WEEK 3 NOTES

MEASUREMENT
Measuring lengths
The metre rule, vernier calliper and micrometre screw gauge are common instruments
used to measure lengths in a laboratory. The SI unit of length is the metre (m). A metre
rule would be used to measure the width of a desk or the length of a pendulum. A vernier
calliper would be used to measure the dimensions of a small block of wood or the
diameter of a test tube. A micrometre screw gauge would be used to measure the
diameter of a piece of copper wire. The choice of measuring device depends on the
magnitude of the length being measured.

Measuring length using a vernier calliper

There is a main scale and a vernier scale. When an object is placed between outside jaws,
the main scale is read first. On the vernier scale, one of the markings will line up with the
main scale. This gives the fraction of the millimetre scale that must be added to the main
scale.

Measuring length using a micrometre screw gauge

It consists of a main scale on the shaft and a fractional scale on a rotating barrel. The
fractional scale has 50 divisions. One complete turn represents 0.50 mm.

Measuring mass and weight

The mass of an object is measured using a beam balance. The weight of an object is the
force exerted on it by gravity. Weight can therefore be measured using a spring balance.

Measuring angles
It’s often required that angles be measured in some experiments. Angles be measured by
taking accurate measurements of lengths and using onometric calculations to determine
angles. Where possible, angles be measured directly using protractors. Measurement of
angles is often required when performing ray optic experiments or demonstrating the
equilibrium of forces. There are optics experiments that require very precise
measurements angles. In these experiments a spectrometer is used.

Measuring temperature
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin
(K). Temperature is also measured in degrees Celsius (°C).
Measuring volume
The volume of an object is the amount of space taken up by the object.
The volume of regular objects can be determined by calculation.

Volume of a cuboid V = l x b x h (length I, breadth b, height h)

4 3
Volume of a sphere V = πr (radius of circle, r)
3
Volume of cylinder V =π r 2 h (radius of base of cylinder r, height of cylinder h)

Volume is commonly measured in cm" or m°.

The volume of an irregularly shaped object can be measured using a displacement

method. Suppose you are required to measure the volume of a small stone. Some water is
place into a measuring cylinder and the initial volume recorded. The stone is gently
placed into the water and the final volume recorded. The difference between the two
volumes gives the volume of the stone.

Measuring time
The SI unit of time is the second (s). Time durations are measured using clocks or
stopwatches. Suppose an experiment is performed to measure the time taken for a
pendulum to complete one oscillation. To get an accurate value for this time interval, the
time taken for 10 oscillations T10 is recorded using a stopwatch. The experiment is
repeated several times and the mean (average time for ten oscillations is recorded.
The time for one oscillation T is determined as follows: T = To/10.

There are instances when the time interval of an event is so small that a stopwatch cannot
be used. An instrument called a cathode-ray. oscilloscope (CRO) can be used. The CRO
consists of a pair of parallel metal plates inside it called the X-plates. A sweep generator
of known frequency is attached to the X-plates. This frequency is adjusted using the time-
base setting on the front panel of the CRO

Measuring electrical quantities

Two important electrical quantities are electric current and potential difference. An
electric current is measured using an instrument called an ammeter and its unit is the
ampere (A|_A potential difference is measured using an instrument called a voltmeter and
its unit is the volt (V]. The ammeter and the voltmeter can be an analogue or digital type.
In the case of the analogue-type meter the location of the pointer in reference to a scale is
recorded. In the case of a digital meter, the measurement is recorded as seen on the
display of the instrument.
CALIBRATION CURVE
Suppose you were provided with a mercury-in-glass thermometer (A)
that had no markings on the length of it. The thermometer is of no use if it is not
calibrated. The thermometer is placed in known temperatures
(temperature of pure melting ice 0°C and the temperature of steam 100 °C
above pure boiling water) and the length of mercury is measured. These temperatures are
easily reproducible and chosen for this reason. Another thermometer (B) which is already
calibrated is used for comparison. Both thermometers are placed in substances that have
temperatures between 0°C and 100°C. The temperature reading on the calibrated
thermometer (B| is recorded and the length of the mercury in the thermometer (A) is
recorded.
A graph of temperature against length of mercury is
then plotted.This graph is the calibration curve for the
thermometer A. When the thermometer A is placed in
a substance of unknown temperature, the length of
mercury is recorded. This length is read off from the
calibration curve to determine the unknown
temperature.

SYSTEMATIC & RANDOM ERRORS

Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that
quantity. In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will
always be a degree of uncertainty. The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference
between a measurement reading and the true value. Random and systematic errors are
two types of measurement errors which lead to uncertainty.
Random error
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions. This affects the precision of the
measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results about the mean value.
To reduce random error: repeat measurements several times and calculate an average
from them.
Systematic error
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the
experimental method. This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or
the method is followed, which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained.
To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated, or the technique being
used should be corrected or adjusted.
Precision of a measurement
This is how close the measured values are to each other; if a measurement is repeated
several times, then they can be described as precise when the values are very similar to,
or the same as, each other.
The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded - measurements to a
greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole
number.
Accuracy
This is how close a measured value is to the true value; the accuracy can be increased by
repeating measurements and finding a mean average.

CALCULATING UNCERTAINCY
There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty
can be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the
equipment or techniques used) and the true value. Uncertainties are not the same as
errors. Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a
reading to be different from the true value.
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value is
expected to lie and is an estimate. For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is
950 g, but a systematic error with a balance gives an actual reading of 952 g, the
uncertainty is ±2 g.
These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity.
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the measurement.
uncertainty
Percentage uncertainty= ×100 %
measured value

To find uncertainties in different situations:

The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest - smallest value)
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted.

LINEAR MOTION

Equations of Motion

Distance - The distance travelled by an object is a scalar quantity and describes the
amount of ground the object has covered.

Displacement (s) - The overall distance travelled from the starting position (includes a
direction and so it is a vector quantity).

Speed - This is a scalar quantity which describes the distance travelled per unit time.

∆s
Velocity (v) - rate of change of displacement
∆t

∆v
Acceleration (a) – rate change of velocity
∆t

Motion Graphs
Three types of graphs that can represent motion are displacement-time graphs, velocity-
time graphs, and acceleration-time graphs.
Displacement-time graph
slope equals velocity, the y-intercept equals the initial displacement, a straight(diagonal)
line represents a constant velocity, a curved line represents an acceleration, a positive
slope represents motion in the positive direction, a negative slope represents motion in
the negative direction, a zero slope (horizontal line) represents a state of rest and the area
under the curve is meaningless.

Velocity-time graph
slope equals acceleration, the y-intercept equals the initial velocity, a straight line
represents uniform acceleration, a curved line represents non-uniform acceleration, a
positive slope represents an increase in velocity in the positive direction, a negative slope
represents an increase in velocity in the negative direction, a zero slope (horizontal line)
represents motion with constant velocity and the area under the curve equals the
displacement or distance travelled.

Acceleration-time graph
slope is meaningless, the y-intercept equals the initial acceleration, a zero slope
(horizontal line) represents an object undergoing constant acceleration and the area under
the curve equals the change in velocity.
Deriving Kinematic Equations of Motion

The kinematic equations of motion are a set of four equations which can describe any
object moving with constant acceleration. It’s important to know where these equations
come from and how they are derived:
Projectile motion
Suppose a ball is projected with a velocity V at an angle of  to the horizontal.

The horizontal component is given by VH = Vcos

The vertical component is given by V = Vsin

The force of gravity acts vertically and only affects the vertical component of the ball.
The horizontal component is unaffected by gravity and remains constant, provided that
air resistance is ignored. If air resistance is taken into account, the horizontal component
is no longer constant.The path taken by the ball is parabolic. In order to analyse projectile
motion, the horizontal and vertical motion are treated separately.

Showing that the path taken by a projectile is parabolic

Suppose a ball is projected horizontally with a velocity v at a height h above the ground.

The horizontal component VH = V

If air resistance is ignored, this component remains constant. Therefore, the acceleration
is zero.

The horizontal displacement x at time t is given by

1 2
x=( v ) t + ( 0 ) t =( v ) t
2

x
t=
v

The initial vertical component of velocity vv = 0

The vertical displacement y at time t is given by

1 2
y= ( 0 ) t + (−g ) t
2

Assuming that positive velocity means that the ball is moving upwards, the acceleration
due to gravity becomes -g.

Substituting Equation (1) into Equation (2):

y= ( 0 ) ( vx )+ 12 (−g)¿
g 2
y=−( 2
)x
2v