UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCE 211/F: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Name of Teacher: Engr. NORODDIN V. MELOG

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Table of Contents

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying................................................3

Course Outline Policy.................................................................................................................... 3
Course Information....................................................................................................................... 6

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a...................................................................................................... 7

Metalanguage................................................................................................................................................ 7
Essential Knowledge.................................................................................................................................. 7
Introduction to Surveying........................................................................................................................ 7
Types of Surveying...................................................................................................................................... 8
Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying.....................................................................8
Methods of Surveying................................................................................................................................. 8
Development of Surveying Instruments........................................................................................... 9
Surveying Measurements...................................................................................................................... 12
Significant Figures..................................................................................................................................... 13
Student Field Practice.............................................................................................................................. 13
Surveying Field Notes.............................................................................................................................. 14
The Field Survey Party............................................................................................................................ 16
Self-Help....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Let’s Check................................................................................................................................................... 17
Let’s Analyze............................................................................................................................................... 17
In a Nutshell................................................................................................................................................ 18

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b.................................................................................................... 19

Metalanguage.............................................................................................................................................. 19
Essential Knowledge................................................................................................................................ 19
Errors and Mistakes................................................................................................................................. 19
Types of Errors........................................................................................................................................... 19
Sources of Errors....................................................................................................................................... 20
Accuracy and Precision........................................................................................................................... 21
Theory of Probability............................................................................................................................... 21
Most Probable Value................................................................................................................................ 22
Relative (Error) Precision..................................................................................................................... 23
Weighted Observations.......................................................................................................................... 23
Interrelationship of Errors.................................................................................................................... 24
Measurement of Horizontal Distances............................................................................................25

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Measurement by Taping.......................................................................................................................... 27
Self-Help....................................................................................................................................................... 32
Let’s Check................................................................................................................................................... 32
Let’s Analyze............................................................................................................................................... 32
In a Nutshell................................................................................................................................................ 32

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c.................................................................................................... 33

Metalanguage.............................................................................................................................................. 33
Essential Knowledge................................................................................................................................ 33
Self-Help....................................................................................................................................................... 35
Let’s Check................................................................................................................................................... 36
Let’s Analyze............................................................................................................................................... 36
In a Nutshell................................................................................................................................................ 36

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College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying

Course Coordinator: Engr. Noroddin V. Melog

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 09276878200
Phone: (082) 296 1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 162 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: DRAW 101/D – Engineering Drawing 1
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 3.0 units lecture / 2.0 units laboratory
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 54 including the face-to-face or
virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions shall include
the summative assessment tasks (exams) since this
course is crucial in the licensure examination for civil
engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 5th , 9th , 14th
and 18th week of the semester. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title of
the assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. The document should be emailed to
the course coordinator. It is also expected that you
already paid your tuition and other fees before the
submission of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.

Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by
your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all
licensure-based programs.

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College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment tasks

(if necessary) are required to be submitted through Turnitin with a
maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This means
that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students will
either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in writing
addressed to the course coordinator the reasons for the
similarity. In addition, if the paper has reached more
than 30% similarity index, the student may be called for
a disciplinary action in accordance with the University’s
OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index and
other reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate with
the students on the approval and disapproval of the
request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will

4
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

come from the dean of the college.

Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE Referencing

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks or
extension of the deadline of submission of assessment
tasks. However, the alternative assessment tasks should
still be in the service of achieving the desired course
learning outcomes.
Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
[email protected]
09055267834

CEE

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College of Engineering Education
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
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Frida Santa O. Dagatan

[email protected]
09562082442
082-2272902

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
[email protected],ph
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
[email protected],ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC
Brigida E. Bacani
[email protected],ph
09513766681

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CC’s Voice: Good day dear students! Welcome to this course CE 311/F – Surveying 1
(Elementary and Higher Surveying). By now, I am confident that you really
wanted to become a civil engineer and that you visualized yourself already in the
field doing site measurements and investigations. This course deals with the
fundamentals of surveying applied to civil engineering problems.

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1: Understand the appropriate surveys and investigations required for various

civil engineering projects.
CO 2: Know the requirements of various surveys and investigations
CO 3: Know the methodologies of carrying out the more common surveys and
investigations such as topographic surveys.

Let ug begin!

Big Picture

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Week 1-5: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on introduction of
surveying its terminologies and concepts, this includes history and
types of instruments.
b. Be able to understand horizontal distances and apply the concepts of
errors in surveying.
c. Be able to understand and apply the concept of vertical distances.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding

on introduction of surveying its terminologies and concepts, this includes
history and types of instruments.

Metalanguage

The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:

1. Surveying – It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances

between objects of measuring angles between lines, of determining the
direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and
linear measurement.
2. Geodetic Surveying – the type of surveying which considers the true shape of
the earth.
3. Plane Surveying - the type of surveying in which the mean surface of the
earth is considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) , you need to
fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the
succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these
resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other
resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. library,
search.proquest.com, etc.

Introduction to Surveying

One of the oldest arts practiced by man is

surveying. From the earliest times it has always
been necessary to mark the boundaries and
divide tracts of land. Through the centuries the
uses of surveying have expanded such that
today it is difficult to undertake any type of
engineering construction that does not involve
some types of surveying.

Surveying is the determination of the relative

spatial location of the points on or near the surface of the earth. As defined by
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webster, it is the branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining
the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of the
boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on
paper.

Types of Surveying

1. Geodetic Surveying – the type of surveying which considers the true shape of the
earth. Geodetic Surveys are usually of a national character are mostly
undertaken by government agencies to serve as a basis for the production of
accurate base and topographic maps.
2. Plane Surveying – the type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected. Plane
Surveying is of wide scope and application. The different methods of plane
surveying are employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering, scientific,
commercial, architectural, geographic, navigational, and exploratory work.

Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

The earth surface is considered as a The earth surface is considered as a
plane surface. curved surface.
This survey is done for smaller area less This survey is done for large area
than 250 km2. greater than 250 km2.
Comparatively low accuracy required. Comparatively high accuracy required.
The line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight. considered as a curved line.
The triangle formed by any three points The triangle formed by any three points
is considered as a plane. is considered as a spherical.

Methods of Surveying

1. Control Survey – Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of

arbitrary points.
2. Boundary Survey – Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and
on establish the position of these lines on the ground.
3. Topographic Survey – Made to gather data to produce a topographic map
showing the configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and man-
made objects.
4. Hydrographic Survey – The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of
navigation, water supply, or sub-aqueous construction.
5. Mining Survey - Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works
related to mining operations.
6. Astronomical Survey – generally involve imagining or mapping of regions of the
sky using telescopes.
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7. Route Survey – Refers to those control, topographic, and construction surveys

necessary for the location and construction of highways, railroads, canals,
transmission lines, and pipelines.
8. Photogrammetric Survey – Made to utilize the principles of aerial
photogrammetry, in which measurements made on photographs are used to
determine the positions of photographed objects.
9. Construction Survey – Made to lay out locate and monitor public and private
engineering works.
10. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of
planning expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and
preparing maps.
11. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest
management and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest
lands.
12. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft,
layout and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries
where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.
13. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban
and rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the
boundaries of municipalities, town, and provincial jurisdictions.

Development of Surveying Instruments

1. Astrolabe - The astrolabe of Hipperachus is one of the

best known of the measuring instrument that have
come down from ancient times.

2. Telescope - The invention of the telescope in 1607 is

generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo
constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations.

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3. Transit - The invention of the transit is credited to Young and Drapper who
worked independently from each other sometime in 1830.

4. Semi-circumferentor - An early surveying

instrument which was used to measure and lay
off angles and establish lines of sight by
employing peep sights.

5. Plane Table - One of the oldest types of surveying

instruments used in field mapping.

6. Dioptra - The dioptra, which was perfected

by Heron of Alexandria, was used in
leveling and for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles. It consists essentially of a
copper tube supported on a standard and
could be rotated in either horizontal or
vertical plane.

7. Roman Groma - The Roman Surveyors used the groma as an

instrument for aligning or sighting points.

8. Libella - The Assyrians and Egyptians are

believed to be the first users of the labella.

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The instrument had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from its apex and
was used to determine the horizontal.

9. Vernier - The Vernier is a short auxiliary scale

placed alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument, by means of which fractional
parts of the smallest or least division of the
main scale can be determined precisely
without having to interpolate.

10. Diopter - An instrument developed by the

Greeks. It was used for leveling, laying off right
angles, and for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.

11. Compass - The magnetic compass came

into wide used during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in
calculating angles between lines.

12. Ginter’s Chain - Was invented by Sir

Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the
forerunner of instruments used for
taping distances.

13. Chorobates - This instrument was designed for

leveling work. It consisted of a horizontal

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straight edge about 6 meters long with supporting legs, and a grove 2.5 cm deep
and 1.5 m long on top.

14. Merchet - The merchet was a

device for measuring time and
meridian. It was first used by
the Chaldeans in about 4000
B.C. It consisted of a slotted
palm leaf through which to
sight and a bracket from
which a plumb bob was
suspended.

Surveying Measurements

A. Direct Measurements - A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured

quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a
quantity of that kind.

Examples:
 Applying a wire or tape to a line
 Determining a Horizontal or vertical angle with a transit
 Fitting a protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the
intersection angle

B. Indirect Measurements - When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect measurement is made. The
observed value is determined by its relationship to some other unknown values.
It is important for surveyors and students of surveying to have a good working
knowledge of trigonometry and geometry.

The Meter
The international unit of linear measure is the meter. This was proposed
sometime in 1789 by French scientist who hoped to establish a system suitable
for all times and all people and which could be based upon permanent and
natural standards.

The following more commonly used prefixes are added to basic names

Mega 1,000,000 Deca 10 Milli 0.001

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Kilo 1,000 Deci 0.1 Micro 0.000001

Hecto 100 Centi 0.01 Nano 0.00000000
1

Conversion Table for some units used in Surveying

1 acre = 4047 m 2 1 military pace = 2.5ft

1 chain = 100 links = 4 rods = 66 ft 1 perch = 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
1 cubit = 18 inches 1 pin = 100 links = 1 tape length
1 furlong = 40 rods 1 section = 640 acres
1 knot = 6080 ft = 1 nautical mile 1 tally = 10 pins
1 link = 0.66 ft 1 township = 36 sections
1 mile (nautical mile) = 6080 ft = 8 1 vara = 33 inches
furlongs
1 mile (statue mile) = 5280 ft 1 yard = 3 ft

Angular Measurements

A. Sexagesimal Units – Degree, Minute and Second

1 Degree = 60 Minutes 1 Minute = 60 Seconds

B. Centesimal Units – Gradian

360 Degrees = 400 Grads

Significant Figures

 Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.

 Rule 2 – For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal
are not significant.
 Rule 3 – Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant.

Student Field Practice

 In an elementary surveying, the student acquires certain extent of field practice.

 The students are expected to have a working knowledge of surveying
instruments and their uses.
 Members of the student field parties should from time to time alternately
assume the various duties involved in the field work.
 The use of surveying instruments requires not only a thorough understanding of
the basic theories and principles of surveying but also a fairly extensive amount
of field practice.

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Surveying Field Notes

 Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and permanent record of actual
work done in the field.
 Before any survey is made, the necessary data to be collected should be
considered carefully and in the field all such required data should be obtained.
 The field notes become the official record of the survey. It is for this reason that
notes must be complete, legible, concise, and comprehensive, and logically
arranged according to recognized practice.
 Field notes are usually worked over in the office into some more advanced form
of presentation, such as map, a report, or a computation.
 A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be
required for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old
field notes will be only available reference, and their value will depend largely
upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
 In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by
office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with
conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been
recorded.
 A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes
more mistakes and erroneous information.
 A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be
required for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old
field notes will be only available reference, and their value will depend largely
upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
 In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by
office personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with
conditions on the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been
recorded.
 A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes
more mistakes and erroneous information.
 The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and
not according to whims of the field surveyor.
 It is essential that notes be intelligible to others without verbal explanations.
 Field work observations should be recorded directly in the notebook at the time
observations are made.
 In court, field notes may be used as evidence.

The Field Notebook

• In practice the field notebook should be of good quality rag paper, with stiff
board or leather cover made to withstand hard usage, and of pocket size.
• The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways: conventional, ring, or
loose-leaf.
• In some technical schools’ students are asked to use bond paper instead of field
notebooks when preparing and submitting their field notes.
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Types of Notes

1. Sketches - A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression. Sketches are
rarely made to exact scale, but in most cases, they are made approximately to
scale. They are drawn freehand and of liberal sizes. Please note that a sketch
crowded with unnecessary data is often confusing.
2. Tabulations - A series of numerical values observed in the field are best shown in a
tabulated format. Tabular forms should be used wherever possible. This format
prevents mistakes, allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation legible to
others, and simplifies the work of the person checking the field notes.
3. Explanatory Notes - Explanatory notes provide a written description of what has
been done in the field. These are employed to make clear what the numerical
data and sketches fail to do. Usually they are placed on the right-hand page of
the field notebook in the same line with the numerical data that they explain.
4. Computations - Calculations or one kind or another form a large part of the work
of surveying. Most surveying-type computations are made algebraically using
simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions. Electronic hand-held
calculators, desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating
values.
5. Combination of The Above - The practice used in most extensive surveys is a
combination of the above. The surveyor should be able to determine for himself
which type of combination would be most logical to use in portraying the type of
data gathered in the field.

Information Found in Field Notebooks

1. Title of the Fieldwork or Name of Project - The official name of the project or title of
the field work should always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably
its nature or purpose should always be stated.
2. Time of the Day and Date - These entries are necessary to document the notes and
furnish a timetable, as well as to correlate different surveys.
3. Weather Conditions - Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other
weather conditions, such as in surveying operations.
4. Names of Group Members and Their Designations - The chief of party, instrument
man, tape man, and other members of the survey of the survey party must be
identified. This information will be necessary for documentation purposes and
other future reference.
5. List of Equipment - All survey equipment used must be listed, including its make,
brand, and serial number. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have
a definite effect on the accuracy of the survey.

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The Field Survey Party

1. Chief of Party - The person who is responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operational control of the survey party. He is also responsible
for its logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a field survey
operation. Prior to the execution of a survey project, he consults or confers with
superiors regarding the project to be undertaken. He is responsible for
submitting survey reports and records. He prepares cost estimates of survey
projects.
2. Assistant Chief of Party - The person whose duty is to assist the chief of party in
the accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the
duties of the chief of party during the absence of the chief. He conducts ground
reconnaissance and investigates sites of a proposed project to gather necessary
data prior to the start of a survey work. He is primarily responsible for the
employment of surveying equipment, instruments and accessories used in the
survey operation. He prepares field and office reports and survey plans for
submission to the chief of party.
3. Instrumentman - The person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate
surveying instruments such as the transit, engineer’s level, theodolite, sextant,
plane table and alidade, etc. He also assists the technician in the operation of
electronic surveying equipment.
4. Technician - The person who is responsible for use and operation of all
electronic instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to
it that these equipment's are functioning properly, are regularly calibrated, and
are in proper adjustment.
5. Computer - The person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data
and works out necessary computational checks required in a field work
operation.
6. Recorder - The person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements, and observations taken or needed for a field work operation. He
keeps table of schedules of all phases of work and the employment of the
members of the survey party.
7. Head Tapeman - The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to
be occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing out of
obstructions along the line of sight. He inspects and compares tapes for standard
length prior to their use in taping operations.
8. Rear Tapeman - The person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during
taping operations and in other related work.
9. Flagman - The person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range of pole at
selected points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in
making measurements and assists the axeman in cutting down branches and in
clearing other obstructions to line of sight.
10. Rodman - The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling rod
when sights are to be taken it.
11. Pacer - The person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in
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linear measurements are either reduced or eliminated. He may also perform the
job of a rodman.
12. Axeman/Lineman - The person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees,
bush, and other obstructions in wooded country.
13. Aidman - The person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members of
the survey party who are involved in snake and insects’ bites, accidents, and
other cases involving their health, safety, and wellbeing.
14. Utilityman - The person whose duties are to render other forms of assistance
needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party.

Self-Help

You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:

*La Putt, J.P. (2010) Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.): Baguio Research and Publishing
Center

*Kavanagh, B.F. (2006) Surveying: Principles and Applications (7 th ed.): New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall

Let’s Check

Surveying Methods: Research more on the different surveying methods discussed

above, provide pictures and situation in which it is applicable. Affix your signature at the end
of your submittal.

Let’s Analyze

Activity A: Find the number of significant figures

1. 10.258
2. 0.00000078
3. 500
4. 89.5870000
5.0.00860

Activity B: Solve the following problems

1. A distance was measured and as recorded to have a value equivalent to 10 perches, 5 rods,
and 50 varas. Compute the total distance in feet.
2. A line was measured with 20-m tape. There was 3 tallies and 6 pins, and the distance from
the last pin and the end of the line was 3.75m. Find the length of the line in meters.

In a Nutshell

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Introduction to Surveying: Read and understand each statement carefully.

Choose the best answer that corresponds to the statement.

1. Surveying is defined as the art and science of determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the form, extent, science of deter and relative
position of points, lines, and establish the areas on or near the surface of the
earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through
A. pure mathematics and the social sciences
B. applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques
C. field observations and measurements
D. cartographic, geodetic, and photogrammetric methods
E. principles of algebra and geometry

2. Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a

flat surface. Distances and areas involved are of limited extent and the
A. approximate shape of the earth is considered
B. theoretical shape of the geoid is evaluated
C. exact shape of the earth Is disregarded
D. spheroidal shape of the earth is considered
E. shape of the earth is considered a geoid

3. A type of survey which is of wide extent and takes into account the spheroidal
shape of the earth is known as
A. geodetic surveying
B. plane surveying
C. geoid surveying
D. earth surveying
E. terrestrial surveying

4. A photogrammetric survey makes use of photographs taken with specially

designed cameras either from
A. a ship or an elevated ground station
B. the ground surface or underwater
C. a field or a laboratory environment
D. a map or a scaled drawing
E. airplanes or ground stations

5. The international System of Units or SI was promulgated by the International

Bureau of weights and Measures in
A. 1960
B. 1978
C. 1983
D. 1875
E. 1799

6. Give the importance of a survey party. Is there really a need to have a complete
party in all surveying activities? Explain

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Be able to understand horizontal distances and

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apply the concepts of errors in surveying.

Metalanguage

The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:

1. Error – defined as the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from
the true value and is often beyond the control of the one performing the
operation.
2. Mistakes – inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect
of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgement, and improper execution.
3. Horizontal distance - the distance between two points measured at a zero
percent slope.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) , you need to
fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the
succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these
resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other
resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. library,
search.proquest.com, etc.

Errors and Mistakes

Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot
be avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used, imperfections of the
senses of the person undertaking measurement or by natural causes.

Mistakes are also caused by misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or

indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is referred to as a blunder.

Types of Errors

1. Systematic Errors/Cumulative Errors - This type of error is one which will always
have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant
and unchanged.
 For changing field conditions there is a corresponding change in
magnitude of the error, however, the sign remains constant.
 Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. such
errors can be computed, and their effects eliminated by applying
corrections, employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or by
adopting a field procedure which will automatically eliminate it.
 In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural
causes, and human limitations of the observer.

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2. Accidental Errors - These errors are purely accidental in character.

 The occurrence of such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to
be positive or negative and may tend in part to compensate or average
out according to laws of probability.
 There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the
error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same as for a
second observation.
 Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the control of the
surveyor and are present in all surveying measurements. Also, in
comparison to systematic errors, these errors are usually or minor
importance in surveying operations.

Sources of Errors

1. Instrumental Errors - These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments

used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to their use.

Examples of instrumental errors:

 Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
 Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
 Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an
instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
 Sighting on a rod which is warped.
 Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.

2. Natural Errors - These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used,
either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use.

Common examples:
 The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
 Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
 Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
 Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a
strong wind.
 Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to a slope or
uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors - These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous
or inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and
may vary due to certain circumstances existing during measurement.

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Typical errors:
 Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during
sighting.
 Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.
 Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel
tape during measurements.

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true

value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations.

Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set
observation is closely clustered together, the observation is said to have been
obtained with high precision.

Theory of Probability

 Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur

over the range of possible occurrences.
 It is very much involved in games of chance, such as throwing dice, tossing a
coin, or in various games using cards.
 The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only in so
far as they are affected by accidental errors.

The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the
occurrences of errors:

 Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.
 Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental
errors.
 Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that
is, they are equally probable.
 The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.

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Most Probable Value

From the theory of probability, a basic assumption is that the most probable
value (mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is
the arithmetic mean or the average. Most probable value refers to a quantity which,
based on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.

Σ x ( x 1+ x2 + x 3 +…+ x n )
mpv=x= =
n n

Residual

The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the

difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or:
v=x−x́
Where v is the residual in any measurement, x is a measurement made of a quantity,
and x́ is the most probable value of the quantity measured. Residuals and errors are
theoretically identical.

Probable Error

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.

If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to determine the

probable error. This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the
arrangement, such that one half of the errors are greater than it and the other half are
less than it.

The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae
which are derived from the method of least squares.
∑ v2
PE s=± 0.6745
√
n−1
∑ v2
PE m=± 0.6745
Where:
√
n(n−10)

PEs = probable error of any single measurement of a series

PEm = probable error of the mean
∑ v 2 = summation of the squares of the residuals
n = number of observations

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The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an
indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an approximated
value and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements are
usually made and the conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled.

For example, if 235.50 m represents the mean or most probable value of several
measurements and 0.1 m represents the probable error of the mean value, the
chances are even that the true value lies between 235.40 and 235.60 m, as it is also
probable that the true value lies outside of these limiting values. Note that the lower
and upper limits are determined by correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to
235.50 meters. To express the probable limits of precision for this particular case, the
quantity should be written as: 235.50 ± 0.10 m

Relative (Error) Precision

The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude of
the measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In
surveying measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to define
the degree of refinement obtained.

Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having

the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured
quantity in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same
units, and the numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy
comparison with other measurements.

For example, if for a particular measurement the probable error of the mean is 0.10 m
and the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the relative precision
(RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as 1:2355.

Weighted Observations

Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and

conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability. The problem often
encountered is how to combine these measurements and determine the most
probable values. For such a situation it is necessary to estimate the degree of
reliability (or weight) for each of the measurements before they are combined, and
the most probable values are determined.

In some instances, weights are assigned on the basis of weather conditions prevailing
attained on a bright early morning could be considered as more reliable than one
measured on a cold and rainy day. This method of assigning weights will require good
judgement and can only be expected of more experienced surveyors.

In the case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is measured, for example, in two

repetitions by group A and in four repetitions by group B, then the measurement
taken by B should be given twice the weight of the measurement of group B is
regarded as twice as reliable as that of group A. The assignment of weights in the ratio

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of 2 to 1 may be assigned instead of 2 and 1. For instance, the weights may be 1 and
1/2; and 2, or 16 and 8.

Interrelationship of Errors

In some instances, it is required to determine how the final result is affected when a
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two commonly
applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the
product of errors. These principles are given to provide the student a better
understanding of the propagation of errors.

1. Summation of Errors

If measured quantities are added, each of which is affected by accidental

errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the square root of the sum of
the squares of the separate probable errors arising from the several sources.”

PE s=√ PE 1 2+ PE 22+ PE 3 2+ … PE n 2
Where:
PEs = probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2,…. PEn = probable error of each measurement

2. Product of Errors

“For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other

independently measured quantities such as Q1, and Q2 (with their
corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by
the following equation.”
PE p=√ ( Q1 ∙ PE 2 ) 2+ ( Q2 ∙ PE 1 ) 2
Where:
PEp = probable error of the product
Q1 and Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 and PE2 = probable error corresponding to each quantity measured.

Rules for Weighted Measurements

1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or

measurements.
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.
3. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.

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Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Distance by Pacing

Pacing is one the simplest method of measuring distances. It is

used in instances where approximate results can be enough for the
data needed, such as getting the rodman in position during a cross-
section survey, or simply measuring a relatively short distance
where accuracy is not that of an issue.

Pace - Length of a step. Measured heel-to-heel, or toe-to-toe.

Stride - A double step. One stride is equivalent to two paces.

Pace Factor - The distance covered by one step.

 It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where a low

precision of measurement is sufficient.
 Unless a mistake has been made in counting, it will seldom be more than 3
percent in error.
 To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace.
This is referred to as the pace factor.

Important Notes:

 The length of a pace varies with different persons.

 It is important to walk naturally when calibrating one’s pace in pacing distances.
 An attempt to make each step predetermined length is tiring and will only give
less accurate results.
 The length of a pace will vary with the speed of pacing, the roughness of the
ground, the weight of the clothing and shoes used, fatigue on the part of the
pacer, the slope of terrain, as well as the age and sex of the individual.
 The pace will also differ when going uphill or downhill.
 A pedometer or passometer can be used to count the pace if the distance to be
paced is quite long.

Distance by Taping

• The most common method of measuring or laying out horizontal distances.

• Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between the points and reading
the distance indicated on the tape.
• Taping may vary from a relative precision of about 1:1000 to 1:25000 or better.

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Distance by Tachymetry

It is based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed and is an indirect

method of measurement.

A. Stadia Method - Horizontal distance determined

by this method will yield a relative precision of
only 1/300 and 1/1000.

B. Subtense Bar Method - The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used
for quick and accurate measurement of horizontal distances. The bar, which is
precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube through which runs a thin
invar rod. A theodolite, set up at the other end of the line to be measured, is used in
measuring the subtending angle.

Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods

• By graphical or mathematical methods,

unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known
distances geometrically.
• Determining distances by scaling from maps or
aerial photographs.
• The determination of lengths of the sides of a
horizontal control system such as in
triangulation and trilateration involves
geometric and trigonometric relationships.

Distance by Mechanical Devices

These devices, however, are only applicable for low precision surveys or where quick
measurements are desired.

The more commonly used among these devices include

1. Odometer
2. Measuring Wheel
3. Optical Range Finder

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Distance by Photogrammetry

The term photogrammetry refers to the

measurement of images on a photograph. The type
of photographs used are those taken from an aircraft
with the axis of the camera pointed vertically
towards the terrain photographed. Precision is
about 1/3000 to 1/5000

Measurement by Taping

Composition of a Taping Party

1. Head Tapeman – responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements.
2. Recorder – keeps a record of all measurements, sketches, observations
3. Flagman – holds the pole at selected points, clears out obstruction.
4. Rear Tapeman – assist the tapeman during a taping operation.

Procedure of Taping

1. Aligning the tape

2. Stretching the tape
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
5. Tallying Taped Measurements
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths

Breaking Tape

It is a standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to plumb at
one or both ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This requires the
measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total a full tape length.
The procedure is referred to as “breaking tape”

This method is effective on

measuring an uneven terrain
distance to ensure more accuracy
in the results.

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Slope Taping

Taped measurements may be made directly along the

slopes when the ground is of uniform inclination and
fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few
meters. This practical method is generally preferred
since measurements could be made quickly and more
accurately than horizontal measurements.

If the angle is known, we can calculate the distance

using trigonometric identities.

It can also be solved using Pythagorean theorem.

Correction in Taping

Taping corrections could either be of the following: taping to determine an unknown

length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length.
Regardless of which of these two categories is involved, there are some corrections
which are applied to the original measurements to determine the correct and more
accurate length.

Corrections to taping are applied using the following rules:

Rule 1. When a line is measured with a taped that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.

Rule 2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too
long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the
corrected length to be laid out.

Rule 3. When measuring or laying out lengths with tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.

 When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the
reverse when laying out.”

The required degree of precision in taping will define the procedure of measurement,
equipment, and accessories to be used, and the corrections to be considered. The
following conditions which could exist during a taping operation may require the
application of corrections.

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Corrections in Taping

1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their
manufacture, or damage caused by kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when “breaking tape” along inclined
or rough terrain surface or when undertaking slope taping.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line during measurement or in
laying out of lengths.
4. Tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in the temperature prevailing
during the actual measurement and the temperature for which the tape was
standardized.
5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due to the application of a pull on its ends
which differs significantly from the pull applied on the tape during standardization
6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported length of tape is less than the
specified nominal length due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side wind.

Types of Tape Correction

1. Correction due to incorrect tape length

The absolute value for the correction per tape length (corr) is determined from the
difference between nominal length of tape (NL) or

Corr .=TL−NL

Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape
that is too long or too short can be determined from the following equations

C 1=Corr ( ML
NL )
CL=ML ±C 1
Where:
C1 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out
CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape

2. Correction due to Slope

Derived: For gentle slopes it is safe to assume that the slope

distance (s) is approximately equal to the horizontal
distance (d) or

h2
C h=
2s

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a. For gentle slopes (grade less than 20%)

h2
C h=
2s
b. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)
h2 h4
C h= + 3
2s 8s
c. Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%)
C h=s(1−cosθ)

Therefore, the horizontal distance (d) is equal to the measured slope distance (s)
subtracted by the slope correction (Ch): “d = s – Ch”

3. Correction due to temperature

The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls.
Any change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical when
undertaking precise measurements.
C t=αL ( ∆ T )=αL ( T −T s )
Where:
α = coefficient of linear expansion (thermal)
L = length of the line measured
T = temperature at the time of measurement
Ts = standardized tape temperature

4. Correction due to Tension (Pull Correction)

During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of

standard pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping, it is
elongated or shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it.

E = Unit Stress / Elongation per unit length

Deriving:
( Pm−P s ) L
C p=
AE

Where:

Pm = pull applied to the tape (kg or N)

Ps = standard pull of tape (kg or N)
L = measured length
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 or m2)
E = modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2 or N/m2)

5. Correction due to Sag

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A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull for
which it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two points
measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its own weight.

ω 2 L3 W 2 L
C s= ∨
24 P 2 24 P2

Where:
ω = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m or N/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg or N)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension of pull applied to the tape (kg or N)

6. Correction due to Wind

A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the middle
and unsupported portion of tape to one side of the line measured. This introduces an
error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less.
(usually given. If not use the formula for correction due to sag for given pull of wind)

Normal Tension

By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended and
sagged, the tape will be stretched and a considerable decrease in the amount of sag
results. The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening caused
by sag is referred to as the Normal Tension.

The formula of Normal Tension can be calculated using the given formula:

0.204 W √ AE
P N=
√ P N −PS
Where:

PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg or N)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg or N)
E = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 or m2)
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)

Self-Help

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You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:

*La Putt, J.P. (2010) Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.): Baguio Research and Publishing
Center

*Kavanagh, B.F. (2006) Surveying: Principles and Applications (7 th ed.): New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall

Let’s Check

Let’s Analyze

In a Nutshell

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c. Be able to understand and apply the concept of

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vertical distances.

Metalanguage

The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:

1. Leveling – an art of determining the relative height of different points on,

above or below the surface.
2. Elevation – the height to which something is elevated above a point of
reference, especially mean sea level.
3. Vertical distance – also known as vertical separation is the distance between
two vertical positions. Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing vertical
position: depth, height, altitude, elevation, etc. Each quantity may be
expressed in various units: meters, feet, etc.
4. Curvature – the curved shape of the earth means that the level surface
through the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the
telescope as the line of sight proceeds to the horizon.
5. Refraction - it is largely a function of atmospheric pressure and temperature
gradients, which may cause the bending to be up or down by extremely
variable amounts.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) , you need to
fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the
succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these
resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other
resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. library,
search.proquest.com, etc.

Measurement of Vertical Distances

• Leveling is defined as “an art of determining the relative height of different

points on, above or below the surface”.
• Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to
determine the elevation of points or their differences in elevation.
• The principle of levelling is to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to
which vertical distances of the points above or below this line of sight are found.

Definition of Terms

1. Level Surface – It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the

direction of gravity or the plumb line.
2. Level Line – A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are
normal to the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface – It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular
point.
4. Horizontal Line – A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level
line at one point.
33
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

5. Vertical Line – A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of
gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level – Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is
midway between high and low tides.
7. Datum – Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean
sea level to which elevations of an area are referred.
8. Elevation – For a point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below mean
sea level or any other selected datum.

Leveling Methods

1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – is the commonly employed method of determining the

elevation of points some distance apart by a series of setups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route.
2. Reciprocal Leveling – Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining
the difference in elevation between two intervisible points located at a
considerable distance apart and between which points leveling could not be
performed in the usual manner.
3. Profile Leveling – This method of leveling is used to determine differences in
elevation between points at designated short measured intervals along an
established line to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted.
4. Trigonometric Leveling – This method of levelling is employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the difference in elevation between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between
the points.
5. Stadia Leveling – Stadia levelling combines features of direct leveling with those
of trigonometric leveling.
6. Barometric Leveling – Barometric leveling involves the determination of
differences in elevation between points by measuring the variation in
atmospheric pressure at each point by means of a barometer.
7. Cross-Section levelling – In highway or railroad constructions, it is often
necessary to obtain a representation of the ground surface on either side of the
centerline.
8. Borrow Pit Leveling – Borrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative
elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for the purpose of calculation
volumes.

Types of Levels

1. Dumpy Level – the dumpy level is the most widely used direct leveling
instrument.
2. Wye Level - The wye level is very similar to the dumpy.
3. Builder’s Level – This instrument is used primarily in the different phases of
building construction where a high degree of precision is not a primary requisite.
4. Automatic Level – Self-leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels.
5. Tilting Level – This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its
horizontal axis.
6. Geodetic Level – The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level.
34
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

7. Transit as a Level – The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the
“universal surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses.
8. Laser Level – An innovation introduced to surveying operations is the use of
lasers.
9. Hand Level – The hand level is a handheld instrument used on surveys involving
short sights and where a low order of accuracy is sufficient.

Sources of Error in Leveling

A. Instrumental Errors
 Instrument Out of Adjustment
 Rod Not Standard Length
 Defective Tripod

B. Personal Errors
 Bubble Not Centered
 Parallax
 Faulty Rod Readings
 Rod Not Held Plumb
 Incorrect Setting of Target
 Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances

C. Natural Errors
 Curvature of the Earth
 Atmospheric Refraction
 Temperature Variations
 Wind
 Settlement of the Instrument
 Faulty Turning Points

Two Peg Test

The most common means of checking an instrument in the field and can be done for
both optical & laser levels.

Self-Help

You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:

*La Putt, J.P. (2010) Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.): Baguio Research and Publishing
Center

*Kavanagh, B.F. (2006) Surveying: Principles and Applications (7 th ed.): New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall

35
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Let’s Check

Let’s Analyze

In a Nutshell

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