A.C.

FUNDAMENTALS 115

3
A.C. Fundamentals

Contents
A.C. Fundamentals, Sinusoiudal, Square and Triangular Wave Forms, Average
and Effective Values, Form and Peak Factors, Concept of Phasors, Phasor
Representation of Sinusoidally Varying Voltage and Current

3.1 INTRODUCTION
• The long form of ac is alternating current what is alternating in the a.c.?
The answer is both the magnitude and direction of the alternating current
changes.
• No such changes take place for the direct current (dc).
• An alternating current can be positive, negative or zero.
• The current that changes its polarity is called as alternating current.

3.1.1 AC Quantity
Definition:
• An alternating (ac) quantity (voltage, current or power) is defined as the
one which changes its value as well as direction (polarity) with respect to
time.
• Thus it is important to note that a quantity is called as an ac quantity if and only
if both its values as well as polarity changes with respect to time.
• Practically about 90% of the circuit use the “ac” energy for their operation.
• The voltage suplied to us by the electricity board is also ac voltage.
• All over appliances such as TV, Refregrators, Washing Machines, Air Conditions,
Fans etc. operate on the alternating voltage (ac voltage).

3.2 TYPES OF A.C. WAVE FORMS

Definition: Wave Form

• A wave form is a graph of magnitude of a quantity with respect to time.

115
116 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

A.C. waves

Non-sinusoidal
Sinusoidal Waves
Waves

Sine Waves Cosine Waves

Triangular Trapezoidal
Square Waves
Waves Waves

FIG. 3.1
• We know that an alternating voltage is any voltage that varies both in magnitude
and polarity with respect to time. Similarly, an alternating current is any current
that varies in both magnitude and direction with respect to time.
• Alternating quantity may be represented graphically. The shape of the curve
obtained by plotting the value of voltage and current at different instants against
time is called wave form or a waveshape.
Quantity Quantity Quantity

t t

(a) Square wave (b) Triangular wave (c) Trapezoidal

FIG. 3.2
• Out of all these types of alternating waveforms, purely, sinusoidal waveform is
preferred for a.c. system.

3.3 ADVANTAGES OF SINUSOIDAL WAVE FORMS

• The sinewave can be expressed in simple mathematical term or mathematically
it is very easy to write the equation for purely sinusoidal waveform.
• Sinusoidal voltage and curent produce minimum disturbance in electrical circuit
during operation.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 117

• Sinusoidal voltage and current produce less interference (noise) on telephones

lines.
• In a.c. machines, sinusoidal voltage and current produce less iron and copper
less.
Points to Remember: It can be proved that any waveshape can be considered
to be made up of various combination of sinewaves. Thus, sine wave is basic to
all alternating voltages and currents. The quantity obeying sine law are called
sinusoidal quantities or sinusoids.

3.4 GENERATION OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY

• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a coil is rotated
in a magnetic field, an electro-motive force (emf) is generated in it.
• This induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.
• Fig. 3.3 shows the basic principle of generation of alternating quantity.

c Direction of rotation

N
S

d
a
Magnetic field of lines

FIG. 3.3: Basic Principle of Generation of Alternating Quantities

• The generated emf can be expressed as:

e = Em sin θ

or v = Vm sin ω t or Vm sin θ

Where e or v instantaneous value of induced emf (voltage)

Em = Vm = maximum value of induced emf (voltage)

118 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3.5 IMPORTANT DEFINITION RELATED TO A.C. QUANTITY

(i) Instantaneous value (ii) Cycle
(iii) Time period (iv) Frequency
(v) Amplitude (vi) Angular velocity

(i) Instantaneous Value

Defintion: The instaneous value of an ac quantity is defined as the value of that
quantity at a particular instant of time.

Example: v(t1 ) is the instantaneous value of the ac voltage v(t) at instant t1 or

v(t2) is its instantaneous value at instant t2.

Voltage (v) Instantaneous variation

v(t1) in the value
Vm
+
t2
Time or ωt or θ
O t1 T/2 – T
v(t2)
One
complete cycle

FIG. 3.4 Wave form of an ac voltage

v = Vm sin ω t

v = Vm sin θ Instantaneous equation of voltage

Vm = Peak value of voltage.
Similarly for current
Current Instantaneous variation
(i) in the value
Im
O ωt or θ
T/2 T

One
complete cycle

FIG. 3.5: Wave form of an AC current

i = I m sin ω t
or i = I m sin θ = Instantaneous equation of current
where, I m = Peak value of current
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 119

(ii) Cycle
Definition: • In an ac waveform, each repetition consisting of one positive and one
identical negative part is called as one cycle of the waveform (refer Fig. 3.6).

Voltage One cycle

Identical
points
+
ωt or θ
O
–

cycle
= 2π

FIG. 3.6: Definition of cycle

(iii) Time Period or Periodic Time (T)

Definition: • Time period (T) is defined as the time taken in seconds by the waveform
of an ac quantity to complete one cycle.
• After every T seconds, the cycle repeats itself as shown in Fig. 3.7.

Voltage Waveform repeats after

T Seconds.

Time
O T 2T

FIG. 3.7: Concept of times period (T)

∴ Time period, T = Time corresponding to one cycle

(IV) Frequency
Defintion: • Frequency is defined as the number of cycles completed by an altenating
quantity in one second.
• It is denoted by “f” and its units are cycles/seconds or Hertz (Hz).

Cycle 1 1
∴ Frequency (f) = Second = second/cycle = T
120 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
∴ f= Hz
T

Voltage Voltage
or current or current

T
O Time O T Time

Time period Time

T period reduced
(a) Low Frequency (b) High Frequency

FIG. 3.7: Effect of change in time period (T) on the value of frequency

(V) Amplitude:
Defintion: The maximum value or peak value of an ac quantity is called as its amplitude.
Voltage Amplitude, Vm = maximum value

Vm

FIG. 3.9: Concept of Amplitude

ω)
(vi) Angular Velocity (ω
Definition: The angular velocity (ω) is the rate of change of angle ωt or θ with
respect to time.
dθ
∴ ω= , where d θ is the change in angle in time dt.
dt
• If dt = T , i.e., time period (one cycle) then the corresponding change in θ is
2π radians.
∴ dθ = 2π
2π
∴ ω=
T
1
• But = f, ∴ ω = 2π f
T
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 121

3.6 IMPORTANT VALUES OF ALTERNATING QUANTITIES

There are two types
1. Effective value or R.M.S. value.
2. Average value or mean value.

1. Effective value or R.M.S. value

Definition: The root mean square (RMS) value of an alternating current is by definition
equal to that value of direct current which will produce the same heat in the same time
in the same resistor.

Methods

Graphical Method Analytical Method

FIG. 3.10
Practical Importance of R.M.S. Value
• World wide an alternating voltage or current is always specified in terms of
R.M.S. values.
• The domestic ac supply is 230V, 50Hz, it is the rms value it means that alternating
voltage available has the same heating effect as 230V dc.
• When we say that alternating current in a circuit is 5A, we are specifiying the
r.m.s. value. it means that the alternating current flowing in the circuit has the
same heating effect as 5A d.c.
• Ammeters and voltmeters records r.m.s. value of alternating current and voltage,
respectively.

2. Average value or mean value

Definition: The average value of an alternating quantity is defined as the
value which is obtained by averaging all the instantaneous values over a period of half
cycle.

Methods

Graphical Method Analytical Method

FIG. 3.11: B.D.

122 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Practical Importance of Average Value

• The average value is used for application like battery charging and rectifier
circuits etc.
• The d.c. ammeters and voltmeters indicate the average value.
• The change transferred in capacitor circuit is measured using average value.
• The average value of purely sinusoidal waveform over a complete cycle is
always zero.

3.7 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (R.M.S.) OR EFFECTIVE VALUES, AVERAGE VALUE,

FORMFACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE: FOR SINUSOIDAL WAVE FORM

Root Mean Square (R.M.S.) value

• The root mean square (r.m.s.) of an alternating current is defined as the square
root of the average of I2 during a complete cycle where I is the instantaneous
value of the alternating current.
i i = Im sinθ

O ωt or θ

FIG. 3.12: Sinusoidal waveform

• The standard equation of alternating current is given as
i = I m sin ω t

or i = I m sin θ
• The r.m.s. value of current over one complete cycle is given as By analytical
method:
Final
1
I r .m.s. = ∫ i 2 dθ
Repeatation period
Initial

1 2π
∴ I r .m.s. =
2π ∫0
(I m sin θ )2 dθ

1 2π 2
=
2π ∫0
I m sin 2 θ dθ
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 123

2 2
Im 2π Im 2π (1 − cos 2θ )
∫ ∫
2
= sin θ d θ = dθ
2π 0 2π 0 2

2
Im 2π
= ∫
4π 0
(1 − cos 2θ ) dθ

2 2π
Im  sin 2θ 
=
4π θ − 2 
0

2
Im
∴ I r .m.s. = ( 2π − 0)
4π

Im
∴ I r .m.s. = = 0.707 I m
2
Similarly for voltage.
Vm
Vr .m.s. = = 0.707 Vm
2
Average Value of Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

i i = Im sinθ

O ωt or θ

FIG. 3.13: Waveform of Sinusoidal Current

• The average value of sinewave over a complete cycle is zero.
• Therefore the half cycle average value is evaluated.
• Consider first half cycle i.e., when ‘θ’ varies from 0 to π, we get (by analytical
method).
Average of first half cycle
∴ I avg =
π
1 π 1 π
π ∫0
I avg = idθ = ∫ I m sin θ dθ
π 0
124 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Im
=
π
[ − cos θ ]π0
Im 
= − cos π + cos 0o 
π  
2Im
∴ I avg = = 0.637 I m
π
Similary for the voltage.
2Vm
Vavg = = 0.637 Vm
π

Form Factor of Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

Form Factor
Definition: The ratio of R.M.S. value to the average value of an alternating quantity
is called form factor and it is denoted by Kf.
R.M.S. value
∴ Kf = Average value
• For current, form factor is:
I r.m.s.
K fI =
I avg

Im
2 = π
K fI =
2I m 2 2
π
∴ K fI = 1.11
• For voltage, form factor is

Vm
Vr.m.s. π
∴ K fV = = 2 = = 1.11
Vavg 2Vm 2 2
π

Peak Vactor of Sinusoidal Current and Voltage

Peak Factor
Definition: The ratio of maximum value to R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity is
known as peak factor. It is also known as crest a amplitude factor and it is denoted by
Ka or Kp.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 125

Maximum Value
∴ Ka or Kp =
R.M.S. Value
• For current, peak factor is

Im I
K pi = = m = 1.414
Ir.m.s. I m
2
• For voltage peak factor is

Vm V
K pv = = m = 2 = 1.414
Vr.m.s. Vm
2

SOLVED EXAMPLES BASED ON ABOVE THEORY

Example 3.1: An alternating current of frequency 60Hz has maximum value of
120A. Write down the equation for instantaneous value of current. Find the time taken
to reach 96A for first time. [UPTU 2006-07]
Solution: The given data,
I m = 120A
f = 60Hz
i = 96A
• We know that, instantaneous equation of current is
i = I m sin ω t , ω = 2π f

∴ i = 120sin 2π × 60t = 120sin120π tamp. Ans.

• Time taken to reach 96A.

∴ 96 = 120sin (120 π t )

1  96 
sin −1 
t=
120π  120 
t = 0.00246 seconds Ans.

Important Note: For any trigonometry (sin, cos, tan, cot, etc) multiplication/
division ‘π’ is taken as 180°.
Example 3.2: The ac supply at a house is 230V, 50Hz, find maximum value, rms
value, average value, form factor and peak factor of voltage.
Solution: The given data
126 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Vr.m.s.= 230V
f = 50Hz
We know that
Vm
Vr.m.s.=
2
• R.M.S. value of voltage = 230 V
∴ Vm = 2 × Vr.m.s.
= 2 × 230 = 325.27V
∴ Vm = 325.27 volt Ans.
• Average value of voltage
2Vm 2 × 325.27
Vavg = =
π π
∴ Vavg = 207.2V Ans.
• Form factor of voltage
Vm
Vr.m.s. π
K fv = = 2 = = 1.11
Vavg 2Vm 2
π
• Peak factor of voltage
Vm 325.27
K Pv = = = 1.414 Ans.
Vr.m.s. 230
3.8 R.M.S. VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE, AVERAGE VALUE, FORM FACTOR
AND REAK FACTOR FOR HALF-WAVE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
• Wave form for half-wave rectifier,

I i = Im sinθ

O θ or ωt

FIG. 3.14

1 π 2
2π ∫0
∴ I r .m.s. = i dθ
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 127

1 π
2π ∫0
= ( I m sin θ )2 dθ

2
Im π
=
2π ∫0
sin 2 θ dθ

2
Im π (1 − cos 2θ )
= ∫
2π 0 2
dθ

2
Im π
=
4π ∫0
(1 − cos 2θ )dθ

2 π
Im  sin 2θ 
=
4π θ − 2 
0

I m2
= (π − 0)
4π

Im
I r .m.s. =
2
• Similarly for voltage
Vm
Vr .m.s. =
2
Average value of current for current:
1 π
2π ∫0
I avg = i dθ

1 π
2π ∫0
= I m sin θ d θ

Im
= [ − cosθ ]π0
2π
Im
I avg =
π
• Similarly for voltage
Vm
Vavg =
π
128 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Form Factor
• For current
Irms I m / 2 π
K fI = = = = 1.57
Iavg I m / π 2
• For voltage
K fv = 1.57
Peak Factor
• For current
Im I
K PI = = m =2
Irms I m / 2
• Similary for voltage
K pv = 2

3.9 RMS VALUE, AVERAGE VALUE, FORM FACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR FOR
SQUARE WAVE OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
i
Im

O ωt or θ

FIG. 3.15: Square wave

• From wave form, instantaneous value of current given by, I = Im for o < θ < π .
• R.M.S. Value: The r.m.s. value of square current wave is given by

1 2π 2
2π ∫0
I rms = i dθ

2
1 π 2π Im
=
2π ∫0
I m dθ = [θ ]2π
2π 0

2
Im
= 2π = I m
2π
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 129

∴ I rms = I m
Similarly for voltage

∴ Vrms = Vm
Average Value: The average value of the square current wave is given by
1 π 1 π
π ∫0
I avg = Idθ = ∫ I m dθ
π 0

Im Im
=
π
[θ ]π0 = π
×π

∴ I avg = I m
Similarly for voltage

∴ Vavg = Vm
Form Factor: The form factor of the square current wave is given by
K fI = 1
Similary for voltage
K fv = 1
Peak Factor: The peak factor of the square current wave is given by
K PI = 1
Similarly for voltage
K Pv = 1

3.10 R.M.S. VALUE, AVERAGE VALUE, FORM FACTOR, PEAK FACTOR OF

TRIANGULAR WAVE FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
i

(x2, y2)
(π, Im)
Im
(x1, y1) O ωt or θ
(0, 0)

FIG. 3.16: Triangular-wave form

By using this formula
130 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

( y2 − y1 )
( y − y1 ) = ( x − x1 )
( x2 − x1 )

( I m − 0)
(i − 0) = (θ − 0)
(π − 0)

Im
∴ i= .θ
π
• So, the instantaneous value of current is given by
Im
i= θ for 0 < θ < π
π
• R.M.S. Value: The r.m.s. value of triangular current wave is given by
1 π 2
I r .m.s. =
π∫ i dθ 0

2
1 π  Im 
π ∫0  π 
= .θ dθ

2
Im π 2
3 ∫
= θ dθ
π 0

2  3 π
Im θ
= 3  3
π   0

2
Im π3
=
π3 3
Im
∴ I r .m.s. = for 0 < θ < π
3
• Similarly for voltage
Vm
∴ Vrms =
3
Average Value: The average value of triangular current wave is given by
1 π
I avg =
π ∫0 i. dθ
1 π Im
=
π∫ θ . dθ
0 π
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 131

π
Im  θ 2 
= 2 2
π   0

Im
I avg =
2
Similarly for voltage
Vm
Vavg =
2
Form Factor: The form factor of triangular current wave is given by
Im
I rms 2
∴ K PI = = 3 =
I avg I m 3
2
• Similarly for voltages
2
K fv =
3
Peak foctor: The peak factor of triangular current wave is given by
Im I
∴ K PI = = m = 1.732
Irms I m
3
• Similarly for voltages
K pv = 1.732

SOLVED EXAMPLES BASED ON ABOVE THEORY

Example 3.3: The equation of an alternating current i = 42.42 sin 628t. Determine
(i) its maximum value (ii) frequency (iii) r.m.s. value (iv) average value (v) form
factor. [Sem-I, 2004-05]
Solution: The given data
• The given instantaneous value of alternating current i = 42.42sin 628t
I m = 42.42 or ω = 628
(i) Its maximum value is
∴ I m = 42.42A Ans.
(ii) The given ω = 628 rad/sec
132 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

∴ ω = 2π f = 628
628
f= = 100Hz Ans.
2π
(iii) Its r.m.s. value
Im 42.42
∴ I r .m.s. = =
2 2
I r .m.s. = 30A Ans.
(iv) Average value of current
2Im
∴ I avg =
π
2 × 42.42
=
π
I avg = 27A Ans.
(v) Its form factor
Ir.m.s. 30
K fI = = = 1.11 Ans.
Iavg 27
Example 3.4: Find R.M.S. and average value for the wave form shown in Fig.
v
20

O t
0.1 0.2 0.3

FIG. 3.17
Solution: We know that the average value is given by formula.
1 T
T ∫0
Vavg = v.dt

1 0.1
0.3 ∫0
= 20dt = 6.67

∴ Vavg = 6.67 volt Ans.

• The R.M.S. value of given wave form is

1 T 2 1 0.1
∫ (20)2 dt
0.3 ∫0
Vr .m.s. = v .dt =
T 0
Vr .m.s. = 11.5 volt Ans.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 133
Example 3.5: Calculate from first principles the r.m.s. value of a triangular voltgae
wave in which the voltage rises from 0 to Vm and completes the cycle by falling
instantly back to zero. Also, give the ratio of rms to mean value for the wave form
(sawtooth wave).
v

Vm

O t

FIG. 3.18
Solution: • From above waveform, the instantaneous value of voltage can be
expressed as follows.
∴ We know
v = Kθ
Where K is the slope of the curve.
• Let the maximum value of the voltage be Vm .

⇒ Since v = Vm when θ = 2π
Vm
∴ K=
2π
• The expression for the instantaneous voltage becomes
Vm
v= θ
2π
• R.M.S. value of the voltage wave.
1 2π 2
2π ∫0
Vr .m.s. = v .dθ

2
1 2π  Vm 
2π ∫0  2π 
= θ .dθ

2π
Vm2  θ 3 
=  
4π 3  3  0

Vm
∴ Vr .m.s. = Ans.
3
134 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Mean value of the voltage wave,

1 2π
2π ∫0
Vavg = v. dθ

1 2π Vm
2π ∫0 2π
= θ dθ

Vm
= × [θ ]02π
4π
Vm
∴ Vavg = Ans.
2
• Ratio of r.m.s. value to mean value for the give wave form
Vm
Vr.m.s.
= = 3 = 1.155 Ans.
Vavg Vm
2

3.11 CONCEPT OF PHASOR

A sinusoidal quantity can be represented by a line of finite length rotating in counter
clockwise direction with the same angular velocity as that of the sinusoidal quantity.
Such rotating line is called phasor.

A Emax
B e 3π
θ = ωt π 2 2π
O π
ωt 2

FIG. 3.19

• Line OA represented → maximum value of alternating quantity.

• OB = OA sin θ = Emax sin ωt = e
• Phasor can be drawn on the basis of maximum/rms value.
Example: Phasor representation (unity p.f. load)

V
O I

FIG. 3.19(a)
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 135

v = Vm sin ω t

i = I m sin ω t
For lagging load:

φ Vref
O

I
FIG. 3.19(b)

v = Vm sin ω t
i = I m sin (ωt − φ )
For lagging load:

φ I
O

V(ref)
FIG. 3.19(c)
v = Vm sin ωt
i = I m sin (ωt + φ )

3.11.1 Phasor diagram using rms values

• Since there is a definite relation between maximum value and rms value
∴ Vm = 2 Vr.m.s.
• The length of phasor OA can be taken equal to rms value if desired.
• But it should be noted that in such cases, the projection of rotation phasor on
the vertical axis will not give the instantaneous value of that alternating quantity.
• The phasor diagram drawn in rms values of the alternating quantities helps in
understanding the behaviour of the ac machines under different loading
conditions.

3.11.2 Phase and phase angle

• By phase of an alternating current is meant the fraction of the time period of
that alternating current that has elapsed since the current last passed through
the zero position reference.
• The phase angle of any quantity means the angle the phasor representing the
quantity makes with the reference line (which is taken to be at zero degree or
radians).
• For example the phase angle of current I2 in Fig. 3.19(b) is (–φ).
136 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3.11.3 Phase difference

• When two alternating quantites, say, two emfs, or two currents or one voltage
and one current are considered simultaneoulsy, the frequency being the same,
they may not pass through a particular point at the same instant.
• One may pass through its maximum value at the instant when the other passes
through the value other than its maximum one.
• These two quantities are said to have a phase difference.
• The phase difference is measured by the angular distance between the points
where the two curves cross the base or reference line in the same direction.
• The quantity ahead in phase is said to lead the other quantity while the second
quantity is said to lag behind the first one.
• In Fig. 3.19 current I 1 represented by phasor OA leads the current I 2
represented by phasor OB by θ or current I 2 lags behind the current I1 by θ .
• The leading current I1 goes through its zero and maximum value first and the
current I2 goes through its zero and maximum values after time angle θ .
• The two waves representing these two currents are shown in Fig. 3.19(a).
• If I1 is taken as reference phasor, the two currents can be expressed
i1 = I m1 sin ω t
and i2 = I m2 sin(ωt − θ )
• The two quantities are said to be in phase with each other if they pass through
zero values at the same instant and rise in the same direction as shown in Fig.
3.20.
• But the two quantities passing through zero values at the same instant but rising
in opposite directions, as shown in Fig. 3.21 are said to be in phase opposition,
i.e., phase difference is 180°.
π
• When the two alternating quantities have a phase difference of 90° or radians
2
they are said to be in quadrature.
+ve

i1 = Im sin ωt
i2 = Im2 sin (ωt-θ)

O O A
wt I1

–ve I2 B
(a) (b)
FIG. 3.20
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 137

+ve
i1
i2
Im Im2

O A
wt I1
2
O B
I2
–ve
(a) (b)

FIG. 3.20(a)

+ve
i1 i2

Im1 Im2
O
B A
wt I2 I1

–ve (a) (b)

FIG. 3.21

3.112 CONVENTIONS FOR DRAWING PHASOR DIAGRAMS

• Counter-clockwise direction of rotation of phasors in usually taken as positive
direction of rotation of phasor i.e., a phasor rotated in a counter-clockwise
direction from a given phasor is said to lead the given phasor while a phasor
rotated in clockwise direction is said to lag the given phasor.
• For series circuit, in which the current is common to all parts of the circuit, the
current phasor is usually taken as reference phasor for other phasors in the
same diagram and drawn on horizontal line.
• In parallel circuits in which the voltage is common to all branches of the circuits,
the voltage phasor is usually taken as reference phasor and drawn on the horizontal
line.
• It is not necessary that current and voltage phasors are drawn to the same
scale, in fact it is often desirable to draw the current phasor to a larger scale
than the voltage phasor when the values of currents being represented are
small. However, if several voltage phasors are to be used in the same phasor
138 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

diagram, they should all be drawn to the same scale. Likewise all current phasors
in the same diagram should be drawn to the same scale.

SOLVED EXAMPLE BASED ON ABOVE THEORY

Example 3.6: Calculate (a) maximum value and (b) the root mean square values
of the following quantities.
(i) 40sin ω t (ii) B sin(ω t − π / 2) and (iii) 10sin ω t − 17.3cos ω t
Draw the phasors showing the phase difference with respect to A sin(ω t − π / 6).
Solution: (i) For the given, 40sin ω t
(a) Maximum value = 40 Ans.
Maximum value
(b) R.M.S. value =
2
40
= = 28.28 Ans.
2
(ii) For the given B sin(ω t − π / 2)
(a) Maximum value = B Ans.
B
(b) R.M.S. value = Ans.
2
(iii) For the given 10sin ω t − 17.3cos ω t
• The above equation may be written as

1 3 
20  sin ω t − cos ω t 
2 2 

 π π 
or 20  cos sin ω t − sin cos ω t 
 3 3 

 π
or 20sin  ω t −  cos A.sin B − sin A cos B = sin( B − A)
 3
(a) Maximum value = 20 Ans.
20
(b) R.M.S. value = = 14.14 Ans.
2
 π
• Phasors showing the phase difference with respect to A sin  ω t −  are shown
 6
in Fig.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 139

28.28

30°
0.707A
60° 30°

14.14
0.707B

FIG. 3.22

3.13 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALTERNATING QUANTITIES

• Let it is required to add two currents given by the equations.
i1 = I m1 sin(ω t + φ1 )

i2 = I m sin(ω t + φ2 )
2

• Addition and subtraction of these equation by analytical method is given below.

Analytical Method:
• Resolving currents Im1 and Im2 along x-axis and y-axis we have
• Algebraic sum of x-components

= I m1 cos φ1 + I m2 cos φ2
• Algebraic sum of y-components

= I m1 sin φ1 + I m2 sin φ1
• Resultant of maximum value of current is

I mr = ( x -component)2 + ( y + component)2
• Resultant phase difference is

 y -component 
φ R = tan −1 
 x-component 

• Instantaneous equation of current is

i = I mr sin(ω t ± φ R )
• Similarly Subtraction can be performed
140 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Algebraic difference of x-components

= I m1 cos φ1 − I m2 cos φ2
• Algebraic difference of y-components
= I m1 sin φ1 − I m2 sin φ2
• Resultant of maximum value of current is

I mr = ( x-comp. difference) 2 + ( y − comp. difference) 2

−1  y -component difference 
θ R = tan 
 x-component difference 

• i = I mr sin(ω t ± φ R )

SOLVED EXAMPLES BASED ON ABOVE THEORY

Example 3.7: Two alternating currents represented by the equation i1 = 7 sin ω t
and i2 = 10sin(ω t + π / 3) are fed into a common conductor. Find the equation for the
resultant current and its r.m.s. value. [Sem-I, 06-07, UPTU, 09-10]
Solution: The given equation are

i1 = 7 sin ω t ∴ φ1 = 0D
i2 = 10sin(ω t + π / 3) ∴ φ2 = π / 3
• The resultant current
I r = I1 + I 2
By Analytical Method
• Algebraic sum along x-axis
o π
= 7 cos 0 + 10 cos
3
∴ x-comp = 7 + 5 = 12
• Algebraic sum along y-axis
π
∴ y-comp = 7 sin 0o + 10 sin
3
y-comp = 8.66
I mr = ( x-component)2 + ( y − component) 2

= (12) 2 + (8.68)2
I mr = 14.8A
• and phase difference of resultant is currrent is
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 141

−1  y-comp  8.60
φ R = tan   = tan −1
 x-comp  (12)

φ R = 0.199π
I r = I mr sin(ω t ± θ R )

I r = 14.8sin(ω t + 0.199π ) A Ans.

∴ R.M.S. value of current is
I rms 14.8
I rms = = A Ans.
2 2

MORE UNIVERSITY EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE

Example 1: An ac voltage of 50Hz frequency has a peak value of 220V write
down the expression for the instantaneous value of this voltage. [UPTU 2007-08]
Solution: The given data
f = 50Hz
Vm = 220V
∴ Expression for instantaneous value of ac voltage is
v = Vm sin ω t (ω = 2π f )
v = 220sin 2π × 50t = 220sin 314 t Ans.
Example 2: An alternating current of frequency 50Hz has a maximum value of
1
100A. Calculate (a) its value second after the instant current is zero and its value
600
decreasing there afterwards. (b) How many seconds after the instant the current is
zero (increasing there afterwards) will the current attains the value of 86.6A?
[UPTU 2005-06, A.U. 1991, NU. 1999]
Solution: The given data,
f = 50Hz
I m = 100A
I

100
A
O
ωt

FIG. 1
From above wave form
142 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

I = 100sin100π t
(a) Since the current is measured from the instant the current is zero and is
decreasing there after wards (i.e., from point A in above Fig.)
• ∴ The equation for the alternating current with respect to the point A becomes
i = −100sin(100π t + π ) = −100sin100π t
1
• For the given time t= sec
600
1 π
∴ I = −100sin100π × = −100sin
600 6
I = –50 A Ans.
(b) Let the current attain the value of 86.6A, t seconds after the zero value of the
current.
∴ I = 86.6A (given)
86.6 A = 100sin100π t
1  86.6 
sin −1 
∴ t=
100π  100 

1
∴ t= sec
300
Example 3: A sinusoidally varying alternating current of frequency 60Hz has a
maximum value of 15A.
(i) Write down the equation for instantaneous value.
1
(ii) Find the value of current after sec.
200
(iii) Find the time taken to reach 10A for the first time and
(iv) Find its average value. [UPTU Sem-II, 2002-03]
Solution: The given data
f = 60Hz
I m = 15A
(i) The equation for instantaneous value of current.
iI = I m sin ω t
= 15sin 2π × ft
= 15sin 2π × 60t
i = 15sin120π t
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 143

1
(ii) for given t = second
200
• Current becomes i = 15sin120π × t

1
= 15sin120π ×
200
i = 14.266A Ans.
(iii) Let the instantaneous value of current be 10A (given), then time becomes
∴ i = 15sin120π t
10 = 15sin120π t

1  10 
∴ t= sin −1  
120π  15 

t = 0.001936 seconds Ans.

(iv) The average value of current is
2Im 2 × 15
Iavg = =
π π
∴ Iavg = 9.55A Ans.
Example 4: An alternating current when passed through a resistance immersed in
water for 5 minutes, just raised the temperature of water to boiling point. When a
direct current of 4 amperes was passed through the same resistance under identical
conditions it took 8 minutes to boil the water. Find the rms value of the alternating
current.
Solution:
• Heat produced when an alternating current of Irms amperes is passed through a
resistance R immersed in water for 5 minutes.
2
= (Irms ) × R × 5 × 60 = 300 Irms.R Joule
• Heat produced when a direct current of 4A is passed through the same resistance
R immersed in the water for 8 minutes.
= 4 2 × R × 8 × 60 = 7680 R Joules
• Since heat produced in both the case is same,
∴ Equating equation (1) and (2) we get
300 Irms2.R = 7680R

7680
or Irms = = 5.06 A Ans.
300
144 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Example 5: An alternating current is given by i = 20 sin 600t ampers. Find the (i)
frequency (ii) peak value of current and (iii) the time taken from t = 0 for the current
to reach a value of 10A. [UPTU 2004-05]
Solution: The given instantaneous equation of current is i = 20 sin 600t
∴ I m = 20A
ω = 600
600
(i) Frequency, f = = 99.5 Hz Ans.
2π
(ii) Peak value of current.
∴ I m = 20A Ans.
(iii) Time taken from t = 0 for the current to reach a value of 10A.
1  10 
∴ t= sin −1  
600  20 
t = 0.872m sec Ans.
Example 6: An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50Hz
has an rms value of 20A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value and find
this value (a) 0.0025 seconds (b) 0.0125 seconds after passing through a positive
maximum value. At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will the
instantaneous current be 14.14A? [A.U. 1992]
Solution: The given data
f = 50Hz
Irms = 20A

O ωt

FIG. 2
• The peak value of current is
∴ Im = 2 × Irms
Im = 2 × 20 = 28.28A
• The equation of alternating current with respect to origin O is
i = I m sin 2π ft
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 145

= 28.28sin 2π × 50t
i = 28.28sin100π t Ans.
• The above equation is valid when time is measured from the instant the current
is zero and increasing in positive direction. After passing through a positive maximum
value equation becomes:

 π
∴ i = 28.28sin  100π t + 
 2
i = 28.28 cos100π t Ans.
(a) When t = 0.0025sec, the instantaneous value of current,
π
i1 = 28.28cos100π × 0.0025 = 28.28cos
4
i1 = 20A Ans.
(b) When t = 0.0125sec, the instantaneous value of current,
i2 = 28.28cos100π × 0.0125 = −20 A Ans.
(c) If i = 14.14A (given), then, t we get
∴ 14.14 = 28.28 cos100π t
1  14.14  1
cos−1  = sec
t=
100π  28.28  300 Ans.

Example 7: An alternating voltage is given by v = 141.4 sin 314 t. Find (i) frequency
(ii) rms value (iii) average value (iv) the instantaneous value of voltage when ‘t’ is
3ms (v) the time taken for the voltage to reach 100V for the first time after passing
through zero value. [UPTU Sem-I, 2006-07]
Solution: The instantaneous value of alternating voltage is given by expression
v = 141.4sin 314t
∴ Vm = 141.4V
ω = 314 rad/sec
(i) The frequency is given by
ω = 2π f
ω 314
∴ f= = = 50Hz Ans.
2π 2π
(ii) R.M.S. value of given alternating voltage is
Vm
Vrms =
2
141.4
∴ Vrms = = 100V Ans.
2
146 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(iii) Average value of alternating voltage is,

2Vm 2 × 141.4
Vavg = = = 90V Ans.
π π
(iv) Instantaneous value of voltage for given time, t = 3 × 10−3 sec
∴ v = 141.4sin 2π × 50 × 3 × 10−3
v = 114.4volt Ans.
(v) For voltage given v = 100 time taken
v = 141.4sin100π t
100 = 141.4sin100π t
1  100 
sin −1 
∴ t=
100π  141.4 
1
t= sec Ans.
400
Example 8: An alternating voltage v = 100 sin100t. Find (i) Amplitude (ii) Time
period and frequency (iii) Angular velocity (iv) Form factor (v) peak factor.
[UPTU Sem-II, 2007-08]
Solution: The given instantaneous value of alternating voltage is
v = 100 sin100t
∴ vm = 100V
and ω = 100 rad/sec
(i) Amplitude of alternating voltage is
Vm = 100V Ans.
(ii) Frequency is given by coefficient of time, t divided by 2π ,
100
∴ Frequency, f = = 15.9Hz Ans.
2π
1
∴ Time period, T = f

1
T=
15.9
T = 0.063 seconds Ans.
(iii) Angular velocity,
ω = 2π f
ω = 2π × 15.9
ω = 100 rad/sec Ans.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 147

Vm 100
• RMS value, Vrms = = = 70.71V
2 2

2Vm 2 × 100
• Average value, Vavg = =
π π
Vavg = 63.7 volt Ans.
(iv) Form factor,
Vrms 70.71
Kf = = = 1.11 Ans.
Vavg 63.9
(v) Peak factor,
Vm 100
=
Kp = = 1.414 Ans.
Vrms 70.71
Example 9: Find the rms value, average value and form factor of the voltage
wave form shown in Fig. [UPTU Sem-II, 2002-03]

100V
Voltage

100V
O ωt

FIG. 3
Solution: • From a given waveform average value of voltage over one cycle
1 π
∴ Vavg =
π ∫0 v.dθ
V = Vm sin θ
1 π
π ∫0
Vavg = Vm sin θ d θ

Vm
=
π
[ − cos]π0

=
Vm
π
( − cos π + cos 0 )
o

2Vm 2 × 100
Vavg = = (Vm = 100V given)
π π
∴ Vavg = 63.66V Ans.
148 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• R.M.S. value of voltage wave form is

1 π 2
∴ Vrms =
π∫ v . dθ
0

v = Vm sin θ

1 π
∴ Vrms =
π ∫0
(Vm sin θ ) 2 dθ

Vm2 π  1 − cos 2θ 
π ∫0   dθ
=
2

π
Vm2  sin 2θ 
=  θ − 
2π  2 0

Vm2 V
= ( π − 0) = m
2π 2
Vm 100
∴ Vrms = = = 70.71V Ans.
2 2
• Form factor of the wave form shown in Fig.
Vrms 70.71
Kfv = Vavg = 63.66 = 1.11 Ans.

Example 10: Calculate the average and root mean square values, the form factor
and peak factor of a periodic current wave having the following values for equal time
intervals over half cycle, changing suddenly from one value to the next: 0, 40, 60,
80,100, 80, 60, 40, 0. [UPTU 2007-08, NU, 1999]
Solution: From the given data draw wave form.
Current

100

80

60

40

time t
FIG. 4
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 149
Solution: • Since the waveform is symmetrical, so considering one half cycle
only.
• Average value of current from above waveform is

I1 + I 2 + I3 + I 4 + I5 + I 6 + I 7 + I8
I avg =
8

0 + 40 + 60 + 80 + 100 + 80 + 60 + 40
=
8

I avg = 57.54A Ans.

• RMS value of current is

I12 + I 22 + I32 + I 42 + I 52 + I 62 + I 72 + I82

∴ I rms =
8

0 + 1600 + 3600 + 6400 + 10000 + 6400 + 3600 + 1600

=
8
I rms = 64.42Amp Ans.
• From above waveform peak value is
I m = 100A

I rms 64.42
∴ Form factor = = = 1.11
I avg 57.3

Im 100
• Peak factor = = = 1.552 Ans.
I rms 64.42

Example 11: An alternating voltage e = 200sin 314t is applied to a device which

offerses an ohmic resistance of 20Ω to the flow of current in one direction, while
preventing the flow of current in opposite direction. Calculate the rms value, average
value and form factor for the current over one cycle.
[N.U. EE 1992, 2001 UPTU 2002-03]
Solution: The given instantaneous voltage applied to the rectifying device is given
by the expression.
e = 200 sin 314t
∴ Maximum value of applied voltage is
Em = 200V
• Resistance of rectifying device R = 20Ω.
• Maximum value of half-wave rectifying alternating current is
150 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Em 200
∴ Im = = = 10 A
R 20
• RMS value of half-wave rectified alternating current,
I m 10
I rms = = = 5A Ans.
2 2
• Average value of the half-wave rectified alternating current is
Im 10
Iavg = = = 3.18 A Ans.
π π
• Form factor of the half-wave rectified alternating current is
I rms 5
= = = 1.57 Ans.
I avg 3.18

Example 12: A voltage v(t ) = 220 2 sin100t is applied to the circuit shown.
What is the rms value of current through the resistor R of 100Ω? Derive the formula
used. [PTU EE 2002]

Diode

FIG. 5
Solution: The given data,
• Instantaneous value of voltage is

v(t ) = 220 2 sin100 t

∴ Vm = 220 2 volt

Vm 220 2
∴ Im = = = 3.11A
R 100

• RMS value of circuit current,

I m 3.11
Irms = = = 1.55 A [Half wave rectified wave]
2 2
For derivation of formula, refer theory section.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 151

Example 13: Find the average and effective values of voltage for sinusoidal
waveform shown in Fig. [AUEE 1999]

Vm = 100V
Voltage

π/4 ωt or θ
2π 9π/4

FIG.

Solution: The equation of the given sinusoidal waveform is V = 100sin θ

1 π 1 π
∴ Vavg =
2π ∫π / 4
v.dθ =
2π ∫π / 4
V sin θ dθ

100 π
=
2π
[ − cos θ ]π / 4 = 27.17V Ans.

1 π 2 1 π
(Vm sin θ ) 2 dθ
2π ∫π / 4 ∫
∴ Vrms = v .dθ =
2π π / 4

π
Vm2 π  (1 − cos 2θ )  Vm2  sin 2θ 
2π ∫π / 4 
=  .d θ =  θ − 
2 4π  2 π /4

2500  π 1
= π− + 
π  4 2

∴ Vrms = 2273 = 47.67volt Ans.

Example 14: The two branches of parallel circuit draws currents i1 and i2 such
that i1 = 10 2 sin ωt and i2 = 5 2 sin(ω t − 60D ). What is the total current drawn?
[GBTU Sem-II, 2010-11]
Solution: The given branch current
i1 = 10 2 sin ω t

i2 = 5 2 sin(ω t − 60D ).
• By Analytical Method
• Resolving currents I m1 and I m2 along x-axis and y-axis we have.

• Algebraic sum of x-components = 10 2 cos 0o + 5 2 cos( −60o )

152 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

= 14.1421 + 3.5355 = 14.678

• Algebraic sum of y-components = 10 2 sin 0o + 5 2 sin(−60o )

= 0 + (−6.124) = −6.124
• Maximum value of resultant current.

Imr = ( x -comp)2 + ( y -comp)2 = (17.678) 2 + (6.128)2

∴ Imr = 18.708A
• Phase angle,

−1  y -comp 
φ R = tan 
 x-comp 

−1  −6.124 
= tan  = −19.1o
 17.678 

∴ Resultant current ir = I mr sin(ω t + θ 2 )

o
ir = 18.708sin(ω t − 19.1 ) Ans.
Example 15: Two ac voltages are represented by

v1 (t ) = 30sin(314t + 45o )

v2 (t ) = 60sin(314t + 60o )
Calculate the resultant voltage V(t) and express in the form
V (t ) = Vm sin(314t + θ ). [UPTU 2003-04]
Solution: The given equations are
v1 (t ) = 30sin(314t + 45o )

v2 (t ) = 60sin(314t + 60o )

• Resolving voltage Vm1 and Vm2 along x-axis and y-axis we have,
• Algebraic sum of x-components

= 30cos 45o + 60cos 60o

1 1
= 30 × + 60 × = 51.21V
2 2
• Algebraic sum of y-components

= 30sin 45o + 60sin 60o

A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 153

1 3
= 30 × + 60 × = 73.17V
2 2
• Maximum value of resultant voltage,

Vmr = ( x -comp) 2 + ( y -comp)2

= (51.21) 2 + (73.17) 2

Vmr = 89.31V

−1  y -comp 
• Phase angle θ r = tan  
 x-comp 

−1  73.17 
= tan  
51.21 
θ r = 55°
• So expression for resultant voltage is
V (t ) = Vmr sin(ω t + θ r )

V (t ) = 89.31sin(314t + 55o ) Ans.

Example 16: Draw a phasor diagram showing the following voltages:

 π
v1 = 100sin 500t , v2 = 200sin  500t + 
 3

 π
v3 = −50 cos 500t , v4 = 150sin  500t − 
 4
Find rms value of resultant voltage. [UPTU 2005-06, MTU 2008-09]
Solution: The given equations
v1 = 100sin 500t

 π
v2 = 200sin  500t + 
 3

v3 = −50 cos 500t

 π
v3 = 50sin  500t − 
 2

 π
v4 = 150sin  500t − 
 4
154 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The phasor diagram shown in Fig.

V1 = 100 sin 500t

FIG. 7

• Resolving voltages Vm1 ,Vm2 ,Vm3 and Vm4 along x-axis and y-axis we get.
• Algebraic sum of x-components

D π  π  π
= 100 cos 0 + 200 cos + 50 cos  −  + 150cos  − 
3  2   4

150
= 100 + 200 × 0.5 + 0 + = 306.05V
2
• Algebraic sum of y-components

D π  π  π
= 100sin 0 + 200sin + 50sin  −  + 150sin  − 
 2  4
3

= 0 + 200 × 0.866 − 50 − 100 = 17.2V

• Maximum value of resultant voltage,

Vmr = ( x -comp) 2 + ( y -comp)2 = (300)2 + (17.2) 2

Vmr = 306.5V
∴ RMS value of resultant voltage.
Vmr 306.5
Vr .m.s. = = = 216.72V Ans.
2 2
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 155
Example 17: The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented
 π
by v1 = 60sin θ and v2 = 40sin  θ −  . Derive expression for the instantaneous value
 3
of (i) the sum and (ii) the difference of these voltages. [UTPU July 2002]
Solution: The give equation are

 π
v1 = 60 sin θ and v2 = 40sin  θ − 
 3
(i) • Resolving the voltage along x-axis and y-axis we get
• The algebraic sum of x-components

o  π
= 60 cos 0 + 40 cos  − 
 3
= 60 + 20 = 80
• Algebraic sum of y-components

o  π
= 60sin 0 + 40sin  − 
 3

= 0 + (−34.64) = −34.64
• Maximum value of resultant voltage

Vmr = ( x -comp) 2 + ( y -comp)2

= (80)2 + (−34.64)2
= 87.178 volt

 y-comp 
• Phase angle, φ = tan −1 
 x-comp 

−1  −34.64 
= tan 
 80 
= – 23.41° = –0.13π radian
∴ So expression for the instantaneous value of the sum of given voltages.
Vmr = 87.17 sin(θ − 0.13π ) Ans.
(ii) Differnece of voltages
• Algebraic difference of x-components of voltages

o  π
= 60 cos 0 − 40cos  − 
 3
156 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

= 60 − 20 = 40
• Algebraic difference of voltage of y-components

 π
= 60sin 0o − 40sin  − 
 3

= − (−34.64) = −34.64
• Maximum value of resultant voltage

Vmr = ( x-comp. diff.) 2 + ( y -comp. diff )2

= (40)2 + (34.64)2

= 52.915 volt

−1  +34.64  o
• Phase angle, φ = tan   = 40.87
 40 

or φ = 0.227 π radian
∴ So expression for the instantaneous value of the difference of given voltages.
Vmr = 52.915sin(θ + 0.227π ) Ans.

Example 18: Three voltages represented by the following equation e1 = 15sin ω t ,

 π
e2 = 5sin  ω t −  , and e3 = 10 cos ω t act together in an ac circuit, represent these
 6
voltage by phasors and calculate an expression for the resultant voltage, check the
result graphically. [GBTU Sem-II, 2009-10]
Solution: The given equation are
e1 = 15sin ω t

 π

e2 = 5sin  ω t + 
 6

e3 = 10 cos ω t

 π
or e3 = 10sin  ω t + 
 2
• The phasor diagram is shown in Fig.
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 157

2 ω

90°

O e1 = 15 sin ω t

FIG. 8: Phasor diagram

• Resolving, e1 , e2 and e3 along x-axis and y-axis we have

• Algebraic sum of x-component
o π
= 15 cos 0 + 5cos + 10 cos 90o
6
5 3
= 15 + +0
2
= 19.33
• Algebraic sum of y-component
o π
= 15sin 0 + 5 cos + 10sin 90o
6
= 0 + 25 + 10
= 12.5
• Maximum of resultant voltage,

Emr = ( x -comp.) 2 + ( y -comp.) 2

= (19.33)2 + (12.5)2

Emr = 23

−1  y-comp 
• Phase angle φ = tan  
 x-comp 

−1  12.5 
= tan   = 32.9°
19.33 
158 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• Expression for resultant voltage

= Emr sin(ω t + φ )

er = 23sin(ω t + 32.9o )
• RMS value of resultant voltage
Emr 23
Erms = = = 16.26V
2 2

V Em3=10
23
r=
Em Em2=5

Em1=15
FIG. 9: Graphical method

IMPORTANT FORMULA USED

1. For sinusoidal alternating voltage and current.
I V
(a) I rms = m (b) Vrms = m
2 2
2I 2V
(c) I avg = m (d) Vavg = m
π π
V
(e) Form factor for current K fI = rm = 1.11
I avg
V
(f) Form factor for voltage K fV = rm = 1.11
Vavg
Vm
(g) Peak factor for the voltage K pV = = 1.414
Vrms
Im
(h) Similary for current K PI = = 1.11
I rms
2. For half-wave rectifier.
Im Vm
(a) I rm = (b) Vrm =
2 2
Im Vm
(c) Iavg = (d) Vavg =
π π
(e) K fI = 1.57 (f) K fV = 1.57
A.C. FUNDAMENTALS 159

ASSIGNMENT NO. 3
Short Type Questions (2 marks)
Q.1 Define the following terms
(a) Instantaneous value (b) Maximum value
Q.2 What are the advantages of sinusoidal waveform?
Q.3 What do you mean by form factor?
Q.4 What do yoy mean by peak factor?
Q.5 What is meant by phase and phase difference?
Q.6 The instantaneous voltage and current for an a.c. circuit are
v = 155.6sin 377t

i = 7.07 sin(377t − 36.87o ) A

Represent these in a phasor diagram.
Medium Type Questions (5 marks)
Q.7 What is the concept of effectie or R.M.S. value of an alternating quantity?
What is the practical significance? [UPTU 2005-06]
Q.8 Derive the relationship between
(a) R.M.S. value and maximum
(b) Average value and maximum
Value for a purely sinusoidal alternating quantity.
Q.9 How an alternating quantity is represented by a phasor? Explain what is the
phase of an alternating quantity?
Q.10 Calculate the average value and R.M.S. value of square wave?
[UPTU 2006-07]
Q.11 Calculate the average value and R.M.S. value of triangular wave.
[UPTU 2007-08]
Q.12 The equation of an alternating current i = 42.42 sin 628t. Determine (a) maximum
value (b) frequency (c) average value (d) R.M.S. value (e) form factor.
Long Type Question (10 Marks)
Q.13 Calculate the average value and R.M.S. value of a square wave find the r.m.s.
value average value, and form factor of the voltage waveform shown in the
Fig. [UPTU 2007-08]
V
200V

O t

FIG. 1
160 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Q.18 Calculate the average value and R.M.S. value of a triangular wave form.
Determine the form factor of a voltage waveform as shown in Fig.
[UPTU 2008-09]
V

20V

3 6 t
1 2 4 5
–20

FIG. 2