibrated in temperature units or it may be a
digital instrument, which is calibrated in oC
as shown above
From the calibration curve, one can
read off any temperature
corresponding to a given e.m.f.

Calibration curve of a thermometer using a mercury thermometer as a standard

➢ An unmarked thermometer (alcohol in this example) can
be calibrated using a mercury thermometer as a standard.
➢ Both thermometers are placed in pure melting ice (0oC),
the length of the alcohol “thread” is noted. A heater is
switched on causing the water temperature to gradually
increase.
➢ For atleast six temperature values (read from the standard
mercury –in –glass thermometer) the corresponding length
of the alcohol thread is noted.
➢ A graph of length of alcohol thread against temperature is
the required calibration curve.
➢ Any temperature between 0 and 100 degrees can now be
measured using this unmarked thermometer. Place the un
marked thermometer in a beaker of moderately warm
water, measure the length of the alcohol thread and from
the calibration curve, read the corresponding temperature.
Some of the precautions include
 when reading the degree make sure there is no parallax
 stir to ensure even distribution of heat
 have a wide range of temperatures

Choice of method
The choice of a particular thermometer in a given application will depend on range of temperatures to be
covered, the heat capacity of the object, and whether the temperature is varying rapidly.
The heat capacity of the bulb of a liquid –in –glass thermometer is much greater than that of the hot junction
of a thermocouple. For this reason, the thermocouple is particularly useful when a rapidly varying temperature
is to be measured, or when the object whose temperature is required, has a small heat capacity
• Mercury –in –glass thermometers are available to cover the temperature range from -40oC to 350oC.
Thermocouples using different pairs of metal or alloys wires can cover a much larger range.

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Methods of measuring current and potential difference
The two main instruments available in the lab are the analogue meters, in which a pointer moves over a scale
and the digital meters, in which the value is displayed on a read –out consisting of a series of integers.
Analogue meters
An analogue meter can display any value within the range
available on its scale. However, the precision of readings is
limited by our ability to read them. For example, a 0 –1A d.c
ammeter will measure direct currents in the range from zero
to 1A. A 0 –6V d.c. voltmeter will measure steady potential
differences in the range from zero to 6V. Some analogue
meters have a dual –range facility, with a common negative
terminal and two positive terminals, each of which is
associated with a separate scale on the instrument.
Thus one scale might be 0 – 3A, and the other 0 – 15A.
• Be careful to take the reading on the scale corresponding to the pair of terminals you have selected.
• Analogue meters are subject to zero error. Before switching on the circuit, check whether the needle is
exactly at the zero mark. If it is not, return the needle to zero by adjusting the screw at the needle
pivot.
• There is also a possibility of parallax error. The needle should be read from a position directly above it
and the scale, and not from one side. Sometimes a strip of mirror is provided close to the scale so that
the experimenter can align the needle with its image in the mirror, ensuring that viewing is vertical.
• The uncertainty associated with a current or voltage reading from an analogue meter is usually taken
to be (±) the smallest scale reading.

The galvanometer
A galvanometer is a sensitive current – measuring analogue meter. It
may be converted into an ammeter by a connection of a suitable
resistor in parallel with the meter. Such a resistor is called a shunt.
The galvanometer may also be converted into a voltmeter by the
connection of a suitable resistor in series with the meter. Such a
resistor is called a multiplier.

Galvanometer – Null method

A galvanometer with a center –zero scale shows negative values when the needle is to the left – hand side of
the zero mark and positive currents when it is to the right is often used as a null indicator.
Any method of obtaining measurements or comparisons, in which the measurement is correct when
the deflection of the galvanometer or other indicator is zero, is a null method.
Note clearly that the null point is a balance point not a point where there is no electrical activity.

Advantages of null method

✓ an uncalibrated galvanometer can be used
✓ the galvanometer of any high degree of sensitiveness can be employed, there being no
restriction as to its fineness of winding or highness of resistance.

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Digital meters
Digital meters may have a zero error. Before switching on
the circuit, check whether the reading is zero. If it is not
zero, make a note of the reading and take it into account
when reading the current or voltage. Also note whether the
display indicates ‘A’ or ‘mA’, and observe the position of
the decimal point.

Multimeters
A multimeter measures electrical properties such as AC or DC voltage,
current, and resistance. Rather than have separate meters, this device
combines a voltmeter, an ammeter, and an ohmmeter. Electricians and the
general public might use it on batteries, components, switches, power
sources, and motors to diagnose electrical malfunctions and narrow down
their cause.
Multimeters are thus sometimes called multifunction instruments.

Note: To measure a current in a component in a

circuit, an ammeter should be connected in series
with the component. To measure the potential
difference across the component, a voltmeter
should be connected in parallel with the
component. This is illustrated besides.
Note the distinction between digital and analogue scales
• Analogue scales have round dials, where a pointer
moves clockwise according to the load applied.
Markings are equally spaced between the numbers to
indicate fractional amounts.
• Digital scales have LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) or LED number displays. There are no pointers on a
digital scale.
Note: The measurement of magnetic flux density using the hall probe is important for A’level syllabus
only and will be covered under magnetic fields.

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Chapter Summary
• Methods available for measurement of length include:
✓ meter rule (range 1m, reading uncertainty ±1mm)
✓ micrometer screw gauge (range 50mm, reading uncertainty ±0.01mm)
✓ vernier caliper (range 100mm, reading uncertainty ± 0.1mm)
• Methods available for measurement of mass include:
✓ top –pan balance, spring balance, lever balance.
• Methods available for measurement of time include:
✓ stopclock (reading uncertainty ±0.2s)
✓ stopwatch (reading uncertainty ± 0.01s)
✓ time base of cathode ray oscilloscope (accuracy depends on axis scale)
• Methods available for measurement of temperature include:
✓ liquid –in –glass thermometer
✓ thermocouple thermometer
• Methods available for measurement of current and potential difference include:
✓ analogue meter, digital meter, multimeter, cathode –ray oscilloscope.
• Methods Available for the measurement of magnetic flux density include the hall probe.

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