mmmmmm

Paper

CAMBRIDGE OL PHYSICS
PAPER-6 REVIEW
1. Skills regarding handling the experiment
A. How to measure the length?
a) Measuring the length of an object:
I. The ruler (up to 30 cm)
 Accuracy: 0.1 cm = 1mm
 The ruler should be placed as close to the object as possible.
 The eye must be directly above the mark on the scale or the thickness of the ruler
causes parallax error.

 When measuring extensions (of springs, for example), it is best to record

the actual scale readings for the stretched and relaxed lengths, and then work
out the extension afterwards.

II. The micrometre screw gauge (up to 2 cm)

 Accuracy: 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
 Can be used to measure small objects in the millimetre range.
III. Vernier scale (up to 15 cm):

 Accuracy: 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

IV. The meter rule (up to 1 m)

Accuracy: 1 mm = 0.1 cm

V. The measuring tape (distances more than 1 m)

Accuracy: 1 cm

Notes:
 each reading should be repeated several times to get an acceptable
average.
 Some readings should be excluded if their values are very far from the
other readings (abnormal readings).
b) Measuring thickness of a thin object:
Multiples can be measured and the divided to find an average value. For
example, to obtain the average thickness of one page of a book, measure the
thickness of 20 pages and divide your result by 20.

c) Measuring the diameter of a cylinder or a sphere:

To measure the diameter of a sphere or a cylinder, place it between two
vertical blocks and take the difference between the two readings at the edges
of it.

X1 X2
Meter rule

Wooden blocks

Diameter = X2 – X1

d) Measuring Diameter of ball bearings:

To measure the diameter of ball bearings collect them together in a row between
two vertical blocks, measure the total length and then divide by
the number of balls to get the ball’s diameter. Meter rule
X1 X2

Wooden blocks

Diameter = (X2 – X1)/N

e) How to check that the ruler is vertical to the bench?
 By using set square method: put the set square (right-angle triangle) so
that one side of the angle is parallel to the bench, while the other side of
the right angle is parallel to the meter rule.
Meter
rule

Right-angle
triangle

Bench

 By protractor

f) How to check that the ruler is horizontal to the bench?

 By using the spirit level
 By measuring the height of the meter rule above the bench (h) from both
sides (must be equal).
Meter rule Meter rule

h h

Bench
C. How to measure the volume?
1) Volume of liquids
 The volume of relatively large volumes is measured using measuring
cylinder (a). Small volumes are measured using a pipette or a burette (b).
 The unit of volume is ml. 1ml = 1cm3, 1l = 1dm3 and 1m3 = 106m3.
 The following precautions should be taken into consideration:
 The measuring cylinder must be vertical by setting on a horizontal
bench.
 The eyes should be perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax
 The reading should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus of the
liquid surface unless for mercury, it should be taken at the top of
the meniscus.

2) Volume of regular solids:

 Volume of a rectangular block = Length × width × Height
4
 Volume of a sphere of radius 𝑅 = 𝜋𝑅3
3
 Volume of a cylinder of radius 𝑅 and height 𝐻= 𝜋𝑅2𝐻
3) Volume of irregular solids:
 By using measuring cylinder (Accuracy 1cm3):
 Fill the measuring cylinder with some water with a volume V1.
 Insert the solid gently in the cylinder and make sure it is totally
immersed.
 Measure the volume of the solid and the water V2.
 The volume of the solid is V2 – V1.

V2
V1

 By using displacement can and measuring cylinder:

When the solid is large to be inserted in the cylinder.
 Fill the displacement can to its full capacity.
 Insert the solid gently in the displacement can and collect the
volume of water that floods from the can in an empty measuring
cylinder.
 Take the volume reading in the measuring cylinder which is the
volume of the solid.
 Note: in both methods, if the solid traps air inside it so that some volume
of air cannot be occupied by the liquid, the measured volume
is greater than the real volume of the solid.

D. How to use measure the mass?

1. Mass can be measured by a digital top-pan balance, which gives a direct
reading of mass placed on the pan.
2. The unit of mass is kg = 1000 g
3. The mass of a very light object like a pin is determined by finding the mass of
large number of these objects and then divided by the number of object to
get the average mass of a single object.
4. Note:
 The balance should be clean, horizontal and reads zero before applying
a mass on it.
 A digital top-pan balance is accurate to the size of the smallest mass which
can be measured on the scale setting you are using, probably 1 g or 0.1 g.
E. How to measure the time?
 Long times (hours) are measured using a clock or a watch.
 Shorter times (up to one hour) are measured using a stopwatch. It should
be reset to zero before pressing start: otherwise a correction should be
performed.
 Very short times (up to s sec) are measured using electronic /digital timer

F. How to read results on Ammeter and Voltmeter?

 An ammeter measures electric current
 The unit of current is ampere (A)
 An ammeter should be placed in series with the device in which the current is
to be measured.
 A voltmeter measures potential difference (p.d.).
 The unit of potential difference is the volt (V).
 A voltmeter should be placed in parallel with the device across which the p.d. is
to be measured.
 There are two types of Ammeters/Voltmeters, analogue and digital.

 If the analogue meter is used, the accuracy = 1 division value.

 Tips for using meters in electrical circuits:
 Construct circuits with the power
switched off or battery disconnected
and the meter last.
 Check that meters are connected with
the correct polarity and are set to their
lower sensitivity initially.
 Set the power supply output to zero before you switch it on.

G. What are the electricity symbols?

2. Skills regarding handling the data
A. Calculation skills:
a) Significant Figures and rounding
Note: Always show answers to 2 or 3 significant figures. Double check all
calculations at the end of the test and check that you have given the correct
unit.

b) Calculating the average according to SFs:

 Sum the values for a quantity you have measured and divide the sum by the
number of values to obtain the average.
 For example if you measure the length of a pendulum as 81.5 cm and
81.6 cm, then:
(81.5+81.6)
The average value = cm
2
(163.1)
= cm
2
= 81.55 cm
= 81.6 cm
The value has been given to 3 SFs because that was the accuracy of the
individual measurements on which the calculation was based.
c) Experimental accuracy limit (below & beyond)
 Subtract the smaller number from the greater number.
 Divide the result by the greater number
 Multiply the result by 100 to obtain the percentage error.
 If the percentage is below 10%, then the results are equal within the
experimental accuracy.
 If the percentage is beyond 10%. Then the results are not equal within the
experimental accuracy.
 Example: An experiment is performed to determine the focal length of a
lens by two different methods.
f1 = 16.0 cm f2 = 15.5 cm
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
%=(
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
) × 100
16.0−15.5
%=(
16.0
) × 100 = 3%
 The results are equal within the experimental accuracy as the
percentage (3%) is less than 10% (below the experimental accuracy
limit).

B. Graphing skills
a) How to best represent and plot the data?
 You will need about 6 points taken over as large a range as possible to
plot a graph.
 Choose scales that make it easy to plot the points and use as much of the
graph paper as possible (at least half of X axis and half of Y axis unless
more) but don’t use an awkward scale to force the graph to take up all
the grid. If your range of values is for example 89 to 170, you don’t need
to start at zero, start at 80.
 Make sure you label each axis of graph with the name and unit of the
quantity being plotted e.g. Resistance / Ω (Don’t write Resistance (Ω),
use the forward slash “/”).
 Plot all points to within ½ small square (examiner checks this very
carefully).
 Mark the data points clearly with a dot in a circle or a cross with a sharp
pencil.
 Join up your points with a single, continuous, sharp and smooth line or
curve.
b) How to make a line fitting?

 In practice, points plotted on a graph from actual measurements may not lie
exactly on a straight line due to experimental error.
 The best straight line is then drawn through them such that they are equally
distributed about it; this automatically averages the results.
 Do not force the line through the origin unless the graph should go through
the origin (for example this is fine in the case of someone starting a
stopwatch at a start line if you are plotting time against displacement).
 If possible, repeat any anomalous measurement/calculation to check that
they have been recorded and/or calculated properly or try to identify the
reason for the anomaly.
c) How to calculate the gradient/slope (triangle method)?

 The slope or gradient of a straight-line graph can be determined by the

triangle method.
 Use as long length of line as possible to determine the gradient from the
ratio of the vertical (rise) to the horizontal (run) of the triangle chosen.
 It is best practice to draw the triangle in your exam paper with a thin line.
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
 Gradient =
𝑟𝑢𝑛
6
= 𝑚/𝑠
3
= 2 𝑚/𝑠
 Show your working out – put numbers into (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)
d) How to describe the relation represented by the graph?
I. Linear:
 The straight line equation is:
Y = mx + c
where, m is the slope/gradient and c is constant. The constant c represents
the intersect point with the Y axis (at X = 0).
 X and Y are called to have a linear dependence relation.
II. Direct proportionality:
 If the constant in the linear equation becomes zero as a special case, then
the linear equation becomes:
Y = mX
In this case, the line intersects at X = 0 and Y = 0 (the origin) and the relation
is said to be DIRECT.
 Each DIRECT equation is LINEAR but not each LINEAR equation is DIRECT.
 The main sign of the DIRECT equation is that:
𝒀
= 𝒎 is always constant all over the graph.
𝑿
𝒀
 For this graph, = 𝟐 for all the points on the graph.
𝑿
(Y∝X)
III. Inverse proportionality:
 If the relation between X and Y is:
𝒎
𝒀= , then 𝒀𝑿 = 𝒎 is always constant.
𝑿
 The continuous line in this case is a curve.

X Y 1/X

X
 For the graph above, 𝑌𝑋 = 12 for all the X and Y values. It represents an
INVERSE proportionality relationship.
 If, however, 1/X is plotted against Y (or X is plotted against 1/Y) then
a straight line through the origin is obtained.

X
 In this case 1/X is proportional to Y and there is an inverse
proportionality between X and Y:
𝟏 𝟏
∝𝒀 OR ∝𝑿
𝑿 𝒀
e) Table skills:
 Numerical values should be given to the number of significant figures
appropriate to the measuring device.
 Column headings in tables of readings must be headed with the quantity
and unit as in these examples: I/A, or t/s, or y/m.
 Any calculated quantity should have the least number of SFs of the
quantities that were involved in the calculation (or at most one more).
 If an average is calculated, it should be written to the least number of
decimal places of the averaged numbers.

Experiments:
1. General Physics:
1.1 Simple pendulum
Aim To investigate the effect of length and mass on the period of a simple
pendulum.
Apparatus Support stand-String-2 metal pendulum bobs of different mass-metre
rule-scales.
Procedure 1. Measure the length of the pendulum from the point of support to
the centre of the bob; repeat measurements and calculate the
average.
2. Measure the time taken for the bob to make ten small angle
oscillations; Repeat the measurement and calculate the average
time.
3. Work out the period, T, of the pendulum –this is the time needed for
one oscillation.
4. Measure the mass of the pendulum bob.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 using a longer pendulum length.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 4 using a heavier pendulum bob and the same
pendulum length as was used in step 5.

Precautions to  No air currents in the place.

improve accuracy  Take the time of number of swings then divide the time measured
or to give more by the number of swings to get T.
reliable results  Repeat and take the average.
 Look perpendicular to ruler while measuring the height.
 Use the set-square as a horizontal reference.
 Metre rule should be close to pendulum.
 Measure the length from the centre of the mass of the bob
Conditions kept  Same stopwatch.
constant to fair Release the bob from the same height (same amplitude).
comparison or to
 Same number of swings.
repeat the
experiment  Same shape of bob.
 Same size of bob.
Common questions  Explain why measuring time of 20 swings (oscillations)
rather than 1 swing is more accurate
 To reduce the effect of reaction time
 To reduce error
 Time of one swing is too small to be measured
 Why measuring the time of 200 oscillations isn’t suitable?
 Pendulum may stop
 Student may lose counting
 Suggest a practical reason why the result obtained from
experiment is different?
 Student didn’t react quickly when the pendulum
started.
 Difficulty to measure the length from the centre of
bob.
 Suggest improvement to the experiment
 Repeat and take average
 Use different lengths
 Use fiducial mark
 Draw a graph for the results to find the anomalous
results.

1.2 Balancing a beam:

Aim To measure the moment about a pivot and to show that there
is no net moment on a body in equilibrium.
Theory The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect and
is given by:
Moment of a force = F × d
Where F is the turning force acting on a body and d is the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from
fulcrum.
For a body in equilibrium, the law of moments states that the
sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point equals
the sum of clockwise moments about the same point.
Apparatus As shown in figure
Procedure Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure,
Difficulties and Balancing the ruler above the pivot:
how to overcome  Repeat several times until it balances
them
The mass slips over the ruler:
 Stick the mass with the ruler
The centre of mass of the cylinder may not above the correct
mark (X):
 Measure the diameter of the cylinder d.
 Calculate the radius r = d/2
 Adjust the cylinder above the correct mark (X) so that
one side of the cylinder at mark (X-r) and the other at
mark (X+r).
r = d/2
d

0 cm 100 cm
X-r X+r

Precautions to  Repeat and take the average

improve accuracy  Look perpendicular at the scale of the ruler while
or to give more
taking the readings to avoid parallax error.
reliable results
 The range of masses
Common questions What is the mass of the ruler?
 From 100 to 200 g
Where is the position of the centre of the mass?
 It is the point at which the meter rule balanced above
the pivot

1.3 Spring Experiment (Hook’s law):

Aim To investigate Hook’s law for a spring.
Theory Hook’s law states that:
F = kx
Where F is the stretching force, x is the extension of the
spring and k is the spring constant.
The law should hold if the spring is not permanently stretched
Apparatus -retort stand (clamp stand)-spring-hanger with 100 g
weights-ruler-adhesive/sticky tape.
Procedure Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
1. Fix the ruler vertically next to the spring so that it can be
used as a scale.
2. Record the position of the bottom of the unweighted
spring on the scale, Is, and repeat your measurement.
3. Measure the length of the hanger, Io.
4. Hang an unweighted (100 g) hanger on the spring and
record the scale position of the bottom of the hanger
5. Add a 100 g mass to the hanger and again record the scale
position of the bottom of the hanger.
6. Repeat step 5 with 200g, 300g and 500 g masses on the
hanger.
7. Plot a graph of the stretching force along the x-axis against
the extension along the y-axis.
8. Calculate the gradient of the graph.
Difficulties and  The clamp retort stand might topple.
how to overcome To overcome: use small loads.
them
 Spring might overstretch/spring too weak
To overcome: use loads that don’t overstretch spring
Possible causes of  Spring extension is not uniform with load
inaccuracy  Spring exceeds the limit of proportionality
Precautions of  Take care with masses and think the hanging masses would
safety fall if the spring snapped.
 Wear eye protection
Precautions to  Look perpendicular to the scale of the ruler while taking the
improve accuracy readings to avoid parallax error
or to give more
 Wait until the spring stops vibrating
reliable results
 Always measure from the same point of spring
 Ensure the ruler is vertical/use horizontal aid
 Bench surface must be horizontal
 At least 5 loads for each spring if producing a graph
 Improve the accuracy by:
 Clamping the metre ruler in place and then using the
set square to make the length/extension
measurement

 Use the set square to make sure that the clamped

ruler is vertical in relation to the bench
 Set the clamped ruler at 0 cm when no masses are
added and ,so read the extension directly.
Conditions kept  Same spring diameter
constant to fair  Same spring thickness
comparison
 Same range of loads
between springs of
different materials  Same length of spring/hanger
 Same number of coils
 Same coil spacing

1.4 Density (Displacement Method)

Aim To measure the density of a solid
Theory By definition, the density of a substance is given by:
Density = mass/volume
For a regular-shaped solid the volume can be found by
measuring its dimensions and the mass is determined by
weighing. For an irregularly-shaped solid, the volume is found
by immersion in a liquid.
Apparatus As shown in figure.
Procedure  Measure the mass of the solid material m on a top-pan
balance
 Fill the measuring cylinder with a known volume of
water V1
 Shack the solid material very well.
 Immerse the solid in the cylinder.
 Measure the new volume V2
 Calculate the solid volume as:
 V = V2 – V1
 Calculate the density as:
Density = m/V
Precautions to  Shack the solid material/rock
improve accuracy  Thin string/wire should be used
or to give more
 Look perpendicular to the scale of the cylinder
reliable results
 Look from the meniscus
 Put the solid material/rock gently
Possible causes of  Parallax error
errors/inaccuracy  Student did not look from the meniscus of the liquid
 Splashes during immersing the solid material/rock
 Air bubbles may found in the solid material/rock
 String/wire used may be thick
 Cylinder may not be sensitive
2.1 Cooling rate experiment:

OR

Aim To study how the surrounding temperature affects the rate

at which water/liquid cools
Theory  A hot body loses its heat energy gradually to the
surroundings. The experiment is done by measuring the
temperature (using a thermometer) at equal time
intervals (using a stopwatch).
 The temperature decreases until the body reaches the
room temperature.
 The rate of cooling (rate of heat lost by radiation) of a
body depends on:
 The difference in temperature between the body and
surroundings
 The exposed surface area of the body. The greater the
area the greater the chance of the body to emit heat.
 The nature of the radiating surface ( dull black is a good
radiator while shiny or white surface is a poor radiator).
Apparatus -heater-thermometer (or 2)- beaker(or 2)- stopwatch.
Procedure  The details of procedure may differ from an experiment
to another (this is the general procedure).
 Place heater into the beaker and turn it on to raise the
temperature of water to………
 Stir the contents of the water and place thermometer
into the beaker.
 Note the starting temperature and turn on the
stopwatch.
 Take readings of the thermometer and stopwatch at
regular intervals.
 Tabulate and plot a graph to conclude your experiment.
Precautions of  Take care when dealing with beakers of hot water.
safety  Set the hot water in a safe position where they will not be
accidently knocked over.
 Handle with caution to avoid burns
Precautions to  Stir before reading
improve accuracy  Keep the thermometer at same level
or to give more
 Set eye to as perpendicular to the scale
accurate/reliable
results  Wait until reading stops rising (at start)
 Position clock so the thermometer and clock can be seen
easily.
Possible causes of  Heat loses due to surrounds
errors/inaccuracy  Lag container with insulator
and how to
 Cover container with lid
overcome
 Initial temperature near to room temperature
Conditions kept  Measure water into test-tube / beaker to ensure the same
constant to fair volume/amount being used each time as cooling rates are
comparison or to
different at different volumes.
repeat the
experiment  Use the same starting temperatures in tubes because
cooling rates are different at different temperatures
 Ensure all water in tube below level of water in beaker to
ensure that all water in tube has the same surrounding
temperature.
 Use insulation / lid on beaker to keep water in beaker at
(more) constant temperature
 Same beaker.
 Same thermometer
*Explanation is written in italic bold (needed in some
questions).
Common questions  Explain why the rate of cooling decrease by time/ Why the
initial rate of cooling is greater than the final rate of
cooling?
Because the liquid temperature becomes near the room
temperature
Justification:
 If you have two tables in the question, and you need
to justify the statement, calculate the difference in
temperature in a given time interval in each table
then compare between the results within the limit of
experimental accuracy.
 Examples of insulators:
 Glass, Wool, Cotton, Plastic, Rubber.

3.1 Electricity experiment:

Aim To measure the resistance of a wire and/or to investigate its

dependence on the length of the wire.
Theory The resistance R of a wire is given by:
R= V/I
Where V is the p.d. across the wire and I is the current flowing
through it.
Apparatus -Battery-switch-wire or more- Ammeter-Voltmeter-
meter rule- mounting clamps- 0-25 Ω rheostat
(depending on the experiment)
Procedure
Precautions of The wire may become hot when current flows in it
safety
Precautions to  To overcome the heat effect in the wire:
improve accuracy  Use a battery of lower electromotive force.
or to give more
 Switch on and off between readings.
reliable results
 Add a lamp to lower the current
 Sometimes (not in all times)-depending on the given
diagram- you can increase resistance of resistor.

 To improve accuracy and give reliable results:

 Look perpendicular while taking the readings.
 Tap on both the ammeter and voltmeter to check
that the pointer is free to move (avoid sticking).
 Take several readings and then take overall average.
 Always check the connections are clean.
 Check the ammeter/voltmeter for zero-error
 Initially choose the highest range for the
ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce the range, so that
the deflection is almost full scale.
Possible causes of  Heating effect of the current
errors/inaccuracy  The battery is used up
 Bad connection of the sliding contact

4.1 Optics experiment # 1 (focal length and linear magnification):

Aim To determine the focal length and the linear magnification of
a converging lens.
Theory  Parallel rays from a distant object converge towards the
principal focus of a converging lens.
Note: the torch is not considered a distant object and is
not used in this experiment while determining the focal
length. The first part of this experiment should be
performed without a torch, only depending on a distant
object (may be outside the room/window)
 The linear magnification, m, of an image is given by:
m = height of image/height of object
Apparatus Small torch, converging lens, screen/card, metre rule,
adhesive/ mounting putty.
Procedure  Focal length
 Step 1: Hold the lens up to a distant window and
form a sharp image of the window on the
screen/wall/a piece of card.
 Step 2: Measure and record the distance between
the lens and card, the image distance, V.
 Repeat step 1 and 2 and obtain an average value for
the image distance, V, which is equal to the focal
length, f, of the lens.
 Magnification:

Difficulties and  Measuring the dimensions/height of the image using a
how to hand ruler away from the image.
overcome them  Can be overcome by using a translucent screen with a fixed
ruler/grid.
Precautions to  Dark room.
improve accuracy  Object and lens have the same height from the bench.
or to give more
 Mark on lens holder to show position of lens centre.
reliable results
 Repeat and take the average.
 Look perpendicular while taking readings.
 Object/lens/screen perpendicular to the bench
Common questions  Draw/describe the image:
 Inverted (upside down)
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
 Magnification = (𝟏)
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆
OR Magnification = (2)
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
Use formula 1 or 2 depending on the question
 Magnified if:
Image distance > Object distance.

Image

object
 Smaller if:
Object distance > Image distance.

Image

object

Common questions  Why the object, the lens, and the screen should be
perpendicular to the bench?
To be able to achieve a sharp/complete/focused image.
4.2 Optics experiment # 2 (Law of reflection):
Aim To verify the law of reflection and identify the properties of
an image in a plane mirror.
Theory The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence
equals the angle of reflection:
I=r
Where I is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal to the reflecting surface.
Apparatus (Lamp + single slit) or a ray box, plane mirror, pins, protractor,
adhesive
Procedure  Place the plane mirror on a sheet of white paper, holding
it vertical with plasticine or a block of wood.
 Draw a line along the mirror.
 Use the lamp and the single slit / ray box to shine a ray on
the mirror. This is called the incident ray. You will see the
reflected ray of light. Mark the position of each ray with
optical pins.
 Now take off all the apparatus and use a ruler to join up
the optical pins, along the lines of rays of light.
 Use a protractor or a set-square to draw a line at right
angle (900) to the mirror, as shown. This line is called the
normal.
 Use a protractor to measure the angles on each side of the
normal.
Precautions to  Precaution while putting the pins:
improve accuracy  Place the pins as far apart as possible (not less than 5
or to give more
cm).
reliable results
 Use more pins.
 Place the pins vertical
 Draw the lines so that they are as thin as possible
 Look perpendicular while taking readings to avoid parallax
error.
 Use thin protractor
 Look from the base of the pin:
 No concern about pins being vertical.
 Base of the pin lies on the ray.
 The base is always perpendicular to the plane
 Repeat and average
Possible causes of  Thickness of lines
errors/inaccuracy  Thickness of protractor
 Thickness of pins
 Pin holes.
 Thickness of mirror.
 Glass on front of mirror causes double refraction.

4.3 Optics experiment # 3 (Refractive Index):

Aim To determine the refractive index of glass and observe the
path of light rays through a glass block.
Theory The refractive index, n, of a medium is given by:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
Where I is the angle between the incident ray in air and
the normal and r is the angle between the refracted ray
and normal in the medium.
Apparatus Lamp, single slit, glass block with lower surface painted white,
protractor
Procedure  Place a rectangular block of glass on a white sheet of
paper. Trace the edge of the block using a pencil.
 Draw a normal to one side of the block.
 Let a light ray fall on the point where the normal is drawn.
 Observe the emerging ray from the side of the block.
 Put pins to determine the path of the incident ray and
emergent ray.
 Remove the block and draw lines representing the incident
and the emerging rays.
 Measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction of
light then calculate the refractive index.
Precautions to  Precaution while putting the pins:
improve accuracy  Place the pins as far apart as possible (not less than 5
or to give more
cm).
reliable results
 Use more pins.
 Place the pins vertical
 Draw the lines so that they are as thin as possible
 Look perpendicular while taking readings to avoid parallax
error.
 Use thin protractor
 Look from the base of the pin:
 No concern about pins being vertical.
 Base of the pin lies on the ray.
 The base is always perpendicular to the plane
 Repeat and average
Possible causes of  Thickness of lines
errors/inaccuracy  Thickness of protractor
 Thickness of pins
 Pin holes.