UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Chemical Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Name of Teacher: Engr. Jessie C. Calo

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Table of Contents

Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS.............................. 1

Big Picture(Week 1-3) ................................................................................................ 6
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa ................................................................................... 6
Metalanguage .................................................................................................. 6
Essential Knowledge ....................................................................................... 7
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 17
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 18
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 18
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 18
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 18
References .................................................................................................... 19
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb .................................................................................. 19
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 19
Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 21
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 28
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 28
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 28
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 29
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 29
References .................................................................................................... 29
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc .................................................................................. 30
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 30
Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 31
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 46
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 46
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 46
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 46
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 47
References .................................................................................................... 47
Big Picture in Focus: ULOd .................................................................................. 48
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 48
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 49

Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 61
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 61
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 61
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 62
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 62
References .................................................................................................... 62
Course Schedule ................................................................................................ 65
Big Picture (Week 4-5) ............................................................................................. 66
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa ................................................................................. 66
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 66
Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 68
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 74
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 74
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 75
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 75
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 76
References .................................................................................................... 76
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb ................................................................................. 77
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 77
Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 78
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 91
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 91
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 91
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 91
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 92
References .................................................................................................... 92
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc ................................................................................. 95
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 95
Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 96
Self-Help ...................................................................................................... 106
Let’s Check .................................................................................................. 106
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................... 106
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................. 106
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Keywords Index ........................................................................................... 107

References .................................................................................................. 107
Course Schedule .............................................................................................. 108
Big Picture (Week 6-7) ........................................................................................... 109
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa ............................................................................... 109
Metalanguage .............................................................................................. 109
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................... 111
Self-Help ...................................................................................................... 119
Let’s Check .................................................................................................. 120
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................... 120
In a Nutshell................................................................................................. 121
Keywords Index ........................................................................................... 121
References .................................................................................................. 121
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb ............................................................................... 124
Metalanguage .............................................................................................. 124
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................... 125
Self-Help ...................................................................................................... 139
Let’s Check .................................................................................................. 139
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................... 140
In a Nutshell................................................................................................. 140
Keywords Index ........................................................................................... 141
References .................................................................................................. 141
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc ............................................................................... 143
Metalanguage .............................................................................................. 143
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................... 144
Self-Help ...................................................................................................... 154
Let’s Check .................................................................................................. 154
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................... 154
In a Nutshell................................................................................................. 155
Keywords Index ........................................................................................... 156
References .................................................................................................. 156
Big Picture in Focus: ULOd ............................................................................... 159
Metalanguage .............................................................................................. 159
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................... 161
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Self-Help ...................................................................................................... 170

Let’s Check .................................................................................................. 171
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................... 171
In a Nutshell................................................................................................. 172
Keywords Index ........................................................................................... 172
References .................................................................................................. 172
Course Schedule .............................................................................................. 173
Big Picture (Week 8-9) ........................................................................................... 174
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa ............................................................................... 174
Metalanguage .............................................................................................. 174
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................... 176
Self-Help ...................................................................................................... 223
Let’s Check .................................................................................................. 224
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................... 224
In a Nutshell................................................................................................. 224
Keywords Index ........................................................................................... 224
References .................................................................................................. 224
Course Schedule .............................................................................................. 228
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Course Coordinator: Engr. Jessie C. Calo

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: Done by online (LMS), text, emails or calls
Mobile: 09171902221
Phone: 2961084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual
sessions)
Time Frame: 108 Hours (Lecture+Laboratory)
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 4 units (3 units lecture, 1 unit laboratory)
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 4-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 108 including the face
to face or virtual sessions, and laboratory. The face to
face sessions shall include the summative assessment
tasks (exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for engineers.

1
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. All submissions should be done
through Blackboard. It is also expected that you already
paid your tuition and other fees before the submission of
the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.

Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.

Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to ensure
that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.

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College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Re-marking of Assessment Papers You should request in writing addressed to the program
and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the
students on the approval and disapproval of the
request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

your case to the program head or the dean with the
original letter of request. The final decision will come from
the dean of the college.

Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.

Preferred Referencing Style IEEE

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Canesares
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 09562082442

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College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Contact Details of the Program Engr. Ramiro Emerson C. Amon

Head Email: [email protected]
Phone: 09566929092
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program coordinator
may provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of
the deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However,
the alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration Platforms such as Google Meet and Zoom (whichever is
convenient) will be used for video conference. Kindly
create an account ahead of time.
Help Desk Contact
CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
[email protected]
09562082442
082-2272902

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
[email protected]
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
[email protected]
09060757721

Library Contact LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
[email protected]
09513766681

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College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello engineer in the making! Welcome to this course BCHE 111/L:
Chemistry for Engineers. This course deals with core concepts of
chemistry which are important in the practice of engineering profession
which includes generation of energy, the chemistry of engineering
materials, the chemistry of the environment and a special topic specific
to an engineering field of expertise.

CO CO stands for Course Outcomes. These are the the skills that students
are expected to demonstrate at the end of the course to pass the subject.
The following are the COs of BCHE 111/L:
CO 1. Demonstrate understanding of chemistry in relation to the
generation of energy, the chemical principles and concepts of structures
and bonding of common engineering materials, and the chemical
processes that take place in the environment.
CO 2. Conduct experiments in relation to the models and concepts learned
in class.

Let us begin!

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Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to

a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of crystal structure;

b. differentiate metals and non-metals by understanding their
characteristics;
c. explain the concept of polymers;
d. show understanding of the concept of engineered nanomaterials.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. demonstrate understanding on

the basic concepts of crystal structure

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of crystal structure to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please refer to
these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.

Amorphous an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range

order that is characteristic of a crystal

Atomic Packing the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to the total
Factor volume of the unit cell
Body-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus an additional
cubic point at the center of the cell.

Bravais lattice the fourteen distinguishable ways of arranging the points independently
in three-dimensional space
Coordination defined as the number of equidistant nearest neighbors that an atom
number has in a given structure

Crystal lattice is the symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a

crystal.

Cystalline is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered

microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all
directions.

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Crystallographic the lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any three faces of
axes the unit cell which do not lie in the same plane

Density mass per unit volume

Face-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus additional
cubic points at the centers of each face of the unit cell.
Hexagonal layers of spheres are packed so that spheres in alternating layers
close-packed overlie one another. As in cubic close packing, each sphere is
surrounded by 12 other spheres.
Interfacial the angles between three crystallographic axes
angles
Lattice collective term for primitives and interfacial angles
parameters
Primitives the dimensions of a unit cell

Simple cubic is the simplest repeating unit in a simple cubic structure. Each corner of
the unit cell is defined by a lattice point at which an atom, ion, or
molecule can be found in the crystal.

Space lattice defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array.

Unit cell the smallest group of atoms of a substance that has the overall
symmetry of a crystal of that substance, and from which the entire lattice
can be built up by repetition in three dimensions.
Void space vacant space left or unutilized space in unit cell , and more commonly
known as interstitial space

Essential Knowledge

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered
arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures
occur from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns
that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter (Moore
& Smart, 2005).
The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the repeating
pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry

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and structure of the entire crystal lattice, which is built up by repetitive translation of
the unit cell along its principal axes. The repeating patterns are said to be located at
the points of the Bravais lattice.
The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles
between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters.
The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept of space
groups. All possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space
may be described by the 230 space groups.
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many
physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical
transparency.
Crystal structure is one of the most important aspects of materials science and
engineering as many properties of materials depend on their crystal structures. The
basic principles of many materials characterization techniques such as X-ray
diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are based on
crystallography. Therefore, understanding the basics of crystal structures is of
paramount importance.
Matter exist usually in solid or fluid (liquid, gas) state. According to modern
concept matter classification is specified as condensed state and gaseous state.
Solids and liquids come under condensed state. Any material whose position of
constituent particles is fixed can be regarded as solids.

Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.

This indicates that the molecules, atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely
packed. Thus in solids we will have a well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic
arrangement.

In general solids can be classified into:

 Crystalline - particles are orderly arranged (long range order).

 Amorphous - particles are randomly oriented.

If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid, we

call it a crystal structure. A crystal possesses long range order and symmetry. The
main property of crystal structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due to the
arrangement of atoms/molecules in the lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole
can be considered as the repetition of unit cell. For a given crystal structure the shape
of unit cell is same but varies from crystal to crystal (Schaffer et al, 1999).

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Telefax: (082)296-1084
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Figure 1. General classification of solids

Unit Cell
Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of
particles in the unit cell. The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having
the full symmetry of the crystal structure. The geometry of the unit cell is defined as
a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges
(a, b, c) and the angles between them (α, β, γ). The positions of particles inside the
unit cell are described by the fractional coordinates (xi, yi, zi) along the cell edges,
measured from a reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a
smallest asymmetric subset of particles. This group of particles may be chosen so that
it occupies the smallest physical space, which means that not all particles need to be
physically located inside the boundaries given by the lattice parameters. All other
particles of the unit cell are generated by the symmetry operations that characterize
the symmetry of the unit cell. The collection of symmetry operations of the unit cell is
expressed formally as the space group of the crystal structure (Atkins & de Paula,
2006).

Figure 2. Unit cell

Unit cell can be of primitive as well as non-primitive type. A primitive cell is a
minimum volume unit cell and has only one lattice point in it and the latter contains
more than one.

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Figure 3. Primitive and non-primitive unit cell

In the given figure below, simple cube is a primitive cell. No. of atoms per unit
cell is one for it. The rest two is non primitive. No. of atoms per unit cell is 2 and 4
respectively.

Figure 4. Primitive cell (P) and Non-primitive cell (I and F)

Bravais Lattices
The number of lattices that can fill two- or three-dimensional space with
periodically repeating units without leaving gaps or causing overlaps is limited.
Therefore, there is a finite number of different crystal structures, and different
crystalline solids may crystallise according to the same pattern. The metrics of the
lattice may be different, but the symmetry is the same in such cases. Lattices which
fill space without gaps are called Bravais lattices. There are five of them in two
dimensions and 14 in three dimensions (Hermann, 2017).

Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions

The most general and least symmetric Bravais lattice in two dimensions is
the oblique lattice. If the angle between the two lattice vectors is 90°, the higher
symmetry of the cell gives rise to a distinct Bravais lattice, either rectangular
or square depending on whether the unit cell vectors have different length or not. In
the case of a rectangular lattice, we can distinguish between a primitive

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rectangular lattice and a centred rectangular lattice, which has an extra lattice point
(atom) at the centre. The centred rectangular lattice could be set up as a primitive
lattice with lower symmetry (unit cell shown in green), but convention prefers the more
symmetric description. Finally, if the lattice vectors are the same length and the angle
is 120°, we have another special case with higher symmetry, the hexagonal lattice
(Ellis et al, 1995).

Figure 5. Bravais lattices in two dimensions

Bravais Lattices in Three Dimensions
Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and applying the restrictions
as above, only 14 types of lattices are possible in three dimensions. One general
(triclinic) and thirteen special. Only seven different systems of axis are found to be
sufficient to represent all Bravais lattice. This fourteen space lattice is divided into
seven crystal systems (Callister, 2002).

They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and

cubic.
Table 1. Bravais lattices in three dimensions
Atomic Coordination
In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination
number, also called ligancy, of a central atom in a molecule or crystal is the number
of atoms, molecules or ions bonded to it. The ion/molecule/atom surrounding the
central ion/molecule/atom is called a ligand. This number is determined somewhat
differently for molecules than for crystals.
By considering the arrangement of atoms relative to each other, their
coordination numbers (or number of nearest neighbors), interatomic distances, types

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Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Example

System Centered Centered Centered
triclinic CuSO4.5H2O
K2Cr2O7

monoclinic CaSO4.2H2O
FeSO4
Na2SO4

orthorhombic KNO3
BaSO4

rhombohedral
As
Sb
Bi

tetragonal
TiO2
SnO2
NiSO4

hexagonal SiO2
Zn
Mg
Cd

cubic Au
Cu
NaCl

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of bonding, etc., it is possible to form a general view of the structures and alternative
ways of visualizing them.
Simple cubic, face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) have
coordination numbers 6, 8, and 12 respectively (Atkins, 2006).
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Atomic packing fraction mainly gives us an idea about the arrangement of
atoms/ions in solids. It will give the efficiency with which the available space is being
filled by atoms (Callister, 2002).

Packing fraction is defined as the ratio of volume of atoms occupying the unit
cell to the volume of unit cell.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Examples:
1. Simple Cubic

Consider a cube of side 'a'. Atoms of radius ‘r’ is placed at the corner. So that
length of cube a=2r.

Figure 6. Simple cubic unit cell

In a simple cubic structure, the atoms occupies at the eight corners. An atom
at the corner is equally shared by 8 unit cells. So the contribution of one atom to a unit
cell is 1/8. Therefore the no. of atoms per unit cell is (1/8)*8(corner atoms) =1.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎 = (2𝑟) = 8𝑟
4
𝜋𝑟 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 = = 𝟓𝟐%
8𝑟 6
2. Body-centered Cube
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Consider a cube of side ‘a’, and atoms of radius ‘r’ are placed at corners and at
the body centre. Length of body diagonal, √3a=4r.

Figure 7. Body-centered cubic unit cell

4 8
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 2 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟
3 3
In a body centered cube, there will be one atom at the centre along with 8 corner
atoms. This corner atom is shared by 8 unit cell and the atom at the centre is not a
shared one. Therefore no. of atoms per unit cell= (1/8)*8(corner atoms)+1(body
centre)=2.

4𝑟 64𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎 = =
√3 3√3
8
𝜋𝑟 √3𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 = = 𝟔𝟖%
64𝑟 8
3√ 3
3. Face-centered Cube

Consider a cube of length ‘a’ and atoms of radius ’r’ are placed at the corners
as well as at the face centre. Length of face diagonal √2a=4r.

Figure 8. Face-centered cubic unit cell

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4 16
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 4 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟
3 3
In a face centered cube, each face possess one atom along with 8 corner
atoms. The atoms at the faces are equally shared by two unit cell. Corner atoms by 8
unit cells. So the no. of atoms per unit cell is=(1/8)*8(corner atoms)+(1/2)*6(atoms at
face)=4.

4𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎 =
√2
16
𝜋𝑟 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 = = 𝟕𝟒%
4𝑟 3√2
√2
4. Hexagonal Close-Packed
For the hexagonal close-packed structure, the unit cell (equivalent to 3 primitive
unit cells) is a hexagonal prism containing six atoms (if the particles in the crystal are
atoms). Indeed, three are the atoms in the middle layer (inside the prism); in addition,
for the top and bottom layers (on the bases of the prism), the central atom is shared
with the adjacent cell, and each of the six atoms at the vertices is shared with other
five adjacent cells. So the total number of atoms in the cell is 3 + (1/2)×2 + (1/6)×6×2
= 6. Each atom touches other twelve atoms. Now let a be the side length of the base
of the prism and c be its height. The latter is twice the distance between adjacent
layers, i.e., twice the height of the regular tetrahedron whose vertices are occupied by
(say) the central atom of the lower layer, two adjacent non-central atoms of the same
layer, and one atom of the middle layer "resting" on the previous three. Obviously, the
edge of this tetrahedron is a. If a=2r, then its height can be easily calculated to be 𝑎,
√
and, therefore, 𝑐 = 4 𝑟. So the volume of the hcp unit cell turns out to be 𝑎 𝑐,
that is 24√2𝑟 .
It is then possible to calculate the APF as follows:
4
𝑁 𝑉 6 ∙ 𝜋𝑟
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = = 3
𝑉 3 √3
2 𝑎 𝑐
4 4
6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟 6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = =
3√ 3 2 3√ 3 2
2 (2𝑟) 3 ∙ 4𝑟 2 3 ∙ 16𝑟
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = = = 0.74048048
√18 3√2

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Figure 9. Hexagonal close-packed structure.

Density Calculation
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of
the atoms (n atoms x Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of
a cube). If the mass of the atom is given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the
Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the formula for the density is:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑁
where:
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐/𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑁 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Example:
1. Polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic pattern with a unit cell length of 3.36
angstrom (Å). Estimate the density of Po in g/cm3. (1 Å = 1x10-8 cm)

Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 1 atom; a = 3.36x10-8 cm; A = 209 g/mol
Solution:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑁

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𝑔
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚) 209
𝜌= 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(3.36𝑥10 𝑐𝑚) 6.022𝑥10
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝝆 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟓 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
2. Aluminum has a face-centered cubic unit cell, that is, an atom at each corner
of the unit cell and an atom at the center of each face. The Al-Al distance (2r)
is 0.2863 nm. Calculate the density of aluminum in g/mL. The mass of
aluminum atom is 26.98 amu.

Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 4 atoms; A = 26.98 g/mol; 2r = 0.2863 nm = 0.2863x10-7 cm
Solution:
(4𝑟) = 𝑎 + 𝑎
16𝑟 = 2𝑎
𝑎 = 8𝑟

𝑎 = 2√2 𝑟
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑁
(4 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠)(26.98 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝜌= 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
√2(0.2863𝑥10 𝑐𝑚) (6.022𝑥10
𝑚𝑜𝑙
)
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟕 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒈/𝒎𝑳
𝒄𝒎𝟑

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for

surface scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ
/4?accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices
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pp 7-90

Let’s Check

Exercises:
1. Molybdenum forms body-centered cubic crystals and at 20 oC the density is
10.3 g/mL. Calculate the distance between the centers of the nearest
molybdenum atoms.
2. An element crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice. The edge of the unit
cell is 0.286 nm, and the density of the crystal is 7.92 g/cm3. Calculate the
atomic weight of the element.
3. Austenite form of iron has FCC crystal lattice structure, whereas its alpha form
has BCC crystal lattice structure. Assuming closest packed arrangement of iron
atoms, what will be the ratio of density of Austenite to that of alpha iron?
4. Sodium crystallizes in the body-centered cubic structure with a=0.424 nm.
Calculate the theoretical density of Na in kg/m3.
5. Find the distance (in nm) between the body-centered atom and one corner atom
in Na, given a=0.424 nm.

Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Compare and contrast the 7 crystal system.

Activity 2. Compare and contrast the 3 Bravais lattice of the cubic crystal
system.

In a Nutshell

Activity 1. Illustrate the: (a) simple cubic, body-centered, and face-centered cubic of
the cubic crystal system; and (b) hexagonal crystal system.
Activity 2. How is learning crystal structure relevant in the study of engineering?

Keywords Index

Amorphous Crystal lattice Face- Space lattice Coordination

centered number
cubic
Hexagonal
close-packed
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Atomic Cystalline Interfacial Unit cell Face-

Packing angles centered
Factor cubic
Body-centered Crystallographic Lattice Void space Simple cubic
cubic axes parameters
Bravais lattice Density Primitives

References
Atkins, P., & de Paula, J. (2006). Atkins’ Physical Chemistry 8th ed. Oxford
University Press. Chapter 20: Materials 2: The Solid State

Callister, W. (2002). Materials Science and Engineering (6th ed.). San Francisco,
CA: John Wiley and Sons.

Ellis, Arthur B.; et al. (1995). Teaching General Chemistry: A Materials Science
Companion (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.

Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for

surface scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4
?accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp
7-90

Moore, Lesley E.; Smart, Elaine A. (2005). Solid State Chemistry: An

Introduction (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis, CRC.

Schaffer; Saxena; Antolovich; Sanders; Warner (1999). The Science and Design of
Engineering Materials (2nd ed.). New York, NY: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. differentiate metals and non-metals by

understanding their characteristics

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of metals to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer to these

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definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational

concepts.

Actinides any of the series of fifteen metallic elements from actinium (atomic
number 89) to lawrencium (atomic number 103) in the periodic table.
They are all radioactive, the heavier members being extremely
unstable and not of natural occurrence.
Alkali metals the metals in Group 1 of the periodic table of elements
Alkaline earth
metals metals which belong to group 2 in the periodic table
Alloy a mixture of a metal with at least one other element, usually another
metal
Amalgam an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Brass an alloy of copper and zinc; does not tarnish and is used for door
knobs, buttons and musical instruments.
Corrosion a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically-
stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction
with their environment.
Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic
deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent
elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.

Electrical
conductivity the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity.
Lanthanides are a group of 15 chemical elements, with atomic numbers 57 through
71. All of these elements have one valence electron in the 5d shell.
Luster is a gentle sheen or soft glow, especially that of a partly reflective
surface.

Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be

hammered, pressed or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.

Ore a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable

mineral can be profitably extracted.
Reactivity the ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with
other elements and compounds
Rusting the specific name given to the corrosion of iron; a chemical reaction
between iron, oxygen and water.
Solder an alloy of zinc and lead; is used in electronics to attach components
to circuit boards.
Sonority is a nonbinary phonological feature categorizing sounds into a relative
scale.

Steel an alloy containing iron and other elements

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Thermal is the rate at which heat passes through a specified material,

conductivity expressed as the amount of heat that flows per unit time through a
unit area with a temperature gradient of one degree per unit distance.
Transition
metals the elements in Groups 3 through 12 in the periodic table

Essential Knowledge

A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows

a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are
typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn
into wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such as stainless
steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride (Gaffney & Marley,
2018).
Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals. The
most abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust
are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The vast majority
of metals are found in ores (mineral-bearing substances), but a few such
as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in the free state because they
do not readily react with other elements.
Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively
simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree
of symmetry. Typically, the atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement
of electrons in their outermost shell. Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to
form compounds with each other. They do, however, combine more readily with
nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which generally have more than half the
maximum number of valence electrons.
Metals, as chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are
present in many aspects of modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals
has led to their frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction,
as well as most vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad
tracks. Precious metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern
era, coinage metals have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements (Roe,
1992).

Physical Properties

The physical properties of metals include shininess/luster, malleability, ductility,

and conductivity. A malleable material is one that can be hammered or rolled into flat
sheets and other shapes. A ductile material is one that can be pulled out, or drawn,
into a long wire. For example, copper can be made into thin sheets and wire because

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it is malleable and ductile. Conductivity is the ability of an object to transfer heat or

electricity to another object. Most metals are good conductors. In addition, a few
metals are magnetic. For example, iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) are attracted
to magnets and can be made into magnets. Most metals are also solids at room
temperature. However, one metal—mercury (Hg)—is a liquid at room temperature
(Holleman & Wiberg, 2001).

Chemical Properties

The ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with other
elements and compounds is called its reactivity. Metals usually react by losing
electrons to other atoms. Some metals are very reactive. For example, you read that
sodium (Na) reacts strongly when exposed to air or water. To prevent a reaction,
sodium and metals like it must be stored under oil in sealed containers. By comparison,
gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) are valued for their lack of reactivity and because they are
rare. The reactivities of other metals fall somewhere between those of sodium and
gold. Iron, for example, reacts slowly with oxygen in the air, forming iron oxide, or rust.
If iron is not protected by paint or plated with another metal, it will slowly turn to reddish-
brown rust. The destruction of a metal through this process is called corrosion
(Mortimer, 1975).

Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal due to reactions with other
chemicals in its environment. Over time, corrosion changes the appearance of the
metal as it breaks down and it becomes weaker. Corrosion can seriously damage
metallic objects and structures. Coating the surface of a metal with paint and certain
chemicals can protect it from corrosion.

Figure 1. Example of corrosion.

Do all metals corrode?

Metals behave differently when exposed to the environment. Gold is an
unreactive metal and does not corrode easily. In many cultures, gold is considered a
precious metal and is used to make sacred and decorative objects. Items made from
gold can survive for thousands of years and have even been found in good condition

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underwater. In general, objects made from metals that corrode easily do not survive
for as long.
Why doesn’t aluminum corrode?
Aluminum is a very reactive metal. However, it does not corrode in the presence
of oxygen. The outer aluminum atoms react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This forms
a thin layer of aluminum oxide on the metal’s surface, which protects the metal from
corrosion.

Figure 2. Mechanism why aluminum doesn’t corrode.

What is rusting?
Rusting is the specific name given to the corrosion of iron. It is a chemical
reaction between iron, oxygen and water. The chemical name for rust is hydrated iron
oxide. Rust can form on cars and buildings, making them unsafe. It is an expensive
problem. Salt can increase the rate of rusting. This iron bolt is on a seaside structure
and is nearly completely corroded.
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

Metals in the Periodic Table

The metals in a group, or family, have similar properties, and these family
properties change gradually as you move across the table (Walther, 2013).

The reactivity of metals tends to decrease as you move from left to right across
the periodic table.

Alkali Metal
The metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium, are called the alkali metals.
They have low melting point and boiling point compared to other metals. They are
very soft and cut easily by knife. Also, they have low densities. The alkali metals
have the high thermal and electrical conductivity, ductility, and malleability that are

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characteristics of a metal. Every alkali metal atom has a single electron in its
outermost shell. Sodium, Lithium, Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium are Alkali
Metals.
Alkaline Earth Metal
The Alkaline Earth Metals are all of the elements in the second column (column
2A) of the periodic table. Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and
Radium belong to this group. These metals have two electrons in their outermost
electron layer. Alkaline Earth Metals in their pure forms are generally shiny and
silvery.
Transition Metals
Transition metals are the elements that feature atoms that have an incomplete
d sub-shell. D-block simply implies that the element d-blocks are the final element
to build up all accords to building up principle. They give off electrons from their
outer s orbital but mostly they lose electrons on d orbital. They are unique from all
other elements because of their common properties. One property is they form a
lot of compounds in a quite amount few states of oxidation. Another property is
they are famous for their tendency to form a lot of paramagnetic compounds. This
is mainly due to their low reactivity of their d unpaired electrons (Yonezawa, 2017).
For the most part they are good source of conductors. They are malleable,
ductile, lustrous & silver-white in color. But exception of it is the copper which is
brownish red in color.
A great characteristic is they easily mix. The reason for it is because they have
the same atomic size. This results in more proficient mixture of one another in a
crystal lattice. When two or more metals mix or replace each other, we call the new
name of a metal an alloy.
They can be found anywhere on earth at various amount. They are mostly not
found on pure substance, but rather on the certain compounds on earth’s crust.
This signifies that we need to extract the metals on an existing compound in one
or two ways: pyrometallurgical which uses high temperature and
hydrometallurgical which uses aqueous solution.
They can also be sold at higher prices because of their rarity on the market.
One of the examples is the gold which is also known as shining dawn.
Lanthanides
Two rows of elements are placed below the main part of the periodic table. This
makes the table more compact. The elements in the top row are called the
lanthanides. Lanthanides are soft, malleable, shiny metals with high conductivity.
They are mixed with more common metals to make alloys. An alloy is a mixture of
a metal with at least one other element, usually another metal. Different
lanthanides are usually found together in nature. They are difficult to separate from
one another because they all share very similar properties.

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Actinides
Actinides are composed of 15 elements which ranges from number 89 to 103,
which are composed from actinium to lawrencium. The name of this certain metal
derives from its first element which is the actinium. While mostly of the actinides
are synthetic elements, small amount of uranium and thorium can be found on
nature. Another property that is possessed by these elements is radioactivity.
Examples are the plutonium, thorium and uranium which are utilized on building
nuclear reactors or weapons.
For many years the chemical elements reach its bottleneck and ended with a
number of 92, uranium. The scientists are uncertain of whether there is any other
heavy element than uranium. Until a discovery made by the scientists of University
of California physicists by Edwin McMillan (1907–1991) and Philip Abelson (1913–
2004) on their study on nuclear fission. (Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic
nucleus, a process that releases large amounts of energy. Atomic bombs and
nuclear power plants operate on nuclear fission.). During their experiments on
nuclear fission, they found new evidence that support the research of another
heavier element with an atomic number of 94. They have found new elements
which are the transuranium elements heavier than uranium. The first discovery
named as neptunium, comes from the planet Neptune. Just as the name uranium
derives from Uranus. Later on another discovery of transuranium found which is
the plutonium, which was named after Pluto. Later on more discoveries founded
on transuranium: americium (number 95) and curium (number 96) in 1944;
berkelium (number 97) in 1949; californium (number 98) in 1950; einsteinium
(number 99) and fermium (number 100) in 1952; mendelevium (number 101) in
1955; nobelium (number 102) in 1958; and lawrencium (number 103) in 1961.
Metalloids

They often create amphoteric oxides and behave in the same manner as
semiconductors. The usually considered elements on this group are boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony & tellurium. They more likely behave as non-metals
when they cooperate with metals and behave as metals when they react with non-
metals. Hence, they are known as semi-metals. The uncommon elements
polonium and astatine are sometimes considered as metalloids.

Other metals
They are metals that can be based on two criterion: Each of these elements
can be classified as a metal or a non-metal based on the characteristics on their
general chemical and physical properties. These are group of elements that can
be found on the right corner of the transition metals on periodic table and also
known as the post-transition metals. The elements classed as "other metals"
generally have the following properties in common: strong, ductile and malleable,
good conductors of heat and electricity, have a relative high density, and opaque.
Alloys

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An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element. Steel is a

common example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon and other elements.
Adding other elements to a metal changes its structure and so changes its properties.
The final alloy may have very different properties to the original metal. By changing
the amount of each element in an alloy, material scientists can custom-make alloys to
fit a given job (Shamsuddin, 2016).
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of copper and
tin, was commonly used by civilizations before iron extraction methods were
developed. Other well-known alloys include:
 brass: an alloy of copper and zinc. It does not tarnish and is used for door
knobs, buttons and musical instruments.
 solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to attach components
to circuit boards.
 amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Is gold an alloy?
Although pure gold is sometimes used in electronics, gold jewellery is always
a mixture of gold and other metals. Pure gold is actually quite soft. Adding small
amounts of other metals makes the gold hard enough to use in jewellery. Alloying gold
with different metals also affects its colour. The familiar yellow gold is an alloy of gold
with copper and silver. Adding more copper than silver gives redder shades. White
gold is an alloy of gold with nickel, platinum or palladium. Around 12% of people may
be allergic to the nickel in white gold.
When is a copper coin not a copper coin?
A copper coin is not a copper coin when it is a copper-coated alloy!
Copper coins used to be made from pure copper but most ‘copper’ coins used
around the world are now made from copper alloys. Previously, as the value of copper
increased, the metal used to make the coin became worth more than the actual coins.
A melted-down, pure copper coin could have been sold for more than the face value
of the coin! Since 1992, UK copper coins have been made from copper-plated steel
and are magnetic. A magnet can be used to separate copper coins by age.
What is steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon, nickel and
chromium. Steel is stronger than pure iron and can be used for everything from sauce
pans to suspension bridges. The atoms in pure iron are arranged in densely-packed
layers. These layers can slide over each other. This makes pure iron a very soft
material. The atoms of other elements are different sizes. When other elements are
added to iron, their atoms distort the regular structure of the iron atoms. It is more
difficult for the layers of iron atoms in steel to slide over each other and so this alloy is
stronger than pure iron.

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Figure 3. Sauce pan.

Figure 4. Suspension bridge.

Steel can contain up to 2% carbon. Varying the amount of carbon gives steel
different properties. For example, a higher carbon content makes a hard steel.
Different types of steel are classified by how much carbon they contain.
 low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon
 high carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.
Two other important types of steel are:
 stainless steel – an alloy of iron that contains at least 11% chromium and
smaller amounts of nickel and carbon
 titanium steel – an alloy of iron and titanium.
Smart Alloy

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A smart material can change one or more of its physical characteristics under
the influence of an external stimulus. Shape memory alloy is a type of smart material
made from metals that returns to its original shape after being deformed. Nitinol is a
type of shape memory alloy made from nickel and titanium. This material can be used
to make a pair of glasses that ‘remembers’ its shape and does not break when
crushed. Nitinol has also been used to hold badly broken bones in place while they
heal.

Figure 5. A smart alloy made of nitinol.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1 Introduction pp 1-38.

Let’s Check

1. What is stainless steel?

2. What are the most common metals used in construction?
3. What is the difference between Iron and Steel?
4. Why isn’t steel termed as a metal?

Let’s Analyze

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1. Differentiate metals from non-metals.

2. What makes stainless steel stainless? Explain.
3. Which is stronger, Steel or Titanium? Explain.
4. What are the 4 types of steel?

In a Nutshell

1. Construct a vis-à-vis comparison of different alloyed materials. Cite the

advantages, disadvantages, and its best application.

Keywords Index

Actinides Alkali metals Alkaline earth Alloy Alloy

metals
Amalgam
Brass Corrosion Ductility Electrical Lanthanides
conductivity
Luster Malleability Ore Reactivity Rusting
Solder Sonority Steel Thermal Transition
conductivity metals

References

Gaffney, J., & Marley, N. (2018). General chemistry for engineers. Elsevier Inc.
Holleman, A.F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego,
2001.
Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach (3rd ed.). New
York: D. Van Nostrad Company.
Roe, J; Roe, M (1992). "World's coinage uses 24 chemical elements". World
Coinage News. 19 (4, 5): 24–25, 18–19.
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1
?accountid=31259.
Walther, John V. (2013). Earth's Natural Resources. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Yonezawa, F (2017). Physics of Metal-Nonmetal Transitions. Amsterdam: IOS
Press.

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. explain the concept of polymers

Metalanguage
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In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of polymers to demonstrate ULOc will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.

Copolymers molecules which are built up of at least two different kinds of monomer
Crosslinking process of forming covalent bonds or relatively short sequences of
chemical bonds to join two polymer chains together.
Elastomer a natural or synthetic polymer having elastic properties, e.g. rubber.
Homopolymers polymers consisting of monomer of identical chemical structure
Kevlar a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, related to other aramids
such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at
DuPont in 1965, this high-strength material was used first
commercially in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing
tires.
Monomer a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a
polymer.
Polymer a large molecule which is formed by repeated linking of small
molecules called "monomers"
Polymerization the process by which simple (monomer) molecules join together to
form very large (polymer) molecules.
Resin a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is
typically convertible into polymers.
Thermoplastic a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when
heated and hard when cooled.
Thermoset a polymer that is irreversibly hardened by curing from a soft solid or
viscous liquid prepolymer or resin.
Vulcanization a process of treating natural rubber with sulphur

Essential Knowledge

POLYMERS

According to (Chang, 2008), a polymer is a molecular compound distinguished

by a very high molar mass, ranging into thousands and millions of grams, and is made
up of many repeating units. The physical properties of these so-called macromolecules
vary greatly from those of small ordinary molecules and special techniques are
required to study them.

This statement is true. Polymers are not like an ordinary compound. They
involve complex chemical reactions to form. The words polymer comes from the Greek
prefix poly- “Many” and mers- “Parts”, thus many parts. Though, the word polymer is
equated to the word macromolecules (giant molecules). It is after a German Physicist,

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Hermann Staudinger, who clearly prove that such giant molecules exist and called it
macromolecules (Chang, 2008).

MONOMER, MER AND POLYMER

The process on which the formation of polymers undergoes is called

polymerization, which involves the chemical combinations of many small chemical
units known as monomers “single parts” (Winslow, 1979), a mer “repeating units” and
a polymer “the macromolecule”. The diagram below shows the molecular structure of
polyethylene, an example of a polymer.

(POLYMERS)

POLYETHYLENE

ETHYLENE

Characteristics of Polymers

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the
following attributes. First, polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Many
chemicals we are using today such as muriatic acid, chlorine and many more are so
strong that it even damages our skin. The characteristics of plastics provide safe, non-
breakable packages for aggressive solvent. Second, polymers can be both thermal
and electrical insulators. A walk through your house will reinforce this concept, as
you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or
covered with polymeric materials. Polymers (e.g. kitchenware made of Teflon) can
resist extreme heat. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of
polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester. Third,
generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of strength.
Kevlar is one example of this which is really strong yet light in weight. Fourth,
polymers can be processed in various ways. Injection Molding - plastic is melted
in a heating chamber and then forced by a plunger into cold molds to set; and
Extrusions - melted polymer is extruded through a die in continuous form to be cut into
lengths or coiled. Fifth, polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of
characteristics and colors, because polymers can mimic cotton, silk, wool fibers,
porcelain, marble, aluminum and zinc. Lastly, Polymers can be used to make items
that have no alternatives from other materials. Polymers are used in many medical
purposes such as Dacron for artificial artery of the heart and blood bag used in blood
transfusion. These were according to American Chemistry Council (2005) and Smith
(2005).
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Polymers can be based on the ff.: origin, type of monomer involved, structure,
mode of polymerization, thermal response, and physical properties/application.

Polymers Based on Origin: Natural, Semi-synthetic and Synthetic Polymers

There are three types of polymers based on origin: natural, semi-synthetic and
synthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and made by
scientists and engineers. Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene,
polyester, Teflon, and epoxy. Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted.
They are often water-based. Examples of naturally occurring polymers are silk, wool,
DNA, cellulose and proteins (Natural vs Synthetic Polymers, 2016). Semi-synthetic
polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical
modifications. For example, cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose on
acetylation with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose
diacetate polymers. It is used in making thread and materials like films, glasses etc.
Vulcanized rubber is also an example of semisynthetic polymers used in making tires
etc.; gun cotton which is cellulose nitrate used in making explosive (Gouda, 2018).

Polymers Based Type of Monomer involved in the Structure: Homopolymer and

Copolymer

Polymers Based on Structure: Linear, Branched, Cross-Link and Network

There are two types of Monomer involved in the Structure of Polymers. First,
homopolymer- same monomer is repeated throughout the chain of polymer; and
copolymer- this is also known as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more
different kinds of monomers.

Homopolymers

Homopolymers can be classified as linear, branched, cross linked and

network homopolymers.

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Linear polymers

Considered to be the simplest polymer, linear polymers have linear long

polymeric chain of same types of monomer units or simply a chain in which all of the
carbon-carbon bonds exist in a single straight line. Examples are HDPE (High-density
polyethylenes) and Teflon which is made from tetrafluoroethylene, a single strand of
units made from two carbon atoms and four fluorine atoms.

Branched Polymers

Branched polymers have short or long branches bonded on parent polymeric

or it occurs when groups of units branch off from the long polymer chain. These
branches are known as side chains and can also be very long groups of repeating
structures. A polymer with many branches is called dendrimers. Example is LDPE
(Low- density polyethylenes).

“HDPE (High-density polyethylenes) vs. LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes)”

High-density polyethylenes (HDPEs)

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HDPEs are mostly linear molecules that pack closely together and can assume
fairly ordered crystalline structure. It’s rigid and has good tensile strength.

Examples: threaded bottles caps, toys, bottles and gallon milk jugs

Low- density polyethylenes (LDPEs)

LDPEs have plenty of side chains branching off polymer molecules. It’s waxy,
bendable plastics that are lower melting than HDPE (Smith, 2005).

Examples: Plastic bags, plastic film, electric wire insulation, etc.

Cross linked and Network polymers

They form long chains, either branched or linear, that can form covalent bonds
between the polymer molecules. As a result, it produces a stronger and more stable
material, because cross-linked polymers form covalent bonds that are much stronger
than the intermolecular forces that attract other polymer chains. Important example of
this is when natural rubber is vulcanized.

* Vulcanization

Vulcanization is a process where the rubber is heated so the sulfur

molecules in the rubber polymer chains form covalent bonds with each other.
This process was discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839, utilizing Hevea
brasiliensis, a tree which produces a liquid resin from the inner bark forming a
natural rubber

- Chemically a polymer Isoprene, C5H8

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Cis- from the latin word

“meaning “on the side”

From the book Chemistry the Central Science (8th Edition) author Theodore L.
Brown.

Copolymers

According to Raymond Chang and Goldsby (2016), copolymers are also known
as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more different kinds of monomers.
It has two major types, namely, polyamides and polyesters.

Polyamides are the condensation of carboxylic acid and amine monomers while
polyesters are the condensation of carboxyclic acid and alcohol monomers. Example
of polyamide is Nylon-66 produced by mixing equimolar amounts of a six-C diamine
(1,6- diaminohexane) and a six-C diacid (1,6- hexanedioic acid). Example of polyester
is Dacron, a popular polyester fiber, woven from 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid and
1,2 ethanediol. Blending these polyester fibers with various amounts of cotton gives
fabrics that are durable, easily dyed, and crease resistant. Another example is mylar
films, used for recording tape and food packaging.

Copolymer can be further classified as alternating copolymer, block copolymer,

graft copolymer and random copolymers, gradient, periodic and aperiodic.

*Random Copolymer -the monomers are arranged in any order such as

AABAAABBBBAB.

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*Block Copolymers - two blocks of homopolymers are joined together. It can be

represented as AAAAAAABBBBBBB.

*Alternating Copolymer - the two monomers are arranged in an alternative way

and can be represented as ABABABABAB.

*Graft Copolymer -The composition of the main chain is a preformed

macromolecule and is compositionally or configurationally different from the side
chains or branches w/ repeat units.

Kevlar

Kevlar is an extended application of Nylon and other polymers have stimulated

a strong demand for new “super” fibers with the heat resistance of asbestos, the
stiffness of glass, and strength much greater than steel. The average molecular mass
of each polymer chain is 10⁵ amu. Kevlar ropes can replace steel ropes and cables
(offshore oil drilling). In seawater, kevlar has 20 times the strength of steel. Kevlar is
also used in manufacturing bulletproof vests and high-performance sports gear. It’s
very stable at high temperature, thus, can be used as protective clothing by firefighters.

Classification of Polymers based on Molecular Forces: Thermoplastic and

Thermosets, Elastomers, Fiber-Forming Polymers

*Thermoplastics and Thermosets

Thermoplastics - polymers become soft on the application of heat and thus can be
molded in the desired shape.

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Thermosets - polymers have individual chain bonded covalently during

polymerization by application of heat or chemical treatment. The shape cannot be
changed and resist subsequent mechanical deformation or heat softening or solvent
attack.

Furthermore, thermoplastic can be classified as crystalline or amorphous

according to Institute of Applied Chemistry of NCTU.

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*Glass transition temperature (Tg)

The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible

transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions
within semicrystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a
viscous or rubbery state as the temperature is increased.[1] An amorphous solid that
exhibits a glass transition is called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved
by supercooling a viscous liquid into the glass state, is called vitrification.
The glass-transition temperature Tg of a material characterizes the range of
temperatures over which this glass transition occurs. It is always lower than the melting
temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the material, if one exists. Despite the
change in the physical properties of a material through its glass transition, the
transition is not considered a phase transition.
Above this temperature – polymer is rubbery and tough

*Materials with low Tg - if we want automobile tires to be tough and elastic

*Plasticizers- can make them more flexible and less brittle by lowering the Tg

Below temperature - polymer is like glass - hard, stiff and brittle

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*Materials w/ Tg values above room temperature - if we want plastic substitutes

for glass to be glassy

ELASTOMERS

Elastomers (or rubbers) are polymers with considerable extensions which are
reversible, examples are natural and synthetic rubbers. Synthetic rubbers are now
used much more extensively and they are based on other polymers and produced
from the distillation of oil. Many components do not require great strength but they do
require softness, flexibility and reversible elongation. Thus, elastomers are ideal for
such applications as resilient floor coverings, footwear and vehicle tires.

Fiber-Forming Polymers

The fiber forming polymers are linear macromolecules that are usually suitable
for making man-made fibers. The term “synthetic fiber” will be used to denote all man-
made fibers manufactured from non-cellulosic raw materials. Examples are
hydrophobic polymer fibers like nylon and polyester often blended with cotton, viscose
or wool.

Polymer Recycling

According to Smith (2005), in recycling plastic in the United States, they follow
the “Big Six” Recycling code (1-6). The lower the number, the easier to recycle.

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POLYMERIZATION

Polymerization s a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine

to form larger molecules that contain repeating structural units. It is usually formed
with the same type of repeating molecules (homopolymers) or form with two or more
different molecules (copolymer).

TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION

There are two general types of polymerization reactions: addition

polymerization and condensation polymerization. In addition polymerization, the
monomers add to one another in such a way that the polymer contains all the atoms
of the starting monomers. Ethylene molecules are joined together in long chains
(Chanda, 2017).

Chain-Reaction (Addition) Polymerization

The polymerization can be represented by the reaction of a few monomer

units:

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The bond lines extending at the ends in the formula of the product indicate that
the structure extends for many units in each direction. Notice that all the atoms—two
carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms—of each monomer molecule are incorporated
into the polymer structure. Because displays such as the one above are cumbersome,
the polymerization is often abbreviated as follows:

nCH2=CH2 → [ CH2CH2 ] n

During the polymeriation of ethene, thousands of ethene molecules join

together to make poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene. The reaction is done at
high pressures in the presence of a trace of oxygen as an initiator.

Step 1: Chain Initiation

The oxygen reacts with some of the ethene to give an organic peroxide. Organic
peroxides are very reactive molecules containing oxygen-oxygen single bonds which
are quite weak and which break easily to give free radicals. You can short-cut the
process by adding other organic peroxides directly to the ethene instead of using
oxygen if you want to. The type of the free radicals that start the reaction off vary
depending on their source. For simplicity we give them a general formula: Ra∙Ra∙

Step 2: Chain Propagation

In an ethene molecule, CH2=CH2, the two pairs of electrons which make up the
double bond aren't the same. One pair is held securely on the line between the two
carbon nuclei in a bond called a sigma bond. The other pair is more loosely held in an
orbital above and below the plane of the molecule known as a ππ bond.

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The sigma bond between the carbon atoms isn't affected by any of this. The
free radical, Ra , uses one of the electrons in the ππ bond to help form a new bond
between itself and the left hand carbon atom. The other electron returns to the right
hand carbon. You can show this using "curly arrow" notation if you want to:

This is energetically worth doing because the new bond between the radical
and the carbon is stronger than the ππ bond which is broken. You would get more
energy out when the new bond is made than was used to break the old one. The more
energy that is given out, the more stable the system becomes. What we've now got is
a bigger free radical - lengthened by CH2CH2. That can react with another ethene
molecule in the same way:

So now the radical is even bigger. That can react with another ethene - and so
on and so on. The polymer chain gets longer and longer.

Step 3: Chain Termination

The chain does not, however, grow indefinitely. Sooner or later two free radicals
will collide together.

That immediately stops the growth of two chains and produces one of the final
molecules in the poly(ethene). It is important to realize that the poly(ethene) is going
to be a mixture of molecules of different sizes, made in this sort of random way.
Because chain termination is a random process, poly(ethene) will be made up of
chains of different lengths.

Step-Reaction (Condensation) Polymerization

A large number of important and useful polymeric materials are not formed by
chain-growth processes involving reactive species such as radicals, but proceed
instead by conventional functional group transformations of polyfunctional reactants.
These polymerizations often (but not always) occur with loss of a small byproduct,
such as water, and generally (but not always) combine two different components in an
alternating structure. The polyester Dacron and the polyamide Nylon 66, shown here,
are two examples of synthetic condensation polymers, also known as step-growth
polymers. In contrast to chain-growth polymers, most of which grow by carbon-carbon
bond formation, step-growth polymers generally grow by carbon-heteroatom bond

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formation (C-O & C-N in Dacron & Nylon respectively). Although polymers of this kind
might be considered to be alternating copolymers, the repeating monomeric unit is
usually defined as a combined moiety.

Examples of naturally occurring condensation polymers are cellulose, the

polypeptide chains of proteins, and poly (β-hydroxybutyric acid), a polyester
synthesized in large quantity by certain soil and water bacteria. Formulas for these will
be displayed below by clicking on the diagram.

(Polymers and Polymerization Reactions, 2016)

In summary, the table below presents the classification of polymers.

Table 1. Classification of Polymers

Basis of Polymer Types Examples

Classification
1. Origin (a) Natural (as available in Natural rubber, natural silk,
nature) cellulose, proteins, starch etc.
(b) Hydrogenated, halogenated and
Semisynthetic cyclo (natural) rubber; cellulosics
(Man – made) (cellulose
esters/ethers), etc.

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(c) Synthetic Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-

(Man – made) styrene, polybutadiene, nylon poly-
amides, polycarbonates,
phenolics, amino resins, epoxy
resins etc.
2. Thermal response (a) Thermoplastics (they Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
soften or melt on heating and styrene, nylon polyamides, linear
harden on cooling over many polyester [poly
cycles of (ethylene
heating and cooling and terephthalate)] , etc.
retain solubility and
fusibility).
(b) Thermosetting (they Phenolic resin, amino resins,
usually soften or melt initially epoxy resins, diene rubbers
on heating, but fast undergo (vulcanized), unsaturated
chemical changes to finally polyesters.
turn insoluble and infusible).
3. Mode of formation (a) Chain – growth or Polyethylene and other polyolefins,
addition Polystyrene and related vinyl
polymers etc.
(b) Step – growth or Polyesters and polyamides,
condensation polycarbonates, phenol (urea,
melamine) – formaldehyde resins,
epoxy resins etc.
4. Line Structure (a) Linear High density polyethylene (HDPE),
(having no branches) polyvinyls, bifunctional (polyesters
and polyamides) etc.
(b) Branched Low density polyethylene (LDPE),
(having branches) higher poly (α-olefins), phenolic
resoles and resitols, poly (3-
hydroxy alkanoates) etc.
(c) Cross linked or network Phenolic C-stage (resite) resin, C-
(having a complex network stage amino (urea / melamine-
structure) formal- dehyde) resins, cured
epoxy resin and
unsaturated polyester resin etc.
5. Application and (a) Rubbers Natural rubber, (1, 4 cis poly
Physical properties (showing long – range isoprene) synthetic rubbers
elasticity) (polybuta- diene, SBR, nitrile
rubber, polychlo- roprene rubber,
polylacrylate rubber, polyurethane
rubbers, silicone rubbers etc.)
(b) Plastics Polyethylenes,
(shapable under pressure, polypropylen
aided by heat) e (isotactic), polystyrene, poly
(vinyl chloride), nylon polyamides
linear
aromatic polyesters and

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polyamides, polycarbonates,
acetal resins etc.

(c) Fibres Cotton (cellulose), natural silk,

(available in fibrillar or artificial silk (rayons), poly
filamentous form) (ethylene terephthalate) fibre,
nylon polyamide fibres etc.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Characteristics of Polymers and
Polymerization Processes pp 1-160

Let’s Check

1. What is a polymer?
2. What are the classifications of plastics according to Society of Plastic Industry?
3. Give examples of synthetic polymers and indicate their uses.

Let’s Analyze

1. How are plastics formed?

2. Differentiate thermoplastic from thermoset and give examples.
3. Why do different polymers have different properties?

In a Nutshell

1. How does the molecular-level structure of polymers influence their physical

properties?
2. "Teflon" is the polymer that results from the polymerization of
tetrafluoroethylene. Write a chemical formula for this reaction. What are some
of the properties of Teflon?

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Keywords Index

Copolymers Crosslinking Elastomer Homopolymers Kevlar

Monomer Polymer Polymerization Resin Thermoplastic
Thermoset Vulcanization

References

American Chemistry Council, 2005 “The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties”
Retrieved from http//www.plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastic

Brown, Theodore L. Chemistry the Central Science, 8th Edition Chapter 12,
pp. 440-448 “Modern Material”

Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5
?accountid=31259.

Chang, R. (2008). General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts. New York: McGraw-
Hill.

Chang, Raymond & Goldsby Kenneth A. Chemistry, 12th Edition

McGraw-Hill International Edition 2016, Chapter 25, pp. 1059-1064 “Synthetic
and Natural Organic Polymers”

Hill, John W. and Kolb, Doris K. Chemistry for Changing Times, 9th Edition
Chapter, pp 283-286 “Polymers”

Natural vs Synthetic Polymers. (2016). Retrieved August 27, 2018, from

www.cmu.edu: https://www.cmu.edu/gelfand/education/k12-
teachers/polymers/natural-synthetic-polymers/

Smith, Janice Gorzynski. Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition

McGraw-Hill Education International Edition, 2005. Chapter 30,
pp. 1217-1221 “Synthetic Polymers”

Silverberg, Principles of General Chemistry, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill

International Edition, Chapter 15 pp. 483-486 “ The Monomer- Polymer”

Winslow, F. B. (1979). MACROMOLECULES: The Introduction to Polymer Science.

New York: ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOd. show understanding of the concept of

engineered nanomaterials

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study
of nanomaterials to demonstrate ULOd will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.
Bottom-up Approach includes the miniaturization of materials components (up to
atomic level) with further selfassembly process leading to the
formation of nanostructures
Buckminsterfullerene also known as buckyball, is a spherical close- caged structure
made of sixty sp2 carbons it has a highly symmetrical structure
which give it its electronic properties
Carbon nanotubes are tubes made of carbon with diameters typically measured
in nanometers; often refer to single-wall carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs) with diameters in the range of a
nanometer.
Dendrimers are highly branched, star-shaped macromolecules with
nanometer-scale dimensions
Engineered materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are intentionally
nanomaterials produced for specific product application
Fullerene an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon
atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a
closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven
atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube,
or many other shapes and sizes.
Graphene a carbon-based nanomaterial derived from graphite through
exfoliation
Nanocomposites are materials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix
of standard material. The result of the addition of nanoparticles
is a drastic improvement in properties that can include
mechanical strength, toughness and electrical or thermal
conductivity.
Nanomaterials materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension
Nanoparticles particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron and
potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales
(~0.2 nm)
Nanotechnology the design, synthesis, and application of materials and devices
whose size and shape have been engineered at the nanoscale
Top-down Approach uses larger (macroscopic) initial structures, which can be
externally-controlled in the processing of nanostructures

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Essential Knowledge

In our fast advancing technology, we are introduced to on-blink discoveries and

innovation. One of these is the introduction of the usage on nanomaterials in different
applications that make our lives more convenient and better. We will now discover
what nanomaterials are delving specifically to engineered ones. We will discuss its
four main types and some of their examples.

What are nanomaterials?

Nanomaterials are any material with any external dimension in the nanoscale
which ranges from 1-100 nanometers or internal or surface structure are in nanoscale
(IOS, 2015). Moreover, the European Commission (2011) defined a nanomaterial as
any natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles in an unbound
state or as an aggregate where 50% or more of the particles’ size extends from 1-100
nm.

Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials nucleate, grow, and dissolve via a set of elementary chemical
processes that spontaneously redistribute charge and mass at the atomic scale. These
processes include electron and proton transfer reactions that rearrange ions and
complexes into nanophases. They can be understood by using thermodynamic,
kinetic, and transition-state theory to describe intermediate states along reaction
pathways on free-energy landscapes. Classical nucleation theory describes ion-by-ion
assembly to form crystals, but nonclassical growth pathways are also important; these
pathways involve formation of intermediate multinuclear ion clusters and small
nanomaterials that can transition to relatively larger nanomaterials and bulk crystals
by particle-based crystallization (Yoreo et al 2015 & Van Driessche, 2017).

The distinct properties of all natural and anthropogenic nanomaterials stem

primarily from the comparatively high proportion of surface atoms relative to interior
ones. At times, these properties are best described using quantum mechanics.
Smaller particles have fewer atoms, which translates to fewer electron energy levels.
Therefore, electron energy bands become discrete electron energy states, of energies
that are sensitive to particle size, a condition known as quantum confinement.
Nevertheless, however “nano” is defined or considered, size and shape are essential
characteristics because they exert primary control over reactivity and transport
physics. Size and shape also determine the types and distributions of reactive surface
sites capable of chemical transformations and, at times, the toxicity of nanomaterials.
Owing to the high proportion of surface versus bulk atoms, even the smallest variations
in surface structures may control the fate and reactivity of nanomaterials in air, water,
soil, or biota. Through their influence on surface charging behavior, size and shape
also control the tendency for aggregation, a critically important aspect that can blend
or obscure the characteristics of individual particles as they adopt new characteristics
in nanocomposites.

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The interplay between growth, dissolution, evaporation, and aggregation are

key aspects of nanomaterials in the environment (Fig. 1). Oriented aggregation can
result in the formation of larger particles with complex shapes (Penn et al, 1998). But
because of the complexity of natural settings, most nanomaterials are found in
heteroaggregated composites of different inorganic and organic materials. These
aggregates can diverge markedly from spherical shapes and may even form highly
branched or fractal structures, thereby fundamentally affecting transport properties
and reactivities. Rates of particle dissolution, although known or experimentally
measurable for many pure-phase nanomaterials in a well-dispersed state (Cwiertny et
al 2009 & Schoepf Schoepf et al 2017), are challenging to predict for complex
nanomaterial aggregates that have substantial internal surface areas with limited
accessibility (Liu et al, 2008). Furthermore, these physical associations change as the
nanomaterials encounter and transition through different local environments. Only in
relatively simple systems can the evolution of particle size, shape, and aggregation
state, and thus the distribution of effective particle diameters, be predicted with
reasonable accuracy (Mullaugh & Luther, 2011).

Figure 1. Conceptual free-energy landscape for the formation and interactions that
define the typical state of nanomaterials in the environment.

Shown are chemical formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, from complexes

to clusters and beyond, within aqueous solutions. This creates nanomaterials (teal
solid curve) that are more stable than the product of continuous growth (teal dashed
curve), which results in larger bulk crystals (represented here as a precipitated single
crystal or a crystal formed by oriented attachment of nanocrystals, OA) that have a
free energy represented by the horizontal red dotted line. Moving across the graphic
from left to right, as shown by the curved arrow, symbolizes the myriad interactions of
stable nanomaterials in environmental media. Individual nanoparticles at an energy
represented by the horizontal purple dotted line tend to form heteroaggregates at an
even lower free-energy state. Here, net attractive interactions with unlike particles and
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compounds (green curve) tend to outcompete processes that could lead to single-
phase bulk crystals assembled by, for example, OA (green dashed curve), producing,
instead, long-lived composites of complex composition and structure.

Engineered Nanoparticles

Engineered nanomaterials are materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and

are intentionally produced for specific product applications. Furthermore, they possess
different chemical and physical properties from those larger forms of the same material
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2018).

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), there

are four main types of engineered nanomaterials. These are mainly Carbon-Based,
Metal-Based, Dendrimers, and Nanocomposites.

 Carbon- Based Nanomaterials (CBNs)

From its name, carbon- based nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon
which may form hollow spheres, ellipsoids or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon
nanomaterials are generally called fullerenes whereas cylindrical ones are called
nanotubes. These particles are best used in improved films and coatings, stronger and
lighter materials and electronics application.

Some examples of Carbon- Based Nanomaterials

Carbon Nanotubes

It is referred as the most widely used CNT. It is known for its tunable physical
properties such as diameter, length, surface functionalization and chirality. It is
produced through arc discharge or chemical water deposition of graphite. Carbon
nanotubes have cylindrical carbon structure and wide range of electrical and optical
properties (Saito, et al, 1998).

Figure 2. Carbon nanotube

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Graphene

Graphene is the latest CNT to burst into the scene. It is derived from graphite
through exfoliation, a method introduced by Geim and Novoselov (2007). In addition,
graphene is extraordinarily strong and is famed as the strongest material ever known
and tested. It is supernaturally light and electrically super conductive (Science 321,
385 and Changu, 2008).

Figure 3. Graphene

Fullerenes

Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Rice University’s researchers and was

named after Buckminster Fuller. Spherical fullerenes are called buckyballs, the C60
variant which resembles a typical black and white soccer ball. On the other hand,
cylindrical ones are called buckytubes (Science Daily, 2018).

Buckminsterfullerene

Also known as buckyball, is a spherical close-caged structure made of sixty sp2

carbons. It has a highly symmetrical structure which gives it its electronic properties
(Kroto, et al, 1985).

Figure 4. Buckyball

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 Metal- Based Nanomaterials

These are nanomaterials made up of metals, semiconductors and oxides. They

have very interesting mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties
(Stephenson and Hubler, 2015). Metal- based nanomaterials may include quantum
dots, nanogold, nanosilvers and metal oxides.

Some examples of Metal-Based Nanomaterials

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Nanoparticles

Iron oxide is one of the three main oxides of iron. It is a reddish brown, inorganic
and is paramagnetic in nature delivery and imaging, molecular and cellular tracking,
detection of cancer, diabetes, etc. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are
known for their magnetic properties and biocompatibility. Due to these properties, iron
oxide nanoparticles are used in biomedical applications such as for enhanced
resolution content agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). (Morales, et al,
2003)

Gold Nanoparticle (Colloidal Gold)

Gold nanoparticles also known as colloidal gold are suspension or colloid of

nanomaterial particles of gold (Giljohan, et al, 2010). Colloidal gold solutions have
either intense red color or dirty yellowish color (Murphy, et al, 2008). According to Link,
et al. (1999), the properties and applications of gold nanoparticles depend upon its
shape.

 Dendrimers

Dendrimers are nanosized polymers built from branched units. Their surfaces
have numerous chains which can be tailored to perform a specific chemical function.
Moreover, this is also the reason for being useful in catalysis. They may also be used
for drug delivery due to its interior cavities which other molecules could be placed. This
is particular for three-dimensional dendrimers.

Some types of Dendrimers

Polyamidoamine (PAMAM)

Perhaps, the most well-known dendrimer. PAMAM has a diamine core,

commonly ethylenediamine which is reacted with methyl acrylate. Then, another
ethylenediamine is reacted to make the generation-0 (G-0). Eventually successive
reactions create higher generations (Hermanson, 2008).

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Figure 5. PAMAM dendrimer

Peptide Dendrimers

These are dendrimers which held amino acid as branching or interior units.
Diagnostic purposes and vaccine delivery are some of its applications (Yasukawa, et
al, 2008).

Multilingual Dendrimers

Dendrimers which hold multiple copies of functional group on their surface

(Pushkar, et al, 2006).

 Nanocomposites

These are nanomaterials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of a

standard material. The potential effect of this addition are mechanical strength and
electrical and thermal conductivity. They work as thin-film capacitors for computer
chips, solid polymer electrolytes for batteries, impellers, oxygen and gases barriers
and many more (AzoNano, 2015)

Types of Nanocomposites (according to matrix)

Ceramic-Matrix Nanocomposite

In this type of nanocomposite, the main part or the matrix is a ceramic (a

chemical compound from the group of oxides, nitrides, borides, etc.). Usually, ceramic-

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matrix nanocomposites have metal as the second component. The two components
are finely dispersed in each other to create a particular nanoscopic properties (Kruis,
et a, 1998).

Metal-Matrix Nanocomposites

Also defined as reinforced metal matrix composites, having metal as the

primary component. The best example is the Carbon nanotube metal-matrix
composite (Janas and Liszka, 2007). Other examples are boron nitride reinforced
metal matrix nanocomposites and carbon nitride metal-matrix nanocomposites
(Bakshi, et al, 2010).

Polymer-Matrix Nanocomposites

This type of nanocomposite can be produced by adding a nanoparticle to a

polymer matrix to enhance performance, functions, and properties. These are
sometimes called nanofilled polymer composites (Manias, 2007). Nanoparticles such
as carbon nanotubes, graphene, molybdenum, disulfide and tungsten disulfide are
usually used as reinforcing agents (Rafiee, et al, 2009).

Generally, the realm of engineered nanomaterials is considerably vast as well

as their applications. They were categorized according to composition and those
categories were further divided into types. To sum up, there are four main types of
engineered nanomaterials, namely, Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Metal-Based
Nanomaterials, Dendrimers and Nanocomposites. Some of the types and examples
are recognized in this section to give a brief outlook in the bigger and wider concept
of engineered nanomaterials.

Synthesis of Engineered Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials Production – How nanomaterials are made?

Materials in the nanometer size are in demand for production for the past years.
It is used in a broad variety of applications. So as years continue to pass by, so is the
production of nanomaterials. Its production rate continues to immerse that almost all
materials were made after it. It has been compromising many products and is used in
various technologies. For example, the Carbon Black, has been used in tires since
1930 and as of now it is still being used by companies to produce tires. Moreover,
most nanoproducts are required to be processed through a series of production that
inhabits a precisely defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity) to attain
a result.

The said series of processes are used to produce diverse nanoparticles,

coatings, dispersions or composites that are needed to make an engineered
nanomaterial. This production involves a thorough defined production and reaction
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conditions for obtaining such size-dependent particle features. Particle size, chemical
composition, crystallinity and shape can be controlled by temperature, pH-value,
concentration, chemical composition, surface modifications and process control.

Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials

There are two approaches in the production of nanomaterials:

1. Top-Down Approach

It is a mechanical-physical particle synthesis based on the principles of

Microsystems technology. From its name Top-Down, it merely means that the process
is done from top (bigger) up to its base (lesser). Its production is done through the
mechanical crushing of the source material using a milling process or a chemical
technique like engraving metals by acids to obtain desired particles. This approach
also seeks to make a small strategy by using the larger ones to address the making
of the particles. Examples of this approach are the

High Energy Ball Milling, Laser Ablation, and Lithography (Zabara, 2016)

2. Bottom-Up Approach

This approach is patterned on physicochemical principles of molecules or

atomic self-organization. Its production begins with that of the atom of a specific
material by chemical processes based on its alteration in different mediums such as a
solution medium or gaseous medium (Zabara, 2016). This kind of synthesis
manufactured selected and more complex structures from atoms or molecules, better
controlling sizes, shapes and size ranges. The production seeks to arrange smaller
components into more complex groups.

This approach also depends merely on the chemical variation to come up with
the desired designs in manufacturing engineered nanomaterials. This includes the
Gas (Vapor) Phase Fabrication like the Pyrolysis and the Liquid Phase Fabrication
such as Solvothermal Reaction and Sol-Gel.

Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach

A. High Energy Ball Milling

It is a milling process in which a powder mixture is placed in a ball mill that is

subjected to have high-energy collision from the balls. This process was coined by
Benjamin and his co-workers at the International Nickel Company on 1960. They found

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out that this method, termed mechanical alloying, could successfully produce fine,
uniform dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in nickel-based
superalloys that the conventional powder metallurgy method can’t do. With this kind
of production, the Engineered Nanomaterials came to life for its production are not
easy to produce for its unique size. This had changed the traditional method in which
production of materials is carried out by high temperature. (Cao, 2007).

This method is using different kinds of instrument to produce such production

such as attritor, planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. The principle of this procedure
is merely to establish the nanomaterials. Planetary ball mill is the most frequently used
system for mechanical alloying since only a very small amount of powder is required.
Therefore, the system is particularly suitable for research purposes in the laboratory.
The ball mill system consists of one turn disc (turn table) and two or four bowls. The
turn disc rotates in one direction while the bowls rotate in the opposite direction. The
centrifugal forces, created by the rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with
the rotation of the turn disc, are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the
bowl. The powder mixture is fractured and cold welded under high energy impact.
(Cao, 2007).

B. Laser Ablation

Laser ablation has been studied for various applications in the late 1963 but
has been employed for synthesizing nanomaterials in the mid 1990s. Laser ablation
means the removal of materials from a surface by means of laser irradiation. The word
“Laser ablation” is used to emphasize the non-equilibrium vapor or plasma conditions
that is created at the surface by laser pulse, to distinguish from “laser evaporation,”
which is heating and evaporation of material in condition of thermodynamic
equilibrium. Briefly, there are two essential parts in the laser ablation device: a pulsed
laser (CO2 laser, Nd-YAG laser, ArFexcimer laser, or XeClexcimer laser) and an
ablation chamber. The high power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on
the surface of target, which makes temperature of the absorbing material increase
rapidly.

As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume. In
some cases, the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle without any
chemical reaction. In some other cases, the vaporized material reacts with introduced
reactants to form new materials. The condensed particle will be either deposited on a
substrate or collected through a filter system consisting of a glass fiber mesh. Then,
the collected nanoparticle can be coated on a substrate through drop-coating or
screen-printing process. (Cao, 2007).

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Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach

Pyrolysis

A technique usually classified as vapour phase synthesis process in the

production of the nanomaterials. It is considered a chemical synthesis for it uses
chemical reactions to obtain its specific objective in synthesizing nanoparticles to
produce nanomaterials. The routes of this synthesis are: the Nanomaterial starts
abruptly when a sufficient degree of supersaturation of condensable products is
reached in the vapour phase. When the nucleation occurs, fast particle growth takes
place by coalescence/coagulation rather than further nucleation. At sufficiently high
temperatures, particle coalescence (sintering) is faster than coagulation and spherical
particles are formed. At lower temperatures, coalescence slows down and partially
sintered, non-spherical particles and/or loose agglomerates of particles are formed.

It follows that, to prepare small, spherical particles, it is necessary to create a

high degree of supersaturation for inducing the formation of a high density of nuclei
and then quickly quench the particle growth either by removing the source of
supersaturation or by slowing down the kinetics. The products that resulted from this
process are done thoroughly to achieve the best engineered nanomaterials we’re
aiming for (Zabara, 2016).

Solvothermal Reaction

Solvothermal Reaction is a method for preparing engineered nanomaterials

such as nanobots and nanorods. A liquid phase synthesis that involves the use of
solvent under moderate to high pressure typically between 1 atm and 10,000 atm and
temperature typically between 100 °C and 1000 °C that is responsible for the
interaction of precursors during synthesis. The formation of nanocrystal is controlled
by manipulating the solvent supersaturation, chemical of interest concentration, and
kinetic control. This method can be used to prepare thermodynamically stable and
metastable states including novel materials that cannot be easily formed from other
synthetic routes. Over the last decade, a majority (~80%) of the literature concerning
solvothermal synthesis has focused on nanocrystals. If water is used as the solvent,
the method is called “hydrothermal synthesis.” The synthesis under hydrothermal
conditions is usually performed below the supercritical temperature of water (374 °C).
The process can be used to prepare much geometry including thin films, bulk powders,
single crystals, and nanocrystals to produce engineered nanomaterials (Zabara,
2016).

Sol-Gel

A well-established colloidal chemistry technology, which offers possibility to

produce variety of nanomaterials with novel, predefined characteristics in a simple

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process at a low cost. The term “sol” originated from the name of a colloidal solution
made of solid particles few hundred nm in diameter, suspended in a liquid phase, while
the gel refers to the solid macromolecule immersed in a solvent. Sol-gel process
consists in the chemical transformation of a liquid (the sol) into a gel state and with
subsequent post-treatment and transition into solid oxide material. The main benefits
of sol–gel processing are the high purity and uniform nanostructure achievable at low
temperatures (Zabara, 2016).

Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial

Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterial

Graphene, Nanodiamonds, Nanofiber, Fullerenes and Nanotube

Graphene can be used as energy storage and it is being studied and developed
to be used in manufacture of super capacitors which are able to be charged very
quickly. Also it can be able to store a large amount of electricity. Graphene – enhanced
lithium ion batteries could be used in much higher energy usage application such as
electricity powered vehicles, smart phones, laptops, and tablets PCs but at significant
lower level of size and weight (La Fuente, n.d.).

The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of nanodiamonds (NDs) in their excellent

physical performance have rendered them attractive candidates for biomedical
applications. Nanodiamonds have great potential in drug nano formulations because
of its small size compared with any carbon-based nanomaterial. Nanodiamonds are
nontoxic so they have the excellent absorption properties that can be formulated into
skin care products. Other application of nanodiamond is for skin care meditation and
wound healing.

Nanofiber layers produced from biopolymers (chitosan, gelatin, collagen,

polykaprolakton and etc.) can be used as wound healing for significant support of the
wound healing process. Also, it is possible to add antibacterial material and drugs to
the nanofiber structure that can be used in contaminated wounds.

Fullerenes belong to the class of inorganic molecules and show wide availability
due to their small size and biological activity. The fullerene core is hydrophobic and
the functional group is attached to its core. By attaching hydrophilic moieties, fullerene
become water-soluble and capable of carrying drugs and gene for the cellular delivery.
Derivatized fullerene can cross the cell membrane and bind to the mitochondria
(Folley, 2002).

Carbon nanotubes or (CNTs) have the intrinsic characteristics desired in

materials used as electrodes in batteries and capacitors. They have tremendously high
surface area that’s good for electrical conductivity, their linear geometry makes their
surface highly accessible to the electrolyte. Aside from good electrical conductivity,

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they also have good mechanical properties which lead to wealth application including
advanced components.

Types of Metal-Based Nanomaterial

Quantum Dots, Nanogold and Nanosilver

Quantum dots can be used for producing images of cancer tumors and it is
used to evaluate the performance of cancer treatments. Also, it is used to produce
miniature laser to be used in communication devices. The advantage of this laser is
its high speed data transfer with low power consumption. Quantum dots can be used
in computer or TV displays. Using quantum dot display should be thinner, lower than
current displays as well as able to be flexible.

The application of nanogold conjugated with therapeutic agents improve the

pharmacokinetics of the “free” drug and sustain release properties that makes it an
attractive tool for drug delivery and gene delivery.

Large surface area to volume ratio of gold nanoparticles enables their surface
to be coated with hundreds of molecules including therapeutics, targeting agents, and
anti-fouling polymers. Also, in DNA combined assembly, gold particles are used as
efficient gene transfection tools.

Nanosilvers have antibacterial and conductive applications. For antibacterial

application, nanosilvers are used for wound dressing, appliances and cosmetics. For
conductive application, they are used as conductive inks and integrated into
composites to enhance thermal and electrical conductivity (Oldenburg, n.d.).

Dendrimers

The most promising potential of dendrimers is in their possibility to perform

controlled and specified drug delivery, which regards the topic of nanomedicine. One
of the most fundamental problems that are set toward modern medicine is to improve
pharmacokinetic properties of drug for cancer (Sampathkumar and Yarema, 2007).

There are many other areas of biological chemistry where application of

dendrimer system may be useful. One example is cellular delivery using carrier
dendritic polymer used in the purification of water dendrimer-based product (Tiwari,
2008).

PAMAM dendrimers have several applications in pharmaceutical and

biomedical fields. It has also been used for gene delivery and delivery of diagnostic
agents. PAMAM dendrimers are nonimmunogenic, are water soluble, and possess
terminal functional groups for binding various targeting or guest molecules (Araújo et

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al, 2018). Polyadoamine (PAMAM) is a type of dendrimer, containing variety of

molecules, such as drugs and therapeutic agents that can be loaded in the interior
space and also in the surface of PAMAM dendrimers to control the rate of release of
these agents into the body.

Types of Composites

Ceramic Matrix and Metal Matrix Nanocomposite

Carbon nanotube is used to give more applications in nanocomposites.

Ceramic matrix nanocomposites are good in applications that require good thermal
and electrical properties. They are used as medical devices and implants, automotive,
aerospace and power generation, tool and die material (Soutter, 2013).

The other example is metal matrix nanocomposites. With the use of carbon
nanotube, they can be used in different industries, such as in sports: badminton, tennis
racket and light weight bicycle; aerospace: landing gears and aircraft brakes;
automobile: gears, break shoes, piston rings and cylinder liners.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Kumar, N., & Kumbhat, S. (2016). Essentials in nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135420731/2FD5DC110D374426PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Introduction pp xlv-lxxiii

Let’s Check

1. What is nanotechnology?
2. What are engineered nanomaterials? Give examples and discuss each.
3. What analytical techniques are used to characterize nanomaterials?

Let’s Analyze

1. Compare nanomaterials with microplastics.

2. What active ingredient/s in sunscreen is/are considered nanomaterial? Why
does sunscreen contain nanomaterials in the first place?

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3. Can nanomaterials used in sunscreen cross the skin barrier and enter the
body?
4. Is the UV-protection in nanomaterial-containing sunscreens only effective if
the nanomaterials enter the skin and how are they excreted later?

In a Nutshell

1. What are the environmental implications of nanotechnology?

2. How can you ascertain the release of nanomaterials from products into the
environment?
3. How can you differentiate between natural and engineered nanoparticles in
the environment?
4. Is it possible to specifically recycle nanomaterials from products?

Keywords Index
Bottom-up Buckminsterfullerene
Approach
Fullerene Graphene
Engineered Nanocomposites
nanomaterials
Nanoparticles Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotechnology
nanotubes
Dendrimers Top-down Approach

References

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Perspectives on Mineral Nucleation and Growth: From Solution Precursors to
Solid Materials, A. E. S. Van Driessche, M. Kellermeier, L. G. Benning, D.
Gebauer, Eds. (Springer, 2017), pp. 227–256.

Araújo, R., Santos, S., Igne Ferreira, E., & Giarolla, J. (2018). New Advances in
General Biomedical Applications of PAMAM Dendrimers. Molecules, 23(11),
2849. doi:10.3390/molecules23112849

AzoNano. (2015). Nanocomposites- An overview of properties, application and

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definition.
Bakshi, S.R, et al. (2010). Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites. A
review, International Materials Reviews, vol. 55

Cao, W., (2007) “Synthesis of Nanomaterials by High Energy Ball Milling”

Retrieved from: https://www.understandingnano.com/nanomaterial-synthesis-
ball-milling.html

D. M. Cwiertny, G. J. Hunter, J. M. Pettibone, M. M. Scherer, V.

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microrods: Environmental implications of size-dependent interactions with
oxalate. J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 2175–2186 (2009). 10.1021/jp807336t

Folley, S., et.al. (2002). Cellular localization of a water soluble fullerene derivative.
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Geim, A.K; Novoselov, K.S. (2007). The rise of graphene. Nat Mater. 6: 183-189

Giljohan, et al. (2010). Gold nanoparticles for biology and medicine.

Hermanson, Greg T. (2008). “7”. Bioconjugate techniques (2nd ed). Academic Press
of Elsevier: London.

International Organization for Standardization. (2015). Nanotechnologies-

Vocabulary- Part 1: Core Terms.

Janas, Dawid; Liszka, Barbara. (2017). Copper matrix nanocomposites based on

carbon nanotubes or graphene.

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Kroto, H.W, et al. (1985). Buckminsterfullerene. Nature. 318: 162-1623.

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prepared by laser pyrolysis.

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imaging

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during the handling of nanomaterials.

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science/nanomaterial/silver-nanoparticles.html
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Science Daily. (2018). Fullerenes. Britannica Encyclopedia.

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down-and-bottom up/

Course Schedule

Activity Date Where to submit

Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
First Exam September 4, 2020 BlackBoard

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Big Picture

Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to

a. demonstrate understanding on the chemistry of atmosphere;

b. explain the chemistry of water;
c. show understanding of the concept of soil chemistry.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. demonstrate understanding on

the chemistry of atmosphere

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of the chemistry of atmosphere to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please
refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.

Acid Rain rain, or precipitation, with a pH of 5.6 or lower. It is caused by the

pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides.
Ammonification a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen
in its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids,
DNA)
Assimilation the formation of organic nitrogen compounds like amino acids
from inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the environment.
Organisms like plants, fungi and certain bacteria that cannot fix
nitrogen gas depend on the ability to assimilate nitrate or
ammonia for their needs.
Combustion or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical
reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric
oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a
mixture termed as smoke.
Conduction the transfer of heat energy through matter from particle to particle;
most effective in solids
Convection the transfer of heat energy in gases or liquids due to density
differences
Coriolis Effect an effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system
experiences a force (the Coriolis force) acting perpendicular to the
direction of motion and to the axis of rotation. On the earth, the
effect tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the northern

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hemisphere and to the left in the southern and is important in the

formation of cyclonic weather systems.
Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere
Exosphere a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural
satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body,
but where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by
colliding with each other.
Humidity the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given location
on Earth’s surface
Ionosphere the layer of the earth's atmosphere that contains a high
concentration of ions and free electrons and is able to reflect
radio waves. It lies above the mesosphere and extends from
about 50 to 600 miles (80 to 1,000 km) above the earth's surface.
Latitude an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0° at the Equator to
90° (North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or
parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
Longitude a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a
point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body. It is
an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and
denoted by the Greek letter lambda. Meridians connect points
with the same longitude.
Mesosphere the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere
and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere,
temperature decreases as altitude increases.
Nitrification the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate
Nitrogen fixation the process of converting N2 into biologically available nitrogen
Ozone also called trioxygen; an inorganic molecule with the chemical
formula O₃; a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell.
Radiation waves that directly transport energy through space; brings heat to
our planet.
Smog fog or haze combined with smoke and other atmospheric
pollutants.
Soot a black powdery or flaky substance consisting largely of
amorphous carbon
Stratosphere the second layer of the atmosphere, it is just above the troposphere
Thermosphere the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the
mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the
atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes
photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in
the ionosphere.
Troposphere the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere

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Essential Knowledge

Atmospheric Chemistry

According to Dharmesh Patel (2016), atmospheric chemistry studies the chemical

composition of the natural atmosphere, the way gases, liquids, and solids in the
atmosphere interact with one another and with the Earth's surface and associated
biota.

This field is also concerned with how the activities of the human race changed or
is changing the both physical and chemical characteristics of the atmosphere.

It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on: Environmental

Chemistry, Physics, Meteorology, Computer Molding, Oceanography, Geology,
Volcanology and etc.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural

processes such as volcano emissions and lightning. But, it has also been changed by
human activity and these changes are harmful to human health, crops, and,
ecosystems.

Some of the problems addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain,

ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases, and global warming.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere is referred to Troposphere. It harbors

about every single living thing and almost all human activity. It is also the area of
atmosphere where the weather occurs. The temperature in this area decreases as the
altitude increases.

Stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere; it is just above the

troposphere. It is also where the ozone can be found. Unlike the troposphere,
stratosphere temperature increases as the altitude decreases.

The third layer of the atmosphere is Mesosphere. Similar to troposphere, as

you get higher, the temperature gets colder.

Thermosphere is the next layer above the mesosphere. It has a very thin air. It
is also where the ionosphere located. Ionosphere is full of electrically charged ions.
The UV rays ionizes these gases.

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Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends up to 10,000

km above the surface. (Cassie’s Chemistry)

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Early Atmosphere

4.7 billion years ago, volcanic activity formed the Earth’s atmosphere and
mainly composed of carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), methane (CH4), and
ammonia (NH3).

As the Earth cooled, the water vapour (H2O) condensed and formed the
oceans. This result to bacteria, algae and small organism to evolve and carried out the
process called photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in the oceans and was
taken by organism and eventually "locked up" in sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels.

As plant evolved, photosynthesis took CO2 and produced O2.

Other gases such as methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) decreased as they reacted
with oxygen. As for nitrogen (N2), it is very unreactive so it has built up over time.

Today’s Atmosphere

The changes in the early atmosphere resulted to the atmosphere in the present.
The atmosphere today is mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) with very small
amounts of other gases such as water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and noble
gases such as argon, neon, xenon, and krypton.

The Pie chart shows the percentage by mass of the composition of a dry air
atmosphere.

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NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen (N2) molecules can't be utilize straightforwardly by plant or creatures.

It also held by a very strond triple bond. Thus, there is a process that an organism
needed to do. (Hill, 2013)

According to Bernhard (2010), the major transformations of nitrogen are

nitrogen fixation, assimilation, nitrification, denitrification, and ammonification.

Nitrogen Fixation is the process of converting N2 into biologically available

nitrogen. Although most nitrogen fixation is done by prokaryotes, some nitrogen can
be settled abiotically by lightning or certain modern procedures, including the burning
of fossil fuels.

In Assimilation, plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their
root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium
ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that
have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of
ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex
cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides
amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the
bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus
forming an interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and
other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino
acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including
many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N
sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.

Nitrification is the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.

Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by utilizing nitrite as the electron acceptor

to produce gaseous nitrogen.

Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere.

Ammonification, it is a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the

nitrogen in its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA).
Various fungi and prokaryotes then decompose the tissue and release inorganic
nitrogen back into the ecosystem as ammonia.

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OXYGEN CYCLE

Plants are the main creators of oxygen in the atmosphere through the process
of photosynthesis. Plant uses sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce energy and
releases oxygen. Animals breathe in the oxygen and then breathe out carbon dioxide.
The plant can then use this carbon dioxide and the cycle is complete.

Processes That Use Oxygen:

Respiration - animals and plants use up oxygen when they breathe.

Decomposing - When plants and animals die, they decompose. This process uses up
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.

Rusting - This is also called oxidation. When things rust they use up oxygen.

Combustion - There are three things needed for fire: oxygen, fuel, and heat. Without
oxygen you can't have a fire. When things burn, they use up oxygen and replace it
with carbon dioxide.

PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of

energy in the form of light.

The upper atmosphere forms outer defense against radiation and high energy
particles that continuously bombard the Earth. These causes to two chemical changes:
photodissociation and photoionization.

Photodissociation is a chemical reaction that degrades compounds by

bombarding the molecule with photons. Photodissociation of O2 formed atomic
oxygen (O). Photoionization is when a molecule in the upper atmosphere absorbs
solar radiation, it ejects an electron to form cation (Brown, et al., 2012).

OZONE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Ozone shapes a sort of layer in the stratosphere, where it is more focused than
anyplace else and this generally high fixation is referred to "ozone layer" or "ozone
shield"

Ozone and oxygen atoms in the stratosphere ingest bright light from the Sun,
giving a shield that keeps this radiation from going to the Earth's surface. While both
oxygen and ozone together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, only

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ozone effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-
B. This ultraviolet light can cause biological damage like skin cancer, tissue damage
to eyes and plant tissue damage.

Acid Rain

It is also called as Acid Deposition. It is any kind or form of precipitation that

contains acidic components such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid that falls into the ground
from the atmosphere (United States Environment Protection Agency, 2017).

It is the result when sulfuric dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides are released into
the atmosphere. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals that
is present in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids. Small portions of the SO2
and NOX that cause acid rain is from that natural sources such as volcanoes but
majority of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels in the industrial plants.

The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.

 Vehicles and heavy equipments. and

 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

 SO2 and NOX can be blown by the winds over long distances and across
borders, making it not only the problem of those people who live close
to the source but for everyone in general.

 Forms of Acid Deposition

 Dry Deposition

-A form of acid deposition. This is when gases and dust particles

become acidic. The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that
deposits to earth through dry deposition depends on the amount
of rainfall an area receives.

 Wet Deposition

-Is what we commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric acid and
nitric acids fall to the ground mixed in rain, snow, fog, or hail.

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 Measuring Acid Rain

Ozone depletion

According to the National Geographic (2009), the deteriorating of the ozone layer
is due to the emission of pollution that contains Bromine (Br) and Chlorine (Cl). This
deterioration allows large amount of ultraviolet (uv) B rays to reach Earth, which can
cause harm to animals and skin cancer and cataracts in human.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) are the primary culprit of the ozone layer

deterioration. When CFC’s reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to
ultraviolet rays, which causes them to breakdown into substances. The chlorine in the
CFC reacts with oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule.

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The ozone layer, particularly the layer above the Antarctic has been impacted
by the pollution since the mid-1980’s. About 90 percent of the CFC’s currently in the
atmosphere were emitted by the industrialized countries in the Northern Hemisphere,
including the United States and Europe.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric chemistry and physics : From air
pollution to climate change. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130891422/D95F6363E04B4AC6PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Part I: The Atmosphere and Its Constituents pp 1-66
Casparian, A. S., & Sirokman, G. (2016). Applied chemistry for environmental
engineering. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131182488/10450024B2084AFBPQ/1?
accountid=31259. Chapter 2: The Atmosphere and the Chemistry of Air pp
21-44

Let’s Check

1. What are the compositions of air?

2. Differentiate climate from weather.
3. What are examples of greenhouse gases? Discuss each.

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Let’s Analyze

1. The amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's early atmosphere decreased

because it was used by plants and algae for photosynthesis, dissolved in the
oceans and formed fossil fuels. Give one other way that the amount of carbon
dioxide in the Earth's early atmosphere decreased.
2. A student burned a hydrocarbon fuel and collected the products of combustion
by placing a funnel over the burning fuel. Air was sucked through the funnel
using a pump. The student saw that soot had collected inside the funnel.
Explain why soot forms.
3. A student is investigating the energy released during the combustion of
different alcohols. The student notices that a black substance forms on the
bottom of the beaker which is held above the burning fuel. What is the identity
of the black substance and why was it produced during the combustion of the
alcohols?
4. Sulfur is burned in oxygen. The gas produced is then mixed with water which
contains some universal indicator. Describe the colour change that you would
expect to see due to the indicator and explain your answer.
5. Whilst investigating the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, a student collected
the gases released and passed them through limewater. Describe the change
in the appearance of the limewater and explain why this happens.

In a Nutshell

1. The vast majority of scientists believe that human activities are causing global
warming. Describe some of the human activities which release greenhouse
gases. Suggest changes that humans could make to reduce global warming.
2. Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate carbon are all atmospheric
pollutants. Describe the causes and effects of these pollutants.

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Keywords Index

Acid Rain Ammonification Assimilation Combustion

Conduction Convection Coriolis Effect Denitrification
Exosphere Humidity Ionosphere Latitude
Longitude Mesosphere Nitrification Nitrogen fixation
Ozone Radiation Smog Soot
Stratosphere Thermosphere Troposphere

References

Bernhard, A. (2010) The Nitrogen Cycle: Processes, Players, and Human

Impact. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):25

Brown, T, et al, (2012), Chemistry: the central science, Library of Cingress

Cataloging- in-Publication Data

Hill,J, et al., (2010) Chemistry for Changing Times, International EditioLayers Of

The Atmosphere retrieved from:
http://chemistrycassiestarzyk.weebly.com/atmosphere.html

Patel D. (2016). Atmosphere Chemistry. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/DharmeshPatel200/atmosphere-chemistry

United States Environment Protection Agency (2017). What is Acid Rain?. Retrieved
from https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain

National Geographic (2009). Ozone Depletion: How is Earth's Atmosphere Losing its
most important layer?. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/ozone-
depletion/

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. explain the chemistry of water

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of the chemistry of water to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer
to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.

Adhesion refers to the tendency of some substances to cling to other

substances. It comes from the root words “ad” for “other” and
“hesion” for “to stick to.” Adhesion is usually caused by
interactions between the molecules of the two substances.
Capillary action a reaction that results from adhesion that enables water to
“climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called capillary
tubes) placed in a beaker of water.
Cohesion a measure of how well molecules stick to each other or group
together. It is caused by the cohesive attractive force between
like molecules.
Condensation the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into
liquid water.
Desalination the process of removing excess salt and minerals from water in
order to produce fresh or potable water that is suitable for both
humans and animals to consume and for irrigation.
Diffusion the tendency of substances to move from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration
Dissolved Oxygen the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water.
Epilimnion the upper layer of water in a stratified lake.
Eutrophication excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water,
frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense
growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
Evaporation the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state
back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor.
Evapotranspiration the process by which water is transferred from the land to the
atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces
and by transpiration from plants.
Hydrosphere the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the
surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite.
Hypolimnion the lower layer of water in a stratified lake, typically cooler than
the water above and relatively stagnant.
Osmosis the net movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane driven by a difference in solute concentrations on
the two sides of the membrane

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pH a scale used to specify how acidic or basic (or alkaline) a

water-based solution is. Acidic solutions have a lower pH, while
basic solutions have a higher pH.
Precipitation water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain,
sleet, snow, or hail.
Runoff the draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the
surface of an area
Salinity the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water.
Surface Tension a physical property equal to the amount of force per unit area
necessary to expand the surface of a liquid.
Thermal when an appreciable temperature difference exists between
stratification the two layers, they do not mix, but behave independently and
have very different chemical and biological properties
Thermocline a steep temperature gradient in a body of water such as a lake,
marked by a layer above and below which the water is at
different temperatures.
Transpiration the process in which some water within plants evaporates into
the atmosphere

Essential Knowledge

Introduction
Water is very essential no one has ever proclaimed that they do not need water.
Approximately 3/4 of the world is water, 72.8% of it is saltwater and therefore is
undrinkable and the remaining 21.2% is the freshwater. Approximately 60% of the
freshwater is the glaciers, 30% of it is the freshwater on ground and 10% is beneath.
About 60-70% of our body is made up of water (Khan Academy,2018). Not just
humans but most of the other animals needed water. Even bacteria are made up of
water.

Water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen.

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PROPERTIES OF WATER:

1. POLARITY

Khan Academy (2018) states that water is a "polar" molecule which means that
it has an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative charge
near the oxygen atom due the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges
near the hydrogen atoms. An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive
charge near the hydrogen atoms and the partial negative charge near the oxygen
results in the formation of a hydrogen bond as shown in the illustration. The ability of
ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due to polarity. For example, in the
illustration below sodium chloride is shown in its crystalline form and dissolved in
water.

2. HYDROGEN BONDING

Due to their polarity, water molecules attract each other. The positive end of a
hydrogen atom associates with the negative end of another oxygen atom. Hydrogen
bonds, weak interactions that form between a hydrogen with a partial positive charge
and a more electronegative atom, such as oxygen. The hydrogen atoms involved in
hydrogen bonding must be attached to electronegative atoms, such as O, N, or F
(Khan Academy, 2018).

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3. COHESION

According to Khan Academy (2018), cohesion refers to the attraction of

molecules for other molecules of the same kind, and water molecules have strong
cohesive forces due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with one another. This will
result into forming surface tension.

 SURFACE TENSION, the tendency of a liquid’s surface to resist

rupture when placed under tension or stress. Water molecules at
the surface (at the water-air interface) will form hydrogen bonds
with their neighbors, just like water molecules deeper within the
liquid. However, because they are exposed to air on one side,
they will have fewer neighboring water molecules to bond with,
and will form stronger bonds with the neighbors they do have.
Surface tension causes water to form spherical droplets and
allows it to support small objects, like a scrap of paper or a needle,
if they are placed carefully on its surface.

4. ADHESION

Khan Academy (2018), defines that adhesion is the attraction of molecules of

one kind for molecules of a different kind, and it can be quite strong for water,
especially with other molecules bearing positive or negative charges.

 CAPILLARY ACTION is a reaction that results from adhesion that

enables water to “climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called
capillary tubes) placed in a beaker of water. This upward motion
against gravity, known as capillary action, depends on the
attraction between water molecules and the glass walls of the
tube (adhesion), as well as on interactions between water
molecules (cohesion).

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5. DENSITY

Water has lower density in its solid form due to the way hydrogen bonds are
oriented as it freezes. Specifically, in ice, the water molecules are pushed farther apart
than they are in liquid water. That means water expands when it freezes. You may
have seen this for yourself if you've ever put a sealed glass container containing a
mostly-watery food (soup, soda, etc.) into the freezer, only to have it crack or explode
as the liquid water inside froze and expanded (Khan Academy, 2018).

6. HEAT CPACITY

Water has a high specific heat capacity, which is defined as the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g water by 1 °C is has its
own name, the calorie. Because of its high heat capacity, water can minimize changes
in temperature(Khan Academy,2018).

7. EVAPORATIVE COOLING

Water has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy needed to change
one gram of a liquid substance to a gas at constant temperature. Water’s heat of
vaporization is around 540 cal/g at 100 °C, water's boiling point. Note that some
molecules of water – ones that happen to have high kinetic energy – will escape from
the surface of the water even at lower temperatures. As water molecules evaporate,
the surface they evaporate from gets cooler, a process called evaporative cooling

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(Khan Academy, 2018).

8. UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

Khan Academy (2018) states that water can form electrostatic interactions
(charge-based attractions) with other polar molecules and ions. The polar molecules
and ions interact with the partially positive and partially negative ends of water, with
positive charges attracting negative charges (just like the + and - ends of magnets).
When there are many water molecules relative to solute molecules, as in an aqueous
solution, these interactions lead to the formation of a three-dimensional sphere of
water molecules, or hydration shell, around the solute. Hydration shells allow particles
to be dispersed (spread out) evenly in water. If you stir table salt into water, the crystal
lattice of NaCl will begin to dissociate into Na+ and Cl- ions. (Dissociation is just a
name for the process in which a compound or molecule breaks apart to form ions.)
Water molecules form hydration shells around the ions: positively charged Na+ ions
are surrounded by partial negative charges from the oxygen ends of the water
molecules, while negatively charged Cl- ions are surrounded by partial positive
charges from the hydrogen ends. As the process continues, all of the ions in the table
salt crystals are surrounded by hydration shells and dispersed in solution.

9. ACIDS AND BASES

According to Khan Academy (2018), solutions are classified as acidic or basic

based on their hydrogen ion concentration relative to pure water. Acidic solutions have
a higher H+ concentration than water (greater than 1 × 10^ (-7)), while basic (alkaline)
solutions have a lower H+ concentration (less than 1 × 10^(-7)) Typically, the hydrogen
ion concentration of a solution is expressed in terms of pH.

10. pH SCALE

The pH scale is used to rank solutions in terms of acidity or basicity (alkalinity).

Since the scale is based on pH values, it is logarithmic, meaning that a change of 1
pH unit corresponds to a ten-fold change in H+ ion concentration. The pH scale is often
said to range from 0 to 14, and most solutions do fall within this range, although it’s
possible to get a pH below 0 or above 14. Anything below 7.0 is acidic, and anything
above 7.0 is alkaline, or basic (Khan Academy, 2018).

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11. BUFFERS

Buffers, solutions that can resist changes in pH, are key to maintaining stable
H+ start superscript, plus, end superscript ion concentrations in biological systems.
When there are too many H+ ions, a buffer will absorb some of them, bringing pH back
up; and when there are too few, a buffer will donate some of its own H+ ions to reduce
the pH. Buffers typically consist of an acid-base pair, with the acid and base differing
by the presence or absence of a proton (a conjugate acid-base pair) (Khan Academy,
2018).

Freshwater
Definition of Freshwater

Fresh water is vital to life and yet it is a finite resource. Of all the water on Earth,
just 3% is fresh water. Although critical to natural and human communities, fresh water
is threatened by a myriad of forces including overdevelopment, polluted runoff and
global warming. With this in mind, WWF partners with communities, businesses and
others to decrease pollution, increase water efficiency and protect natural areas to
ensure enough clean water exists to conserve wildlife and provide a healthy future for
all.

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Water Cycle

Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous
circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved
in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation,
precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains
essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually
changing.
Process of Water Cycle

1st Process Evaporation

Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid
state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies have shown that
the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly 90 percent of the moisture in the
atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10 percent being contributed by
plant transpiration (Perlman, 2016).
2nd Process Condensation

Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed

into liquid water. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible
for the formation of clouds. These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the
primary route for water to return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle.
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation (Perlman, 2016).
3rd Process Precipitation

Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing

rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides
for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain
(Perlman, 2016).
Water on Earth

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Types of Water

Ocean

The ocean is a continuous body of saltwater that covers more than 70 percent
of the Earth's surface. Ocean currents govern the world's weather and churn a
kaleidoscope of life. Humans depend on these teeming waters for comfort and
survival, but global warming and overfishing threaten to leave the ocean agitated and
empty.
Ice/Icebergs

An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off
a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water. It may subsequently
become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice). As it drifts into shallower waters, it
may come into contact with the seabed, a process referred to as seabed gouging by
ice. About 90% of an iceberg is below the surface of the water.
River and Lakes

A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an

ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and
becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water.

Groundwater

Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil,
sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil,
sand and rocks called aquifers.
Dissolved Oxygen

Definition of Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved Oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the

water. Oxygen enters the water by direct absorption from the atmosphere, by rapid
movement, or as a waste product of plant photosynthesis. Water temperature and the
volume of moving water can affect dissolved oxygen levels.
Importance of Dissolved Oxygen in Aquatic Life

According to Zactruba (2009), dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms

of life including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen
in respiration, similar to organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for
respiration through their gills, while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved

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oxygen for respiration when there is no light for photosynthesis. The amount of
dissolved oxygen needed varies from creature to creature. Bottom feeders, crabs,
oysters and worms need minimal amounts of oxygen (1-6 mg/L), while shallow water
fish need higher levels (4-15 mg/L).
Where Does DO Come From?

Dissolved oxygen enters water through the air or as a plant by-product. From
the air, oxygen can slowly diffuse across the water’s surface from the surrounding
atmosphere, or be mixed in quickly through aeration, whether natural or man-made.
The aeration of water can be caused by wind (creating waves), rapids, waterfalls,
ground water discharge or other forms of running water. Man-made causes of aeration
vary from an aquarium air pump to a hand-turned waterwheel to a large dam.
Eutrophication Process

Eutrophication is the excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of

water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant
life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
Different Methods of Analysis

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Field and lab meters to measure dissolved oxygen have been around for a long
time. As this picture shows, modern meters are small and highly electronic. They still
use a probe, which is located at the end of the cable. Dissolved oxygen is dependent
on temperature (an inverse relation), so the meter must be calibrated properly before
each use.
Water Quality
Definition of Water Quality
Water quality is fundamental for good river health. Water quality sustains
ecological processes that support native fish populations, vegetation, wetlands and
birdlife.
Water Properties: Dissolved Oxygen
Millions of measurements and analyses have been made. Some
measurements, such as temperature, pH, and specific conductance are taken almost
every time water is sampled and investigated, no matter where in the U.S. the water
is being studied. Another common measurement often taken is dissolved oxygen
(DO), which is a measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in the water - DO can tell
us a lot about water quality.
pH -- Water Properties
The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the
water) and biological availability (amount that can be utilized by aquatic life) of
chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy
metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.).

Measuring pH

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OCEAN WATER

Definition of Ocean Water

Ocean waters are waters are from the ocean and seas that covers more than
70 percent of the surface of our planet. About 97 percent of the Earth’s water are from
the ocean and two percent of it are glaciers and ice caps. Less than one percent of all
the water is fresh.
Composition of Ocean Water

The ocean water is composed of various minerals namely Chloride (55%),

Sodium (31%), Magnesium (7.7%), Sulfur (3.7%), Calcium (1.2%) and others (1.4%)
(NOAA, 2018).
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATER

Definition of Salinity and examples

Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water. Ocean

water’s salinity differs on the environment that the body of water is located at. The Red
Sea is considered the most saline sea among the ocean water. The red sea is very
saline because of its high temperature and confined circulation which results in high
rates of surface evaporation (high evaporation means high salinity because in
evaporation, the water vapor or the water that is evaporated into the air are tiny
droplets that has no minerals or salt thus the water that is left in the sea was left with
all the minerals and/or salt making the sea more saline with every evaporation).
Effects of Salinity in Ocean Water

Salinity in ocean water affects the water in it in many different ways. The ocean
water is affected in its phase change, buoyancy and density. In phase change, the
more saline an ocean water is, it is more difficult to freeze it since the salt in the ocean
water disrupts the crystal formation. In buoyancy, the higher the salinity of water the
higher its buoyancy is, making less dense object float. (This is the reason why people
float in Red Sea) and higher buoyancy means higher density.
DESALINATION PROCESSES

Since less than one percent of the total amount of water in the surface of the
Earth is fresh water, scientists and researchers found ways to desalinate ocean waters
to produce potable water that is needed for residential homes, agricultural and
industrial purposes.

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Definition of Desalination

Desalination is the process of removing excess salt and minerals from water in
order to produce fresh or potable water that is suitable for both humans and animals
to consume and for irrigation.
Two Methods of Desalination Processes

There are two methods of desalination processes: the thermal/distillation

process and the membrane processes. Under the thermal/distillation processes are
three types of distillation processes namely Multistage Flash Distillation Process or
MSF which is subdivided into two: The Once Through Multistage Flash and the Brine
Recirculation Multistage Flash; Multiple Effect Distillation Process or MED and; the
Vapor Compression or VC which is subdivided into two: The Mechanical Vapor
Compression or MVC and the Thermal Vapor Compression or TVC. Under the
membrane processes is Reverse Osmosis or RO.
Thermal/Distillation Processes

The Thermal/Distillation Processes is one of the oldest processes of

desalination. It uses phase separation method where saline or ocean water is heated
to produce water vapor and then the water vapors are condensed to produce fresh
water (Tzen,2006).
Multistage Flash Distillation Process or MSF

According to Zactruba, the Once Through MSF makes the ocean water goes
directly to the heat recovery section recovery section, is then pre-heated while passing
up through the condensing coils or condensers, is heated then lastly in the brine heater
and then it passes down the flash chambers. The brine that is collected will be rejected
and then sent back to the ocean water.

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In the Brine Recirculation MSF, the seawater is pre-treated in the order that is
only one-third of the once through design. The purpose of the brine recycling pump is
to reuse the brine that has been pre-treated again in the flash chambers thus obtaining
higher efficiency in desalinating the water in each chamber.

Multiple Effect Distillation Process

The Multiple Effect Distillation Process uses a series of vessels called effects
that utilize the principle of evaporation and condensation at reduced ambient
temperatures to produce fresh water.

Vapor Compression Process

Vapor Compression process is used for small-and-medium scale seawater

desalting units. In mechanical vapor compression or MVC, it is operated by
electromotor or diesel engine and in thermal vapor compression, it is operated by
steam jet thermos-compressor. The process is the same in both.

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Membrane Processes

Reverse Osmosis or RO is a process in which water passes through a semi-

permeable barrier that is subjected to hydrostatic pressure which is greater than
osmotic pressure. This is from a process called osmosis which is a naturally occurring
process that allows a low concentrated water such as fresh water to pass through a
semi-permeable barrier to a high concentrated water which is ocean water
(Heimbuch,2010).

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Chandrappa, R., & Das, D. B. (2014). Sustainable water engineering : Theory and
practice. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130855869/A2FA6332EF354B99PQ/1
?accountid=31259. 4 Fundamentals of Treatment and Process Design, and
Sustainability pp 163-236

Let’s Check

1. What is water? How are water molecules bond together?

2. What is eutrophication, what causes it and what are the dangers?
3. What is acid rain and how does it develop?
4. What is the difference between salt water and freshwater?

Let’s Analyze

1. How come not all substances are water-soluble?

2. How is drinking water purified?
3. Is bottled water safer than tap water? Support your answer.
4. Why should we not drink seawater?
5. What is hard water? Are there any risks to hard water?
6. What health effects do microorganisms in water cause?

In a Nutshell

1. What are the specific ways through which water pollutants enter the

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environment and how are pollutants transported through water?

2. As an engineering student, how can you contribute in mitigating the problem in
water pollution?

Keywords Index

Adhesion Capillary action Cohesion Condensation

Desalination Diffusion Dissolved Oxygen Epilimnion
Eutrophication Evaporation Evapotranspiration Hydrosphere
Hypolimnion Osmosis pH Precipitation
Runoff Salinity Surface Tension Thermal
stratification
Thermocline Transpiration

References

Tzen, E. (2006). Freshwater definition. (Web post). Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com

Lenntech, B.V. (1998). Water Cycle definition. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
water.usgs.gov

Perlman. H. (July,2016). Process of Water Cycle. (Web post). Retrieved from

http://scholar.google.com

El-Dessouky, H. (2009). Dissolved Oxygen definition. (Web post). Retrieved from

http://scholar.google.com

Boomer, R. (2011). Dissolved Oxygen definition. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
water.usgs.gov

Lunt, G.P. (1974). Water Quality and its Properties. (Web post). Retrieved from
http:// www.fondriest.com

NOAA. (June,2018). How much water is in the ocean. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov.

Tzen, E. (2006). Desalination Technologies. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com.

Boomer, R. (1974). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com.

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Lunt, G.P. (1949). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://scholar.google.com.

Rolf, A. (1952). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com.

Zactruba, J. (December, 2009). How Desalination by Multi-stage Flash Distillation

Works. (Web post). Retrieved from https://www.brighthubengineering.com

El-Dessouky, H. (1998). Process synthesis: the multi-stage flash desalination

system. (Web post). Retrieved from https://www.infona.pl.

Smith, et al. (2018). Desalination by distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://www.oas.org.

Parise, T. (December, 2012). Water Desalination. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://large.stanford.edu.

Lenntech, B.V. (1998). Key Issues in Seawater Desalination. (Web post). Retrieved
from https://www.lenntech.com

Heimbuch, J. (July, 2010). How Desalination Works. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://www.treehugger.com.

Perlman, H. (July, 2018). Drink Seawater. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://water.usgs.gov.

MarineBio Conservation Society. (September, 2018). Ocean Chemistry. (Web post).

Retrieved from https://marinebio.org.

Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Acids, bases, pH and buffers. Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent.

Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Cohesion and Adhesion. Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-
bases/cohesion-and-adhesion/a/cohesion-and-adhesion-in-water.

Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Hydrogen Bonds. Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/hydrogen-bonding-in-water.

Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Solvent properties of water. Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent.

Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Specific heat, heat of vaporization and

densityofwater. Retrieved from

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https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/water-
as-a-solid-liquid-and-gas/a/specific-heat-heat-of-vaporization-and-freezing-of-
water

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. show understanding of the concept

of soil chemistry

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of soil chemistry to demonstrate ULOc will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.

Bedrock the lithified rock that lies under loose softer material called
regolith within the surface of the Earth's crust or other
terrestrial planets.
Cation exchange the exchange of cations from the surface of a soil colloid to
another material.
Cation Exchange the capacity of soil to adsorb and exchange cations. It is
Capacity defined as directly proportional to the surface area and the
surface charge of the clay.
Clay is made of tiny or fine particles with a diameter less than 0.002
millimeters.
Drainage refers to the frequency and duration of periods of saturation or
partial saturation.
Humus the organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of
leaves and other plant material by soil microorganisms.
Infiltration the downward entry of water into the immediate surface of the
soil and is influenced by texture, structure, bulk density, and
the type and connectivity of macropores.
Loam a fertile soil of clay and sand containing humus.
Permeability the state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it to
allow liquids or gases to pass through it.
Porosity a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of
the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or
as a percentage between 0% and 100%
Sand is made of large or coarse particles with diameters ranging
from 0.05 to 2.00 millimeters.
Saprolite a chemically weathered rock. Saprolites form in the lower
zones of soil profiles and represent deep weathering of the
bedrock surface. In most outcrops its color comes from ferric
compounds.
Silt is made of medium-sized particles with a diameter of 0.002 to
0.05 millimeters.
Subsoil the layer of soil under the topsoil on the surface of the ground.

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Topsoil the upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top 5–10 inches
(13–25 cm). It has the highest concentration of organic matter
and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological
soil activity occurs.
Weathering the mechanical breakdown of rock and the associated
chemical alteration of minerals that occurs at the Earth's
surface.

Essential Knowledge

INTRODUCTION

Soil is an important material in sustaining life on our planet. It is a very special

mix of inorganic and organic material in form of colloids, water and different gases,
and decomposed plant and animal material, all in a variable but balanced proportions
(Bear, 1964). This is the reason why soil is very important for the underlying systems
that govern how our environment works, because the soil is the interface between the
different spheres of our planet (i.e. Atmosphere for the air in soil; lithosphere for the
weathered rocks and mineral in soil; hydrosphere for the water content of soil; and the
biosphere for the organic matter, living and dead, in the content of soil).

On the soil is where we plant our crops that keeps most of the living things alive,
it is where we build our buildings and houses that shelter and protect us, and it is
where we lived our lives and where we will be living our lives for a very long time. And,
it is evident that we just take for granted the wonders of soil that we depend on. So
now, this report will help us appreciate and understand the important role of soil and
its chemistry.

Basic Soil Components:

Mineral Material

The largest component of soil is the mineral portion. Soils mineral have two
types, the primary minerals and secondary minerals. Primary minerals are those soil
materials that are the same to the parent material from which they formed, such as
those found in sand and silt. On the other hand, secondary minerals are result from
the weathering of the primary minerals, which releases important ions and form more
stable mineral forms such as silicate clay (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Primary minerals are formed at high temperature and pressure under reducing
condition without free oxygen. The secondary minerals are normally found in the clay
fraction of the soil (Balasubramanian, 2017).

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Water

Water is the second basic component of soil. It is important for transporting

nutrients to growing plants, soil organisms and facilitating chemical decomposition.
Also, the capacity of soil to hold water is dependent on soil texture. The smaller
particles in soils, the more water the soil can retain. Clay soil have the greatest water
holding capacity and sand the least (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Organic Matter

Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at level of
approximately 1% to 5%. Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by
living organisms that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition
process. At any given time, it consists of a range of materials from the intact original
tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials
known as humus. Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissue. Plant residues
contain 60 – 90 percent moisture. The remaining dry matter consists of carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, and small amounts of Sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium and magnesium (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Gases

Air is the next basic component of soil because air can occupy the same space
as water. Oxygen is essential for root and microbe respiration which helps support
plant growth, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also important for belowground plant
function (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Microorganisms

Microorganism are very small forms of life that can sometimes live as single
cells. Many more microorganisms exist in topsoil because it has more food supplies,
than the sub soil. They are specially existing in the area next to plant roots, which
called rhizosphere (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Physical Properties:

Soil Texture

According to Moody (2008), that the soil texture is depends on the balance of
sand, silt, and clay in soil. Texture is significant since it will affect the soil’s water-
holding capacity, porosity and aeration, hydraulic conductivity, compatibility,
resistance to root penetration, nutrient-holding capacity and resistance to acidification.

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Soil colour

Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate
the composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected
to. Soil can exhibit a wide range of colour; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows
and under the right conditions green. Soil color has been found to be the property of
soil that most reflects its pedogenic environment and history. Soil organic matter and
iron oxides contribute most to soil color. Organic matter darkens soil, while iron oxides
produce a range of soil colors that are dependent on the oxidation state of the iron
(Moody, 2008).

Soil Structure

According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger
sized aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of
aggregation and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that
the soil structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major
effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of
seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL

The soil is composed, in the mineralogical sense, of mostly minerals from rocks
found in the crust of the Earth. The rocks found in the surface of the Earth are formed
due to the cooling of magma; these rocks go through the rock cycle, and they transform
and weather physically, chemically, and biologically. This process of weathering is a
key factor in the formation of soil. The most abundant type of rock found in the Earth’s
crust is the igneous rocks since the other types of rocks (the metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks) are derived from the igneous rocks. Since igneous rocks are the
most abundant type of rock it is the major contributor of the soil’s mineralogical content;
simply put the mineralogical content of an igneous rock is closely related to the
mineralogical content of the average soil. The minerals that consist the average
igneous rocks and intensively weathered soil are as follows:

Minerals Average of Igneous Columbiana Clay

Rocks (Costa Rica)
SiO2 60 26
Al2O3 16 49
Fe2O3 7 20
TiO2 1 3
MnO 0.1 0.4
CaO 5 0.3
MgO 4 0.7
K2O 3 0.1
Na2O 4 0.3

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P2O5 0.3 0.4

SO3 0.1 0.3
Total 100.5% 100.4%
Chemical Composition of Average Igneous Rocks and an Intensively
Weathered Soil.
Adapted from Bohn, McNeal, and O'Connor, 1985. Retrieved from: Fundamentals of
Soil Science (Foth, 1991)

The minerals in the soil from the rocks are divided into two groups: Primary
minerals and Secondary minerals. The primary minerals comprise and provides all
the chemical elements in soils in the form of minerals. These minerals react with other
substances creating cations and anions, or they maybe cations and anions
themselves. The most common type of primary minerals are the silicates and oxides
of different metals (Karthanasis, 2006). And, it is evident in the table that the
abundance of these minerals greatly affects the chemical elements found in the soil.

Element (Symbol) Parts Per Million Percentage (%)

(ppm) by weight
Oxygen (O) 461,000ppm 46.1%
Silicon (Si) 282,000ppm 28.2%
Aluminum (Al) 82,300ppm 8.23%
Iron (Fe) 56,300ppm 5.63%
Calcium (Ca) 41,500ppm 4.15%
Sodium (Na) 23,600ppm 2.36%
Magnesium (Mg) 23,300ppm 2.33%
Potassium (K) 20,900ppm 2.09%
Titanium (Ti) 5,650ppm 0.565%
Hydrogen (H) 1,400ppm 0.14%
Elements in the Earth’s Crust
Adopted from: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th Edition. Retrieved
from: https://education.jlab.org

From the table, we can see that oxygen constitutes almost half of the elements
in the soil, this is because of the oxygen bonded with different metal ions (or oxides)
and most of the elemental composition of most minerals have oxygen in them (e.g.
silicates, aluminosilicates, hydroxides, etc.). Silicon is the second most abundant in
the composition of Earth’s crust, because most of the minerals are composed with a
silicon tetrahedra, and since silicon is very much like carbon (they both have 4 valence
electron) and is very abundant in the Earth’s mantle most of the rocks and minerals
that are formed here in the crust will most likely be silicon based.

Soil Structure

According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger
sized aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of
aggregation and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that

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the soil structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major
effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of
seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration.

Soil Horizon

According to Balasubramanian (2017), each soil horizon might be slightly or

very much different from the other layer existing above or below it. Each horizon also
tells a story about the makeup, age, texture and other characteristics of that layer. The
layers are divided as top-soil layer, sub-soil layer, and the bed rock layers. He also
said that most of the soils have four or five major horizons. These are designated as
O, A, B, C, E and R.

The O-Horizon (humus +litter layer):

The O horizon is very common in many surfaces with lots of vegetative cover.
It is the layer made up of organic materials such as dead leaves and surface
organisms, twigs and fallen trees. It has about 20% organic matter and this horizon is
often black or dark brown in color (Balasubramanian, 2017).

The A-Horizon (top-soil + root zone):

The A horizon may be seen in the absence of the O horizon, usually known as
the top soil. It is the top layer soils for many grasslands and agricultural lands.
Typically, this horizon is made of sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic
matter. This layer is most vulnerable to wind and water erosion and it is also known
as the root zone (Balasubramanian, 2017).

The E-Horizon:

The E horizon is usually lighter in color, often occurring below O and A horizons.
It is often rich in nutrients that are leached from A and O horizons. It has a lower clay
content and common in forested lands or areas with high quality O and A horizons
(Balasubramanian, 2017).

The B-Horizon (Mineral Dominated Zone):

The B horizon has some similarities with the E horizon. This horizon is formed
below the O, A and E horizons and may contain high concentrations of silicate clay,
iron, aluminum and carbonates. It is also called the illuviation zone because of the
accumulation of minerals and in this layer where roots of big trees exist
(Balasubramanian, 2017).

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The C-Horizon (Saprolite layer):

C horizon are mineral layers which are not bedrock and are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons. The C horizon lacks
all the properties of the layers above it. It is mainly made up of broken bedrock and no
organic material (Balasubramanian, 2017).

The R-Horizon:

The R horizon is bedrock horizon. It contains materials that are compacted and
cemented by the weight of the overlying horizons. It is the hard layer of unweathered
parent material and all kinds are rock types exist as basement (Balasubramanian,
2017).

COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

According to Tan (2010), a colloid is defined in the textbook term as a state of

matter consisting of very fine particles that approach, but never reach molecular sizes.
And, according to Bear (1964), a colloidal system is a dispersion of finely divided
particles distributed in a continuous phase. This means that colloids are the particles
that have the upper size limit of 0.2µm, and a lower sized limit of approximately
0.005µm or 50Å (the size of a molecule).

Many chemical and biological properties and reactions happen in the colloidal
state of matter, and these reactions are: adsorption, absorption, desorption. Sorption
in general is “a physical and chemical process by which one substance becomes
attached to the other”. Adsorption is “the uptake and retention of one material within
another” (Tan, 2010), this process only refers to the accumulation of the molecules or
substances in the surface of the adsorbing substance. Whereas absorption is the
process where a fluid will be dissolved in solid or a liquid throughout their entire bulk.
These two sorption processes are often confused with one another. To avoid
confusion, we must keep in mind that absorption involves the entire bulk of the
absorbing material to assimilate and dissolve the molecules or substances, while
adsorption only involves the surface of the adsorbing material to accumulate the
molecules or substances. Desorption is the removal of molecules or substances that
was either absorbed or adsorbed.

The inorganic constituents in the soil are the sand (2 - 0.1mm), silt (0.1 -
0.002mm), and clay (< 0.002mm). Since sand and silt are too big to be classified as a
colloid, only fine clay particles are considered as soil colloids. These clay particles
can structurally be crystalline, disordered, or amorphous (Tan, 2010).

The organic constituents in the soil or the Soil Organic Matter (SOM) are
composed of Liable SOM and Stable SOM (Foth, 1991). The liable SOM is composed
of the readily decomposable plant or animal material in the soil, while the stable SOM

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is the fully decomposed animal or plant material also called humus. Soil humus or
humus particles are the organic colloid particles in the soil. These organic matters in
the soil is mostly composed of carbohydrates, amino acids, peptides, proteins, nucleic
acid, lipids, and lignins. These particles have their own colloidal properties and affects
the soil structure and chemistry in slightly different ways (Tan, 2010).

Because of the clay particles and humus particles being small, its surface area
increases as its size decreases (as to most other materials). This increase in surface
area drives the clay particle’s and humus particle’s adsorption properties and is
responsible for the cation exchange happening in the soil and plants. This increase in
surface area also makes the clay particle and humus particle carry an electronegative
charge, due to isomorphous substitution and the dissociation of hydroxyl groups.
Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of an ion in the silicate structure of clay
by another ion that has the same size, this type of process is not affected by soil pH
level thus dubbed as a permanent structural charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010).
While the other cause of the electronegative charge of soil particles is the dissociation
of OH groups on the crystal edges or exposed planes in clay and humic substances
when the pH level is high, this process is affected by the pH thus dubbed as variable
charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010).

Alkaline medium: –Al–OH + OH– ↔ –Al–O– + H2O

Acid medium: –Al–OH + H+ ↔ –Al–OH2+

Soil particles can also carry positive charges when an H+ ion is added to the
hydroxyl group of the minerals and compounds in the soil particles; this process is
dependent on the pH level and the valence electron of the metal in the soil particle.
This property allows the anion exchanges in some tropical soils (Tan, 2010).

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ION EXCHANGE IN SOIL

Ion exchange in soils

Adopted from: Fundamentals of soil science (Foth, 1991).

Ion exchange in soil is very important for every terrestrial and non-terrestrial
organism, since it is how most of the producers of the ecosystem get the nutrients they
need to live, reproduce, and keep the ecosystem fed. According to Foth (1991), “ion
exchange involves cations and anions adsorbed from the solution onto negatively or
positively charged surfaces.” Basically, ion exchange is a process of taking and
replacing ions from an adsorbent material. There are two types of ion exchange: cation
exchange and anion exchange. But, because of the tendency of the soil to be more
negatively charged the cationic exchange is observed more in the soil compared to
anion exchange (Tan, 2010).

Cation Exchange. Cation exchange is the exchange of cations from the surface
of a soil colloid to another material. It may take place between (Balasubramanian,
2017): (1) the cations in the surface of soil colloids and the cations in the soil solution,
(2) the cations in the surface of a soil colloid and cations released by plants, and (3)
cations in the surface of two clay crystals, or two clay colloids, or two organic colloids,
or an organic and clay colloid. When cations are added to the soil (e.g. K+, NH+, Ca+)
the adsorption of cations will take place depending on several different factors: the
surface potential, valence, and hydrodynamic radius (Tan,2010).

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Surface potential refers to the electric potential difference of the inner and outer
surface of a colloid. Cations have different valence electrons, some are monovalent
or having only one valence electron, and some are divalent or having two valence
electrons, etc. But, as the surface potential of the soil colloid increases it would adsorb
more cations with higher valence electron; for example, in conditions of high surface
potential in a colloid it divalent cations are preferred to be adsorbed more than
monovalent ones. Adsorption of cations is also determined by the hydrodynamic
radius, or the radius of the hydration sphere that is surrounding a cation; every cation
is surrounded with a blanket of water called the “hydration sphere”, and as this blanket
of water thickens the cation is less likely to be adsorbed by a colloid.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). CEC is “the capacity of soil to adsorb and
exchange cations” (Tan, 2010). It is defined as directly proportional to the surface area
and the surface charge of the clay. Organic matter also contributes to the CEC, but it
depends on the level of decomposition that the organic matter has undergo. CEC is
very important in the process of plant growth and scientists determine the CEC of the
soil so that farmers will know how frequently they should apply fertilizers in the soil.
When the soil has low CEC this means that it could only hold little nutrients at a time
and the soil should be fertilized frequently but in small amounts of fertilizers; soils with
high CEC on the other hand only needs to be fertilized less often but in higher dosages
of fertilizer, because soils with high CEC can adsorb more nutrients than soils with low
CEC (scienceofagriculture.org, 2018).

SOIL pH

Soil pH is an important property of soil involved in the growth of plants, mainly

because it affects the nutrient content and the CEC of the soil. Soil pH can also be
called the master determinant (Tan, 2010), because most of the properties of the soil
is dependent on the pH, namely: rate of decomposition, plant growth, concentration of
micronutrients, weathering of primary minerals, and the formation of clay minerals.
These properties of soil are all somewhat dependent on the pH of the soil, this shows
the importance of determining the soil’s pH level. For example, the solubility of iron
compounds decreases if the soil pH increases, thus an alkaline soil tends to be
deficient in iron (Foth, 1991). The common range of soil pH is 4-10, higher or lower
than that pH would be described as very strongly acidic or alkaline soil, as described
in the diagram below (Foth 1991) (Tan, 2010).

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Soil pH ranges and soil reaction classes.

Adapted from: Brady, N. C., The Nature and Properties of Soils, 8th ed.,
Figure 17–3, 463, MacMillan, New York, 1974. Reprinted and electronically
produced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Source of alkalinity. According to Foth (1991), there are two main contributors
for the alkalinity of the soil and these are the carbonate hydrolysis and mineral
weathering. Most soils in the world are rich in calcium carbonate, these soils are called
calcareous, this abundance in CaCO3 is due to the parent material’s abundance in
CaCO3. The hydrolysis of calcium produces OH- ions, as described below, resulting to
alkalinity in the soil solution.

CaCO3 + H2O → Ca2+ + HCO3- + OH-

Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble; thus, this reaction can only produce
a pH level as high as 8.3 when there is an equilibrium with the atmospheric carbon
dioxide. Mineral weathering can also contribute to the soil’s alkalinity, specifically the
weathering of primary minerals. This weathering of primary minerals uses H+ and
produces OH-, reducing the soil’s probability of becoming acidic while increasing its
alkalinity.

Sources for acidity. There are three main processes that contribute to the soil’s
acidity: respiration of plants and soil organisms, mineralization of organic matter,
natural precipitation (Foth, 1991). The respiration of plants and other soil organism
releases carbon dioxide in the soil which reacts with water forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3), this weak acid contributes H+ to the soil solution. The mineralization of
organic matter also contributes to the acidity of the soil, because organic matter
mineralization produces organic acids and the mineralized nitrogen and sulfur form
the organic matter will oxidize to nitric and sulfuric acids increasing the soil’s acidity.
The normal process of precipitation also slowly contributes to the soils acidity over the

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course of time, because when precipitation occurs the atmospheric carbon dioxide will
react with the precipitate forming carbonic acid and gives the natural precipitation a
slightly acidic pH level (Foth, 1991).

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Strawn, D. G., Bohn, H. L., & O'Connor, G. A. (2015). Soil chemistry. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131920386/70E23C15C130477CPQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapters 1-8 pp 1-236
Sauer, T. J., Eash, N. S., Odoi, E., & O'Dell, D. (2015). Soil science simplified.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131746793/BA0C3F3AA9F24EB0PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapters 1-9 pp 20-188
Sposito, G. (2008). The chemistry of soils. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131898067/530194F259DF4CCFPQ/3
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1-12 pp 3-315

Let’s Check

1. What are the different layers of soil/soil horizons?

2. What are the compositions of soil?
3. What are the macronutrients and micronutrients present in soil?

Let’s Analyze

1. Differentiate permeability from porosity.

2. Your plants are showing signs of iron deficiency. You check the soil pH and it
is 8.0. What would most likely be the best way to eliminate the iron deficiency
and why?
3. How can knowledge of the climate of an area help you make an initial
assessment of soil fertility?

In a Nutshell

1. You know that the air around you is full of nitrogen, yet your garden regularly
shows signs that it could use a little of it. How can you harness some of the

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nitrogen for your garden?

2. Is adding a large quantity of nitrogen-rich amendments to your garden before
you plant necessarily a good thing to do? Why or why not?
3. What is the most important thing you can do to a mineral soil in order to ensure
an adequate supply of and maximum availability of plant nutrients?

Keywords Index

Bedrock Cation exchange Cation Exchange Clay

Capacity
Drainage Humus Infiltration Loam
Permeability Porosity Sand Saprolite
Silt Subsoil Topsoil Weathering

References

Moody, P.W., and Cong, P.T. (2008). Soil Constraints and Management Package
(SCAMP): guidelines for sustainable management of tropical upload soils,
ACIAR Monograph No. 130, 86pp.

Nortcliff, Stephen (2006). Soil, Definition, Function, and Utilization of Soil.

Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Characteristic of Soil Profile.

Bot, A. and Benites, J. (2005). The Importance of Soil Organic Matter, Information
Division Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle
terme di Caracalla No. 00 100 Rome, Italy

Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Chemical Properties of Soil. Retrieved from:

http://www. Slideshare.net/bala1957/chemical-properties-of-soils. Date
Retrieved: September 15, 2018.

Bear, F.E. (1964). Chemistry of the Soil. Reinhold Pub. Corp. Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Foth, H.D. (1991). Fundamentals of Soil Science, Canada: Arcata Graphics

Company.

Karthanasis, A.D. (2006). Soil Mineralogy. Land use and land cover, from
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the
Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford, UK,
[http://www.eolss.net].

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Reckitt Benckiser. Soil Structure. Retrieved from: www.rsc.org/learn-

chemistry/resource/res00000885/soil-
science?cmpid=CMP00002163#!cmpid=CMP00001093. Retrieved date:
September 17, 2018.

Sposito, G. 1989. The Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

Tan, K. H. (2010). Principles of soil chemistry. CRC press.

Course Schedule

Activity Date Where to submit

Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
2nd Exam Sept 18, 2020 BlackBoard’s Quiz Feature

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Big Picture

Week 6-7: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to

a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of energy;

b. summarize the concept of electrochemical energy;
c. explain the concept of nuclear energy;
d. show understanding of the concept of fuels.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. demonstrate understanding on

the basic concepts of energy

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of energy to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.

Absolute zero the lowest temperature possible. At a temperature of absolute

zero there is no motion and no heat. Absolute zero occurs at a
temperature of 0 degrees Kelvin, or -273.15 degrees Celsius, or at -
460 degrees Fahrenheit.
Chemical the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance
potential energy
Closed system a system that can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not
matter.
Conduction the transfer of heat energy through matter from particle to particle;
most effective in solids
Convection the transfer of heat energy in gases or liquids due to density
differences
Elastic potential potential energy stored as a result of deformation of an elastic object,
energy such as the stretching of a spring
Electromagnetic the type of energy which comes from electromagnetic waves
energy
Endothermic any process which requires or absorbs energy from its surroundings,
reaction usually in the form of heat
Exothermic a process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its
reaction surroundings, usually in the form of heat, but also in a form of light,
electricity, or sound.

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Energy the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order

to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved
quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be
converted in form, but not created or destroyed.
Entropy a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's
thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted
as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system.
Fission a process in nuclear physics in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
two or more smaller nuclei as fission products, and usually some by-
product particles.
Fusion a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form
one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. The
difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested
as either the release or absorption of energy.
Gravitational the potential energy a physical object with mass has in relation to
potential energy another massive object due to gravity.
Heat the quantity of energy stored or transferred by thermal vibrations of
molecules
Isolated system a system that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its
surroundings
Kinetic energy the energy an object possesses due to its motion
Mechanical the sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that is used to do
energy work. In other words, it is energy in an object due to its motion or
position, or both.
Nuclear energy comes from splitting atoms in a reactor to heat water into steam, turn a
turbine and generate electricity.
Open system A type of system that can exchange both energy and matter with its
surroundings
Potential energy the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other
objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors.
Surroundings the rest of the universe that interacts with the system
System the part of the universe being studied
Temperature the average vibrational energy of all molecules within the system; the
degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially
as expressed according to a comparative scale and shown by a
thermometer or perceived by touch.
Work a force applied to an object over a certain distance

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Essential Knowledge

Energy

Energy is one of the most fundamental and a universal concept of physical

science for everything that happens in the world involves energy (Woodford, 2018).
There were three broad categories of energy that we consume every day. First, the
food we eat to keep our bodies going- this comes from plants and animals in which
our stomach digest to produce a sugary substance glucose where the blood transports
around our bodies to power our muscles. Second, the energy we use in our homes
that comes from the coal, gas, and oil. Lastly, the fuel we put in our vehicle mostly
came from the oil. But all of this energy was originated from a giant fireball called ‘sun’
which provides 99% of energy we use on Earth (Woodford, 2018). Theoretically,
energy is an attribute of matter that can manifest itself in different ways (can be
converted into different forms of energy). It can be measured only indirectly through
its effects on matter that requires, loses, or possesses it (Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014).

Energy is a quantitative property of a system which can be a kinetic, potential

or any other forms. It cannot be seen, weighed, touched or smelled but it can be felt.
Thus, the nature of energy is governed with the laws of thermodynamics. This tells on
how and why does the energy is transferred (Hinrichs, 1991).

Law of Thermodynamics

In physics, thermodynamics deals with the relationship between heat and other
forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and
from other forms of energy and how it affects matter. Thermal energy is the energy a
substance or system has due to its temperature, i.e., the energy of moving or vibrating
molecules (Lucas, 2015). According to Energy Education, heat is energy transferred
between substances or systems due to a temperature difference between them. As a
form of energy, heat is conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or destroyed. It can,
however, be transferred from one place to another. Heat can also be converted to and
from other forms of energy. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees
designated on a standard scale (American Heritage Dictionary).

System and Surroundings

In chemistry, the system is the chemical reaction that consists of molecules.

Everything that is not a part of the system constitutes its surroundings. The system
and surroundings are separated by a boundary (Brown, 2000).

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Figure 1. An abstract of system and surroundings

According to Brown (2000), there are three types of systems in thermodynamics

namely: open, closed, and isolated.

Open system

Can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings. The stovetop
example would be an open system, because heat and water vapor can be lost to the
air.

Figure 2. Both energy and matter exchange

Closed System

A system that can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter. If we
put a very tightly fitting lid on the pot from the previous example, it would approximate
a closed system.

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Figure 3. Only the energy can exchange with its surroundings.

Isolated System

Is one that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings. A
perfect isolated system is hard to come by, but an insulated drink cooler with a lid is
conceptually similar to a true isolated system. The items inside can exchange energy
with each other, which is why the drinks get cold and the ice melts a little, but they
exchange very little energy (heat) with the outside environment.

Figure 4. There is no exchange of energy and matter occurs in this example.

1st law of Thermodynamics

A law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither be created nor destroyed,

but can only be transferred or changed from one form to another known as
“conservation of energy”. This means that any change in the internal energy (ΔE) of a
system is given by the sum of the heat (q) that flows across its boundaries and the
work (w) done on the system by the surroundings: ΔE=q+w (Boundless Learning,
2018).

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Figure 5. Energy is transfered from the ball to the pins. No energy is lost.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

A law of thermodynamics wherein the entropy of any isolated system always

increases. Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium—the
state of maximum entropy of the system. More simply put: the entropy of the universe
(the ultimate isolated system) only increases and never decreases (Boundless
Learning, 2018).

Figure 6. This shows that the higher entropy the higher its random and less ordered.

3rd Law of Thermodynamics

It states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the

temperature approaches absolute zero. The entropy of a system at absolute zero is
typically zero, and in all cases is determined only by the number of different ground
states it has. Specifically, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance (perfect order) at
absolute zero temperature is zero. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has
only one state with minimum energy (Boundless Learning, 2018).

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Figure 7. The temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy

approaches a constant.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

It states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body,
then they are also in equilibrium with each other. Thermal equilibrium means that when
two bodies are brought into contact with each other and separated by a barrier that is
permeable to heat, there will be no transfer of heat from one to the other (Lucas, 2015).

Figure 8. Shows the equilibrium with each other.

Spontaneous Processes and Nonspontaneous Processes

Spontaneity does not imply that the reaction proceeds with great speed. For
example, the decay of diamonds into graphite is a spontaneous process that occurs
very slowly, taking millions of years. The rate of a reaction is independent of its
spontaneity, and instead depends on the chemical kinetics of the reaction. Every
reactant in a spontaneous process has a tendency to form the corresponding product.
This tendency is related to stability. On the other hand, an endergonic reaction (also
called a nonspontaneous reaction or an unfavorable reaction) is a chemical reaction
in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed. The
total amount of energy is a loss (it takes more energy to start the reaction than what
is gotten out of it) so the total energy is a negative net result. Endergonic reactions
can also be pushed by coupling them to another reaction, which is strongly exergonic,
through a shared intermediate (Boundless Learning, 2018).

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Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually in

the form of heat or light. In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the
total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants. On the the
other hand, endothermic reactions are reactions that require external energy, usually
in the form of heat, for the reaction to proceed. Since endothermic reactions draw in
heat from their surroundings, they tend to cause their environments to cool down
(Boundless Learning, 2018).

Work, Heat, and Temperature

Work is a force applied to an object over a certain distance. This aids with the
energy in order the object to move. On the other hand, heat is the quantity of energy
stored or transferred by thermal vibrations of molecules. At absolute zero, a system
has no heat energy. Temperature is the average vibrational energy of all molecules
within the system. These three are present in the energy (Woodford, 2018).

Energy Conversion

The energy conversion is a process of changing energy from one form to

another. This can be done anytime and everywhere (Hinrichs, 1991).

Energy Efficiency

It is the amount of useful energy extracted from a system divided by the total
energy put into a system. It may also be thought of as the efficiency with which we are
capable of utilizing a resource. If we don't use the energy released from the chemical
bonds in a resource, the energy goes into waste heat, sound, thermal vibrations, or
light. The more energy conversion steps there are in a process, the more energy you
lose as waste heat (Hinrichs, 1991).

Measuring energy

According to Walker 1996, energy cannot be seen, weighed, touched or

smelled but it can be felt. Hence, measuring the energy is to determine its efficiency
process has been done. Since energy is a quantitative, the heating value of “fuel” has
been use to measure on how much a certain resource converts into heat (motion of
molecules). There are measuring units in energy: Joules (J), the common measuring
units where 1 joule is equal to one newton meter (N*m). Another one, is the British
Thermal Unit or the BTU where one BTU is the amount of energy required to raise one
pound of water 1o C. Thus, the calorie where the unit of measure of the energy required
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C (Hinrichs, 1991).

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Types of Energy

Potential Energy

Energy stored in a motionless object, giving it the potential to cause change

(Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014). It is written in the formula of:

PE= m x g x h

According to Damelin (2007), there are types of potential energy:

1. Elastic Potential Energy – Energy stored by things that stretch or compress

(springs, elastic, rubberbands)

2. Chemical Potential Energy - energy stored in chemical bonds between

atoms (Snickers bar, food, even gasoline)

3. Gravitational Potential Energy – energy stored by things that are above Earth
(book sitting on shelf, person standing on a cliff, rollercoaster perched at the
top of a hill)

Kinetic Energy

It is associated with the motion of an object (Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014). It is

written in the formula of:

KE = ½ m x v2

Forms of Energy

Heat Energy

It is the result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules

or ions in solids, liquids and gases. Heat energy can be transferred from one object to
another. The transfer or flow due to the difference in temperature between the two
objects is called heat (Science Learning Hub, 2018).

For example, an ice cube has heat energy and so does a glass of lemonade. If
you put the ice in the lemonade, the lemonade (which is warmer) will transfer some of
its heat energy to the ice. In other words, it will heat up the ice. Eventually, the ice will

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melt and the lemonade and water from the ice will be the same temperature. This is
known as reaching a state of thermal equilibrium.

Moving particles

Matter is all around you. It is everything in the universe – anything that has
both mass and volume and takes up space is matter. Matter exists in different physical
forms – solids, liquids and gases.

All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions. These tiny
particles are always in motion – either bumping into each other or vibrating back and
forth. It is the motion of particles that creates a form of energy called heat (or thermal)
energy that is present in all matter.

Chemical Energy

It is the potential energy stored in the arrangement of atoms within molecules.

Breaking chemical bonds requires energy, while forming new chemical bonds releases
energy. The more energy that's released when a bond forms, the more stable that
bond is. These bonds are stable because the same amount of energy must be put into
these bonds to break them again (this is an example of conservation of energy). When
bonds between atoms are broken or formed, this is called a chemical reaction (Energy
Education, 2018).

Electromagnetic Energy

It is said to be the type of energy which comes from electromagnetic waves.

These radiation travels with the speed of light and can be composed of radio waves,
TV waves, radar waves, heat, light, X-rays, visible waves, etc. The Sun, the earth and
the ionosphere are main sources of electromagnetic energy in nature (Science Struck,
2018). This means that the energy source required to transmit information (in the form
of waves) from one place (material) to another. This information can be in the form of
light, heat, or in any other form.

Nuclear Energy

It is the energy in the nucleus of an atom. Atoms are the smallest particles that
can break a material. At the core of each atom there are two types of particles
(neutrons and protons) that are held together. Nuclear energy is the energy that
holds neutrons and protons (National Nuclear Regulator, 2017).

Nuclear energy can be used to produce electricity. This energy can be

obtained in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy
is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. The

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sun produces energy like this. In nuclear fission, atoms are split into smaller atoms,
releasing energy. Actually, nuclear power plants can only use nuclear fission to
produce electricity.

When one of these two physical reactions (nuclear fission or nuclear

fusion) success, atoms experiment a slight loss of mass. This mass lost generates
a big amount of heat energy, explained by Albert Einstein with his famous equation
E = mc2.

Although the production of electricity is the most common utility there are
many other uses of nuclear energy in other sectors, such as medical, environmental
or wartime (atomic bomb).

Mechanical Energy

It is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion or its position. Well,
that seems simple enough, but what is energy? Energy is the ability to do work,
where work is the movement of an object when a force is applied to it. For example, a
person doing push-ups is doing work by applying force to the floor. Since the floor
doesn't typically move, the person will move away from the floor. That same person
could apply a force to a book and move it over his or her head. In each case, work is
done when the applied force causes an object to move (Study.com, 2018).

Mechanical energy includes: potential energy, also known as energy of

position. The potential energy Epot of a mass m, for example, is equal to Epot = m g h,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height. Potential energy can be
found in elastic deformation, in which the original shape of a material is recovered after
an external force is removed (U.S. Department of Energy,2018).

There is also kinetic energy, also known as energy of motion, Ekin = ½ m v2,
which arises from the motion of a mass m with a velocity v. Similar to kinetic energy
of translation (the energy of moving from place to place) the rotational energy of a
body with angular velocity ω and a moment of inertia I with respect to the rotational
axis is described by Erot = ½ I ω2.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Jones, C. S., & Mayfield, S. P. (2016). Our energy future : Introduction to renewable
energy and biofuels. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131770566/61424AD0AA7547F0PQ/2
?accountid=31259 Chapters 1-3 pp 1-40
Sumper, A., Gomis-Bellmunt, O., & Díaz-González, F. (2016). Energy storage in
power systems. Retrieved from

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https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131309248/CE3DAE4388FC4483PQ/1
?accountid=31259 Chapter 1-2 pp 1-60

Let’s Check

Solve the following problems:

1. A box has a mass of 6.2 kg. The box is lifted from the garage floor and placed
on a shelf. If the box gains 176 J of Potential Energy, how high is the shelf?
2. A man climbs on to a wall that is 5.2 m high and gains 3168J of potential energy.
What is the mass of the man?
3. A 907 g ball is pulled up a slope as shown in the diagram. Calculate the potential
energy it gains.

4. A car with a mass of 805 kg is moving with a speed of 26 m/s. Calculate the
kinetic energy of the car.
5. A cyclist and bike have a total mass of 111 kg and a speed of 12 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy.
6. A tennis ball is traveling at 53 m/s and has a kinetic energy of 72 J. Calculate
the mass of the tennis ball.

Let’s Analyze

1. Light has no mass so it also has no energy according to Einstein, but how can
sunlight warm the earth without energy?
2. Since gravity is unlimited, can we use it as an infinite energy source?

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3. Why is mass conserved in chemical reactions?

4. If the Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither be created
nor destroyed, but can only be transferred or changed from one form to
another, why do scientists worry about running out of energy in the future?

In a Nutshell

1. How can the negative impact on climate change be reduced by using

renewable sources of energy?
2. Are alternative energy sources like solar, wind, tidal, and geothermal more
practical than fossil fuels?
3. How does alternative energy as the primary source of energy affect society’s
sustainability?

Keywords Index

Absolute zero Chemical potential Closed system Conduction

energy
Convection Elastic potential Electromagnetic Endothermic
energy energy reaction
Exothermic Energy Entropy Fission
reaction
Fusion Gravitational Heat Isolated system
potential energy
Kinetic energy Mechanical energy Nuclear energy Open system
Potential energy Surroundings System Temperature
Work

References

American Heritage Dictionary. (n/a). Temperature. Retrieved from

https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=temperature.

Boundless Learning (2018). Exothermic and endothermic processes. Introduction to

Chemistry. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/exothermic-and-
endothermic-processes.

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Boundless Learning (2018). Thermodynamics. Introduction to Chemistry. Retrieved

from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/?s=thermodynamics.

Brown, T. et. al., (2000). Chemistry: the central science 8th Edition. Pearson
Education Asia, Singapore.

BYJUS. (2018). Energy Conversion. Retrieved from

https://byjus.com/physics/energy-conversion.

ChemTeam. (2011). Energy, work, heat, temperature. Thermochemistry. Retrieved

from https://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Energy-Work-Heat-Temp.html.

Damelin, D. (2007). Types of potential energy. Chemistry 2. Retrieved from

http://chemsite.lsrhs.net/chemKinetics/PotentialEnergy.html

Energy Education (n/a). Heat. Retrieved from

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Heat.

Energy Education. (2018, June 25). Chemical energy. Retrieved from

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Chemical_energy

Hinrichs, R. (1991). Energy: scientific principles. Retrieved from

http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/energy/prin.html.

Lucas, J. (2015, May 7). What is thermodynamics? Live Science. Retrieved from
https://www.livescience.com/50776-thermodynamics.html.

Lucas, J. (2015, May 7).What is the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics? Live Science.
Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/50833-zeroth-law-
thermodynamics.html.

National Nuclear Regulator. (2017, August 31). What is nuclear energy. Retrieved
from https://nuclear-energy.net/what-is-nuclear-energy

Science Learning Hub. (2009, November 20). Heat energy. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/750-heat-energy.

Science Struck. (2018, January 29). What is electromagnetic energy and why is it
important. Retrieved from https://sciencestruck.com/what-is-electromagnetic-
energy

Senese, F. (2010). What are some examples of exothermic and endothermic

processes. General Chemistry Online. Retrieved from
http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/thermo/faq/exothermic-
endothermic-examples.shtml.

Study.com. (2018). Entropy in chemistry: definition & law. AP Chemistry.

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Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/entropy-in-chemistry-

definition-lesson.html.

Study.com. (2018). What is mechanical energy. Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-the-types-of-energy.html

U.S. Department of Energy. (2018). Mechanical energy. Energy Fundamentals.

Retrieved from http://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/ef/links.htm

Woodford, C. (2018, April 8). Energy. Retrieved from

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/energy.html

Zumdhal & Decoste. (2014). The nature of energy. Thermochemistry. Retrieved from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Che
mistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/06%3A_Thermochemistry/9.1%3A_The_Nat
ure_of_Energy.

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. summarize the concept of

electrochemical energy

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of electrochemical energy to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer
to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.

Anode the positively charged electrode by which the electrons leave a device.
Battery a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile
phones, and electric cars.
Cathode the electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs
Corrosion a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically-
stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction
with their environment.
Electrochemistry the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move
Electrode a solid electric conductor that carries electric current into non-metallic
solids, or liquids, or gases, or plasmas, or vacuums. Electrodes are
typically good electric conductors, but they need not be metals.
Electrolysis a process by which electric current is passed through a substance to
effect a chemical change.
Electrolyte a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when
dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The
dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which
disperse uniformly through the solvent.
Fuel cell a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy
Oxidation loss of electrons
Redox a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are
changed. Redox reactions are characterized by the actual or formal
transfer of electrons between chemical species, most often with one
species undergoing oxidation while another species undergoes
reduction.
Reduction gain of electrons
Salt bridge a tube containing an electrolyte (typically in the form of a gel),
providing electrical contact between two solutions.
Voltaic cell an electrochemical cell that uses a chemical reaction to produce
electrical energy

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Essential Knowledge

Electrochemistry

According to Shorb (2017), electrochemistry is the study of chemical processes

that cause electrons to move. This movement of electrons is called electricity,
which can be generated by movements of electrons from one element to another in a
reaction known as an oxidation-reduction ("redox") reaction.

Electrochemistry and its principles constitute the fundamental base for the
evolution of numerous entities of the physical world and are also essential for all
activities of living beings. As a matter of course, electrochemical technology based
on electrochemistry also plays an important role in many modern manufacturing
processes and products especially in the fields of micro technology which revolutionize
almost all aspects of everyday life. Electrochemistry shows wide acceptability in
achieving required shape of products and implementation in micro manufacturing
processes, which has been established as a multibillion dollar market with applications
in information, entertainment, medical, automotive, telecom, and many other
technologies (Bhattacharyya, 2015).

Electrochemistry concerns chemical phenomena associated with charge

separation, usually in liquid media, such as solutions. The separation of charge is often
associated with charge transfer, which can occur homogeneously in solution between
different chemical species, or heterogeneously on electrode surfaces. It can thus be
seen immediately that its applications are extremely wide and will be indicated later.
In order to ensure electro neutrality, two or more charge transfer half-reactions take
place simultaneously, in opposite directions: oxidation (loss of electrons or increase in
oxidation state) and reduction (gain of electrons or decrease in oxidation state) (Brett,
2014).

Oxidation- Reduction Reaction

Oxidation-reduction reaction, also called redox reaction, any chemical

reaction in which the oxidation number of a participating chemical species changes.
The term covers a large and diverse body of processes. Many oxidation-
reduction reactions are as common and familiar as fire, the rusting and dissolution
of metals, the browning of fruit, and respiration and photosynthesis—
basic life functions. Most oxidation-reduction (redox) processes involve the transfer
of oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, or electrons, with all three processes sharing two
important characteristics: (1) they are coupled—i.e., in any oxidation reaction
a reciprocal reduction occurs, and (2) they involve a characteristic net chemical
change—i.e., an atom or electron goes from one unit of matter to another (Gregersen,
2009).

Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number, while reduction involves a

decrease in oxidation number. Usually, the change in oxidation number is associated
with a gain or loss of electrons, but there are some redox reactions (e.g., covalent

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bonding) that do not involve electron transfer. Depending on the chemical reaction,
oxidation and reduction may involve any of the following for a given atom, ion, or
molecule: Oxidation - involves the loss of electrons or hydrogen OR gain of oxygen
OR increase in oxidation state. Reduction - involves the gain of electrons or hydrogen
OR loss of oxygen OR decrease in oxidation state (Helmenstine, 2018)

Balancing Redox Reactions

To balance redox reactions, assign oxidation numbers to

the reactants and products to determine how many moles of each species are needed
to conserve mass and charge. First, separate the equation into two half-reactions, the
oxidation portion and the reduction portion. This is called the half-reaction method of
balancing redox reactions or the ion-electron method. Each half-reaction is balanced
separately and then the equations are added together to give a balanced overall
reaction. We want the net charge and number of ions to be equal on both sides of the
final balanced equation (Helmenstine, 2017).

Voltaic cell

A voltaic cell is a cell where chemical reactions between

dissimilar conductors connected through an electrolyte and a salt bridge produce
electric energy. A galvanic cell can also be powered by spontaneous oxidation-
reduction reactions. Essentially, a galvanic cell channels the electrical energy
produced by the electron transfer in a redox reaction. The electrical energy or current
may be sent to a circuit, such as in a television or light bulb (Helmenstine, 2018).

In redox reactions, electrons are transferred from one species to another. If the
reaction is spontaneous, energy is released, which can then be used to do useful work.
To harness this energy, the reaction must be split into two separate half reactions: the
oxidation and reduction reactions. The reactions are put into two different containers
and a wire is used to drive the electrons from one side to the other. In doing so,
a Voltaic/ Galvanic Cell is created (Singh & Gho, 2018).

STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL

Standard cell potential (E°cell) is defined as the potential of a cell measured

under standard conditions—that is, with all species in their standard states (1 M for
solutions, concentrated solutions of salts (about 1 M) generally do not exhibit ideal
behavior, and the actual standard state corresponds to an activity of 1 rather than a
concentration of 1 M. Corrections for nonideal behavior are important for precise
quantitative work but not for the more qualitative approach that we are taking here. 1
atm for gases, pure solids or pure liquids for other substances) and at a fixed
temperature, usually 25°C (Tanis, 1990).

As stated above, the standard reduction potential is the likelihood that a species
will be reduced. It is written in the form of a reduction half reaction. An example can
be seen below where "A" is a generic element and C is the charge.

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AC++Ce−→A(1)(1)AC++Ce−→A

Reduction Half-Reaction Standard Reduction Potential (V)

F2(g)+2e- → 2F-(aq) +2.87

S2O82-(aq)+2e- → 2SO42-(aq) +2.01

O2(g)+4H+(aq)+4e- → 2H2O(l) +1.23

Br2(l)+2e- → 2Br-(aq) +1.09

Ag+(aq)+e- → Ag(s) +0.80

Fe3+(aq)+e- → Fe2+(aq) +0.77

I2(l)+2e- → 2I+(aq) +0.54

Cu2+(aq)+2e- → Cu(s) +0.34

Sn4+(aq)+2e- → Sn2+(aq) +0.15

S(s)+2H+(aq)+2e- → H2S(g) +0.14

2H+(aq)+2e- → H2(g) 0.00

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Sn2+(aq)+2e- → Sn(g) -0.14

V3+(aq)+e- → V2+(aq) -0.26

Fe2+(aq)+2e- → Fe(s) -0.44

Cr3+(aq)+3e- → Cr(s) -0.74

Zn2+(aq)+2e- → Zn(s) -0.76

Mn2+(aq)+2e- → Mn(s) -1.18

Na+(aq)+e- → Na(s) -2.71

Li+(aq)+e- → Li(s) -3.04

Cell Potentials under Standard Conditions

Standard cell potential is the potential of a cell measured under standard

conditions or just simply the difference between the reduction potentials (Petrucci,
Harwood, Herring, & Madura, 2007). When solving for the standard cell potential, the
species oxidized and the species reduced must be identified. This can be identified
using the table above. Standard Cell Potential can be identified using the equation
below:

E°cell=E°cathode−E°anode

Wherein:

E°cell= Standard Cell Potential

E°cathode= standard potential value of the element being reduced

E°anode= standard potential value of the element being oxidized.

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Illustrated in the diagram above is the Cell Potential between Cu and Zn.

Oxidation-Reduction Reaction (Redox Reaction)

A type of chemical change where electron transfer occurs is classified as an

oxidation-reduction or simply called as redox process. The ability of the electrons to
be transferred from one species to another is dependent on the species’ reduction or
oxidation potential.

Oxidation involves the loss of electrons by substance being oxidized. The

substance that oxidizes it is called oxidizing agent and causes itself to be reduced
during the process. On the other hand, Reduction involves the gain of electron by
substance being reduced. The substance that reduces it is called reducing agent in
turn causes itself to be oxidized.

Strong oxidizing agents are typically compounds with elements in high oxidation
states or with high electronegativity, which gain electrons in the redox reaction.
Reducing agents are typically electropositive elements such as hydrogen, lithium,
sodium, iron, and aluminum, which lose electrons in redox reactions (Anderson,2017).

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Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant

Electromotive force (Emf) is a characteristic of any energy source capable of

driving electric charge around a circuit. In other words, it is the energy thereby gained
per unit electric charge.

Formula:

Emf= V ＋ Ir

Free energy is the energy required by a system in order to work. There are two
types of Free energy: the Helmholtz free energy and Gibbs free energy. Helmholtz
free energy is the maximum amount of work a system can do at constant volume and
temperature. We can use it when the pressure is changing during the work of the
system. On the other hand, Gibbs Free energy the maximum amount of work a system
can do at constant pressure and temperature (Smith, 2018).

Moreover, Equilibrium constant (K) is the ratio of concentration of the products

to the concentration of the reactants. It is used to expresses the relationship between
products and reactants of a reaction at equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at
a given temperature.

Cell Potentials under Non-Standard Conditions

Redox reaction in the real world rarely occur under standard conditions. Thus,
to still determine the direction of the electron in any conditions, we can use the Nernst
Equation.

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In 1889, Walter Nernst (1864-1941), a German scientist develop a

mathematical relationship that enable us to calculate cell potentials and the direction
of a spontaneous reaction at, other than standard-state condition.

General form of Nernst Equation:

Concentration Cell

The Concentration cell is a type of galvanic cell that is comprised of two half-
cells with the same electrodes but differing in concentrations. A concentration cell acts
to dilute the more concentrated solution and concentrate the more dilute solution
creating a voltage as the cell reaches an equilibrium. This is achieved by transferring
the electrons from the cell with the lower concentration to the cell with higher
concentration (Petrucci, 2007).

There are two main types of Concentration cell: Electrolyte Concentration Cell
and the Electrode Concentration cell. Electrolyte Concentration cell comprises of two
same electrodes that are dipped in an electrolyte which possesses different
concentration level. While the Electrode concentration cell consists of two cells where
identical electrodes are dipped in the same solution with different levels of
concentrations.

BATTERIES, FUEL CELLS, CORROSION AND ELECTROLYSIS

One of the oldest and most important applications of electrochemistry is to the

storage and conversion of energy. Devices that carry out these conversions are
called batteries. Batteries are so ubiquitous nowadays as they are almost invisible to
us. Alessandro Volta an Italian physicist invented the first true battery out of stacked

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discs of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) separated by cloth soak in salty water in 1800
(Stephen Lower,2018).

Batteries are very essential device as they store chemical energy that is
converted into electricity. Throughout time battery technology brought undeniably
innovations to mankind as they were developed with enough capacity to store the
power generated with domestic solar or wind systems which tend to supply and power
our home at more convenient way. So now, this report will help us to appreciate and
understand the important usage of this batteries and how thus it works.

BATTERY

A battery is an electrochemical cell or series of cells that produces an electric

current. It contains all the reactants needed to produce electricity (OpenStax, 2016).
There are two basic types of battery namely as; (1) primary(disposable) batteries;(2)
secondary(rechargeable) batteries. Primary (disposable) batteries are single-use
batteries because they cannot be recharged. Common primary battery is the dry cell,
alkaline and button battery. The dry cell is a zinc-carbon battery. The zinc can serve
as both a container and the negative electrode. The positive electrode is a rod made
of carbon that is surrounded by a paste of manganese oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium
chloride, carbon powder, and a small amount of water. Alkaline batteries were
developed in the 1950s partly to address some of the performance issues with zinc–
carbon dry cells. They are manufactured to be exact replacements for zinc-carbon dry
cells. As their name suggests, these types of batteries use alkaline electrolytes, often
potassium hydroxide. It can deliver about three to five times the energy of a zinc-
carbon dry cell of similar size. Button batteries are small disc-shaped batteries
containing lithium, zinc, mercury, silver, or manganese. The major advantages of the
mercury and silver cells are their reliability and their high output-to-mass ratio. These
factors make them ideal for applications where small size is crucial, as in cameras and
hearing aids (OpenStax,2016) (Brown et al, 2018).

The diagram shows a cross section of a flashlight battery, a zinc-carbon dry cell.

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Alkaline batteries were designed as direct replacements for zinc-carbon (dry cell)
batteries.

Button batteries.

Secondary (rechargeable) batteries is a type of electrical battery which can be

charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a
disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use.
These are the types of batteries found in devices such as smartphones, electronic
tablets, and automobiles. The most common rechargeable batteries are lead acid,
Nickel-cadmium, Nickel-metal-hydride and Lithium-ion. Lead-acid battery is the oldest
rechargeable battery system, it is the type of secondary battery used in your
automobile. It is inexpensive and capable of producing the high current required by
automobile starter motors. Nickel-cadmium battery is consisting of a nickel-plated
cathode, cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. Used in
where long service life, high discharge current and extreme temperatures are required.
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Main applications are power tools, medical devices, aviation and UPS. Nickel-metal-
hydride serves as a replacement for Nickel-cadmium as it has only mild toxic metals
and provides higher specific energy. Nickel-metal hydride is used for medical
instruments, hybrid cars and industrial applications. Ni-MH battery packs are finding
immediate use in portable electronic applications such as laptop, notebook, and sub-
notebook computers, cellular communication devices, and consumer electronic
devices such as camcorders. Lithium-ion battery are among the most popular
rechargeable batteries and are used in many portable electronic devices. Lithium-ion
batteries are common in home electronics. They are one of the most popular types of
rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density,
tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. LIBs are also growing in popularity for
military, battery electric vehicle and aerospace applications (OpenStax, 2016).

FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Fuel
cells are similar to batteries but require a continuous source of fuel, often hydrogen.
They will continue to produce electricity as long as fuel is available (OpenStax, 2016).

Hydrogen fuel cells is a process of using hydrogen as fuel and it will react with
oxygen to form electricity, water, and heat as the products. It’s been used to supply
power for satellites, space capsules, automobiles, boats, and submarines (Brown et
al,2018) (OpenStax, 2016).

CORROSION

The gradually degradation of metals due to an electrochemical process.

Formation of rust on iron, tarnish on silver, and the blue-green patina that develops on
copper are all examples of corrosion (OpenStax, 2016). Corrosion occurs when most
or all of the atoms on the same metal surface are oxidized, damaging the entire
surface. Mostly of metals are easily oxidized: they tend to lose electrons to oxygen
and other substances in the air or in water. (https://www.electrochem.org/corrosion-
science).

CORROSION OF IRON

The corrosion of iron is better known as rusting. It is an oxidation-reduction

process that destroys iron objects left out in open, moist air. The whole subject of
corrosion of iron is therefore an electrochemical one, and the rate of the corrosion is
simply a function of electromotive force and resistance of circuit (Bill Nimmo and
Gareth Hinds, 2003)

Oxidation half-reaction: Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e- Equation 1

Reduction half-reaction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- → 4OH-(aq) Equation 2

2Fe(s)+ O2(g)+2H2O(l)→2Fe2+(aq)+4OH-(aq) Equation3

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Fe2+(aq)+2OH-(aq)→Fe(OH)2(s) Equation4
4Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) + xH2O(I)→ 2Fe2O3•(x+4)H2O(s) Rust Equation 5

PREVENTING CORROSSION OF IRON

We commonly use iron and other steel products in different ways to improve
our daily basis of living easier and efficiently. So, preventing the rusting of this
materials is given prioritize nowadays. A lot of ways to prevent iron from rusting but
the most common and best way are galvanization, painting, electroplating.
Galvanization is a process in which the Iron sheets are coated with a layer of Zinc
which prevents rusting. Zinc is more reactive than iron so when we used it as a shield
this element will oxidized faster rather than the iron. Painting the Iron surface will
create a barrier between the Iron and the atmosphere, which will protect the Iron from
rusting. Iron sheets can be electroplated with a metal which is more reactive than Iron,
so that instead of the Iron getting oxidized, the other metal gets oxidized this process
called as electroplating (OpenStax, 2016).

ELECTROLYSIS

According to Surabhi Sinha (2014), Electrolysis is a process by which electric

current is passed through a substance to effect a chemical change. The process is
carried out in an electrolytic cell, an apparatus consisting of positive and
negative electrodes held apart and dipped into a solution containing positively and
negatively charged ions. According to Adam Felman (2017), an electrolyte is a
substance that conducts electricity when dissolved in water. According to Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt (2010), electrodes any terminal that conducts an electric current into
or away from various conducting substances in a circuit, as the anode or cathode in
a battery or the carbons in an arc lamp, or that emits, collects, or controls the flow of
electrons in an electron tube, as the cathode, plate, or grid. Anode is considered
negative and Cathode positive for Electrochemical Cells (Voltaic or Galvanic Cell)
which Redox Reaction happens spontaneously. While the opposite occurs for the
Electrolytic Cell, Anode is considered positive and cathode is considered negative,
because an external power supply is added and force the redox reaction to occur
backward, making such a not spontaneous redox reaction to happen Zerobyte
Johnsons (2017).

ELECTROLYTIC CELL

An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy into chemical energy. Here, the
anode is positive and cathode is the negative electrode. The reaction at the anode is
oxidation and that at the cathode is reduction. The concept of reversing the direction
of the spontaneous reaction in a galvanic cell through the input of electricity is at the
heart of the idea of electrolysis.

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The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride

In molten sodium chloride, the ions are free to migrate to the electrodes of an
electrolytic cell. A simplified diagram of the cell commercially used to produce sodium
metal and chlorine gas. Sodium is a strong reducing agent and chlorine is used to
purify water, and is used in antiseptics and in paper production (OpenStax, 2016)

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Passing an electric current through molten sodium chloride decomposes the material
into sodium metal and chlorine gas. Care must be taken to keep the products
separated to prevent the spontaneous formation of sodium chloride.

The Electrolysis of Water

According to Martin Chaplin (2018), electrolysis of water is the decomposition

to give hydrogen and oxygen gases due to the passage of an electric current.
According to OpenStax (2016), it is possible to split water into hydrogen and oxygen
gas by electrolysis. Acids are typically added to increase the concentration of
hydrogen ion in solution.

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Water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen gas during electrolysis. Sulfuric acid
was added to increase the concentration of hydrogen ions and the total number of
ions in solution, but does not take part in the reaction. The volume of hydrogen gas
collected is twice the volume of oxygen gas collected, due to the stoichiometry of the
reaction.

The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride

The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride is the more common example of

electrolysis because more than one species can be oxidized and reduced. When the
experiment is run, it turns out chlorine, not oxygen, is produced at the anode. The
unexpected process is so common in electrochemistry that it has been given the name
overpotential. The overpotential is the difference between the theoretical cell voltage
and the actual voltage that is necessary to cause electrolysis (OpenStax, 2016).

QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF ELECTROLYSIS

The amount of current that is allowed to flow in an electrolytic cell is related to

the number of moles of electrons. The number of moles of electrons can be related to
the reactants and products using stoichiometry (OpenStax, 2016). According to Moore
et al. (2017), a simple relationship between the amount of substance produced or
consumed at an electrode during electrolysis and the quantity of electrical
charge Q which passes through the cell discovered by Michael Faraday in the year
1833.

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The Faraday constant

The Faraday constant is the single most important information in electrolysis

calculations. The charge that each electron carries is 1.60 x 10 ^ -19 coulombs. That
means the 1 mole of electrons must carry6.02 x 10^23 x 1.60 x 10^-19 coulombs=
96320 coulombs.It is usually taken as 9.65 x 10^4 C mol-1(coulombs per mole) or
96500 coulombs per mole.

Coulombs

The coulomb is a measure of the quantity of electricity. If a current of 1 amp

flows for 1 second, then 1 coulomb of electricity has passed.

Number of coulombs = current in amps x time in seconds

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Tarascon, J., & Simon, P. (2015). Electrochemical energy storage. Retrieved fro
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2132018649/D8185272A75A44EFPQ/1
?accountid=31259 Chapters 1-4 pp 21-60
Bartlett, P. N., Alkire, R. C., & Lipkowski, J. (Eds.). (2015). Electrochemical
engineering across scales : From molecules to processes. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131322736/42A62F7DC1DC4BCFPQ/
1?accountid=31259 Chapter 1 The Role of Electrochemical Engineering in
Our Energy Future pp 1-6
Godula-Jopek, A. (2015). Hydrogen production : By electrolysis. Retrieved fro
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131903260/3A2EDBCE496046F0PQ/1
?accountid=31259 Chapters 1-2 pp 1-62
Monconduit, L., Croguennec, L., Dedryvère, R., & Dedryvère, R. (2015). Electrodes
for li-ion batteries : Materials, mechanisms and performance. Retrieved fro
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131323576/B3D966F62C804B96PQ/1
?accountid=31259 Chapters 1-2 pp 1-62
Brousse, T., Simon, P., & Favier, É. (2017). Supercapacitors based on carbon or
pseudocapacitive materials. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2134677130/AB6D466D35684FBDPQ/1
?accountid=31259 Chapters 1-2 pp 23-60

Let’s Check

1. In an electrolytic cell the electrode at which the electrons enter the solution is
called the ______ ; the chemical change that occurs at this electrode is called
_______.
2. In an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is converted into ________ energy.
3. Where does oxidation and reduction occur in this galvanic cell?

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4. An electrochemical cell may be defined as a device which is used to convert

chemical energy into ________.
5. _______ function by the same principle: two materials that oxidize and reduce
each other are corrected by s medium through which ions travel to balance an
external flow of electrons.
6. In electrochemical cells, electrons are lost at the _______ and gained by the
_________.

Let’s Analyze

1. How does an electrolytic cell differ from a galvanic cell?

2. What kind of chemical reactions spontaneously takes place in electrochemical
cells?
3. What kind of chemical reactions spontaneously takes place in electrochemical
cells?
4. What is the function of a salt bridge in an electrochemical cell? What would
happen if the salt bridge were removed?
5. How does doubling the size of an electrochemical cell (while keeping the
concentration of all species the same) affect the current produced and the cell
voltage?

In a Nutshell

1. The deteriorating iron framework inside the Statue of Liberty was replaced
with stainless steel as part of a major restoration project. The work was
finished in 1986, exactly one hundred years after the statue was first
completed. To avoid any electrochemical contact between the metals, the new
stainless steel frame and the external copper plates covering the statue were
separated using Teflon spacers. The original statue was constructed using
asbestos pads as insulating spacers. Apparently, the pads were still able to
act as a conductor (in conjunction with moisture and gases from the
atmosphere). Why was the iron framework on the interior of the statue most in
need of repair and not the copper plating exposed to the atmosphere on the

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exterior of the statue?

2. Why can a solid copper penny be dissolved in nitric acid, but not in
hydrochloric acid? Modern pennies are made from zinc metal plated with
copper. What happens to a modern penny when it is placed inside a bath of
hydrochloric acid after the penny is scratched, exposing some of the zinc?

Keywords Index

Anode Battery Cathode Corrosion

Electrochemistry Electrode Electrolysis Electrolyte
Fuel cell Oxidation Redox Reduction
Salt bridge Voltaic cell

References

Bhattacharyya, (2015). www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemistry

Brett, (2014). www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemistry

Helmenstine, (2017). How to Balance Redox Reactions

Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/balance-redox-reactions-607569

Helmenstine, (2018) Oxidation Reduction Reactions - Redox Reactions

https://www.thoughtco.com/oxidation-reduction-reactions-604037

Helmenstine, (2018). Galvanic Cell Definition (Voltaic Cell). Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/galvanic-cell-definition-604080

Gregersen, (2009). https://www.britannica.com/science/oxidation-reduction-

reaction/Historical-origins-of-the-redox-concept

Shorb,(2017) Retrieved from

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplement
al_
Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Basics_of_Electrochemistry

Singh & Gho, (2018). Voltaic Cells. Retrieved from

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplement
al_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Voltaic_Cells

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Petrucci, Harwood, Herring, and Madura. (2007) General Chemistry: Principles and
Modern Applications. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Education.

Zhumdal, (2007) Chemistry. 7th ed. Boston, New Jersey: Massachusetts Houghton
Miffle

Anderson, S.T. (2017). Thermodynamics: Comparing Strengths of Oxidants and

Reductants. Retrieved from www.chemisfun//dealingthermodynamics.com

Smith, A. D. (2018). Chemical Thermodynamics: Free Energy and the Equilibrium

Constant, Retrieved from www.chemlibretexts.com

Petrucci, Ralph H. (2007) General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications

9th Ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.

Zumdahl, Steven S. (2007). Chemistry, 9th Ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Tanis, David O. (1990). "Galvanic cells and the standard reduction potential table
(F&R)." J. Chem. Educ. Pp. 67, 602.

Alarco, J., and Talbot, P (2015). The history and development of batteries. Retrieved
from: https://phys.org/news/2015-04-history-batteries.html. Date Retrieved:
September 23, 2018.

Brown, LeMay, Murphy, et al. (2018). Chemistry: The Central Science. Retrieved
from:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Che
mistry__The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/20%3A_Electrochemistry/20.7
%3A_Batteries_and_Fuel_Cells. Date retrieved: September 23, 2018.

Harcourt, H.M. (2010). Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 4th Edition.
Copyright.
Retrieved from: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/electrode-
. Date retrieved: September 23, 2018.

OpenStax (2016). Chemistry. Retrieved from: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/. Date

retrieved: September 23,2018.

Nair, S (2017). A Wikipedian writing Chemistry based articles on Wikipedia. Retrieved

from: Updated Oct 23, 2017 https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-ways-to-
prevent-rusting-of-iron. Date retrieved: September 23,2018.

Nimmo, N., and Hinds, G. (2003). Beginners Guide to Corrosion. Retrieved from:
http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/beginners_guide_to_corrosion.pdf.Date
retrieved: September 23,2018.

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. explain the concept of nuclear

energy

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of nuclear energy to demonstrate ULOc will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.

Background radiation you are exposed to from natural sources

radiation
Binding energy the minimum energy required to disassemble a system of particles into
separate parts.
Carbon dating a method for determining the age of an object containing organic
material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope
of carbon.
Critical mass minimum amount of fissionable isotope needed to sustain the chain
reaction
Dosimeter a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation. It is
worn by the person being monitored when used as a
personal dosimeter, and is a record of the radiation dose received.
Electron a subatomic particle, symbol e − or β − , whose electric charge is
negative one elementary charge.
Electroscope an early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of electric
charge on a body. It detects charge by the movement of a test object
due to the Coulomb electrostatic force on it.
Fission a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus
of an atom splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei.
Fusion a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form
one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. The
difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested
as either the release or absorption of energy.
Geiger counter an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.
Also known as a Geiger–Muller counter (or Geiger–Müller counter), it is
widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological
protection, experimental physics, and the nuclear industry.
Half-life the time required to convert one half of a reactant to product or a
radioactive sample to decay.
Isotope are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron
number, and consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given
element have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons in each atom.

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Mass defect the difference between the mass of an isotope and its mass number.
Neutron a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without
an electric charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary
hydrogen.
Nucleon either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a component of
an atomic nucleus
Nuclide nucleus of an isotope
Positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the
electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1 e, a spin of 1/2 (the
same as the electron), and has the same mass as an electron. When
a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs.
Proton a subatomic particle, symbol p or p⁺ , with a positive electric charge of
+1e elementary charge and a mass slightly less than that of a neutron
Radioactivity the emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the
spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.
Scintillation an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using
counter the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and
detecting the resultant light pulses.
Transmutation the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another
chemical element.

Essential Knowledge

Nuclear chemistry

Nuclear chemistry is the study of the chemical and physical properties of

elements as influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus and is
associated with nuclear reactions and isotopes (Helmenstine, A.M., 2018). Moreover,
according to Loveland, Morrissey, & Seaborg (2006), nuclear chemistry is a branch of
chemistry that studies the chemical and physical properties of the heaviest elements,
recognition of radioactive decay is an important part of work. Nuclear chemistry has
ties to all branches of chemistry. The continuation of nuclear chemistry focuses on the
elements involved in synthesis of new elements and transuranium elements. It also
focuses on the relationship and calculation of binding energy and mass defect.

Nuclear reaction is a change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic

nucleus that results when it is bombarded with an energetic particle, as in fission,
fusion, or radioactive decay while Isotopes are each of two or more forms of the same
element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in
their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in
particular, a radioactive form of an element. (Nuclear reaction and Isotope, n.d.)

In a nuclear reaction Fission means an atom splits into two parts, either
through natural decay or when instigated within a lab, it releases energy and Fusion

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occurs when two light atoms bond together, or fuse, to make a heavier one. The total
mass of the new atom is less than that of the two that formed it; the "missing" mass is
given off as energy, as described by Albert Einstein's famous "E=mc2" equation (Redd
N.T., 2012).

In addition, according to Helmenstine, A.M., 2018, Transmutation means "to

change from one form into another" or to transmute is to change from one form or
substance into another; to transform or convert.

Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles

or high energy photons resulting from a nuclear reaction or decomposition of a nucleus
to form a different nucleus. With this decomposition is the introduction of half-life
which means the time required to convert one half of a reactant to product or a
radioactive sample to decay. The term is commonly applied to radioactive decay,
where the reactant is the parent isotope and the product is a daughter isotope
(Helmenstine, A.M., 2018).

Radioactive Elements

An element is subject to spontaneous degeneration of its nucleus accompanied

by the emission of alpha-particles, beta-particles, or gamma rays. All elements with
atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive (Radioactive Element, n.d.).

This is a list or table of elements that are radioactive and contains the elements
that have no stable isotopes. Each element is followed by the most stable known
isotope and its half-life. This list is sorted by increasing atomic number (Helmenstine,
T., 2017).

Element Most Stable Isotope Half-life

of Most Stable Istope
Technetium Tc-91 4.21 x 106 years
Promethium Pm-145 17.4 years
Polonium Po-209 102 years
Astatine At-210 8.1 hours
Radon Rn-222 3.82 days
Francium Fr-223 22 minutes
Radium Ra-226 1600 years
Actinium Ac-227 21.77 years
Thorium Th-229 7.54 x 104 years
Protactinium Pa-231 3.28 x 104 years
Uranium U-236 2.34 x 107 years
Neptunium Np-237 2.14 x 106 years

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Plutonium Pu-244 8.00 x 107 years

Americium Am-243 7370 years
Curium Cm-247 1.56 x 107 years
Berkelium Bk-247 1380 years
Californium Cf-251 898 years
Einsteinium Es-252 471.7 days
Fermium Fm-257 100.5 days
Mendelevium Md-258 51.5 days
Nobelium No-259 58 minutes
Lawrencium Lr-262 4 hours
Rutherfordium Rf-265 13 hours
Dubnium Db-268 32 hours
Seaborgium Sg-271 2.4 minutes
Bohrium Bh-267 17 seconds
Hassium Hs-269 9.7 seconds
Meitnerium Mt-276 0.72 seconds
Darmstadtium Ds-281 11.1 seconds
Roentgenium Rg-281 26 seconds
Copernicium Cn-285 29 seconds
Nihonium Nh-284 0.48 seconds
Flerovium Fl-289 2.65 seconds
Moscovium Mc-289 87 milliseconds
Livermorium Lv-293 61 milliseconds
Tennessine Unknown
Oganesson Og-294 1.8 milliseconds

Reference: International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)

Radioactive Decay

Occurs when an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiation and
when a nucleus has a higher energy level than a potentially more stable version
(Nuclear-Power., 2018). Typically this difference in energy released is what is called
ionizing radiation which means radiation with enough energy so that during an
interaction with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an
atom, causing the atom to become charged or ionized (WHO, 2018).

Types of Radioactive Decay Emissions

There are three types of radioactive decay each named for exactly what is
released from the nucleus as it decays. First is Alpha Decay which is the spontaneous
radioactive decay where an alpha particle is produced. An alpha particle is essentially
a helium nucleus of two protons and two neutrons. Although alpha decay presents a
significant radiation risk if the radioactive source is inhaled or ingested, alpha particles

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are too large to penetrate very far through the skin or other solids and require minimal
radiation shielding and have relatively low energy. A sheet of paper, for example,
blocks alpha particles. General equation: “α particle=helium-4 nucleus=42 He”
(Helmenstine, A.M., 2018).

Second is Beta Decay which refers to the spontaneous radioactive decay

where a beta particle is produced. Essentially there are two types of beta decay where
the beta particle is either an electron or a positron. An electron is a negatively charged
particle of an atom while a positron or anti-electron is the antimatter counterpart to an
electron. A positron has the same mass as an electron and a spin of 1/2, but it has an
electrical charge of +1. When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs
which results in the production of two or more gamma ray photons. General equation:
“β particle=electron=0 -1e”(Helmenstine, A.M., 2017).

Beta Decay / Negatron Emission

Nuclides can be radioactive and undergo nuclear decay for many reasons. Beta
decay can occur in nuclei that are rich in neutrons that are the nuclide contains more
neutrons than stable isotopes of the same element. These "proton deficient" nuclides
can sometimes be identified simply by noticing that their mass number A (the sum of
neutrons and protons in the nucleus) is significantly more than twice that of the atomic
number Z (number of protons in nucleus). In order to regain some stability, such a
nucleus can decay by converting one of its extra neutrons into a proton, emitting an
electron and an antineutrino (ν). The high energy electron emitted in this reaction is
called a beta particle and is represented by (o-1e-) in nuclear equations. Lighter atoms
(Z < 60) are the most likely to undergo beta decay. The decay of a neutron to a proton,
a beta particle, and an antineutrino (v) is 10n0 → 10p++0-1e-+v (Nuclear Decay
Pathways, 2018).

Beta Decay / Positron Emission

Nuclides that are imbalanced in their ratio of protons to neutrons undergo decay
to correct the imbalance. Nuclei that are rich in protons relative to their number of
neutrons can decay by conversion of a proton to a neutron, emitting a positron (01e+)
and a neutrino (νe). Positrons are the antiparticles of electrons; therefore a positron
has the same mass as an electron but with the opposite (positive) charge. In positron
emission, the atomic number Z decreases by 1 while the mass number A remains the
same (Nuclear Decay Pathways, 2018).

Lastly is the Gamma decay is one type of radioactive decay that a nucleus can
undergo. The difference of this type of decay process from alpha or beta decay is that
no particles are ejected from the nucleus when it undergoes this type of decay.
Instead, a high energy form of electromagnetic radiation gamma ray photon is
released. Gamma rays are simply photons that have extremely high energies which
are highly ionizing. As well, gamma radiation is unique in the sense that undergoing
gamma decay does not change the structure or composition of the atom. Instead, it

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only changes the energy of the atom since the gamma ray carries no charge nor does
it have an associated mass. General equation: “γ=high frequency electromagnetic
energy=0 0γ” (US EPA, 2015).

This form of radiation if often released when electrons transition from an

unstable Excited State; is an energy level of an electron that is higher and less stable
than other levels; to state of nucleus that has reached stability which is the Ground
Sate; lowest, most stable energy level of an electron. General equation: A* → A+γ
(EDP Sciences, n.d.)

But there is one more type of radioactive decay and that is Spontaneous
Fission; is a form of radioactive decay where an atom's nucleus splits into two smaller
nuclei and generally one or more neutrons without any outside help. Spontaneous
fission generally occurs in atoms with atomic numbers above 90 (Helmenstine, A.M.,

2016).

Source: EDP Sciences, n.d.

Nuclear stability

Is a concept that helps to identify the stability of an isotope. The two main
factors that determine nuclear stability are the neutron/proton ratio and the total
number of nucleons in the nucleus. The principal factor for determining whether a
nucleus is stable is the neutron to proton ratio. Elements with (Z<20) are lighter and
these elements' nuclei and have a ratio of 1:1 and prefer to have the same amount of
protons and neutrons (Nuclear Magic Numbers, 2018). A nucleon is the collective
term for protons and neutrons. Nucleons are the particles found in the nucleus of
atoms (Bethel A. et. al., 2018).

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Synthesis of New Elements

From terrestrial rocks and mineral, scientist have been looking for traces of
unknown substances; in the process chemical elements were discovered. But they
stopped looking for unknown substances and instead they began synthesizing new
elements in laboratories. (“Ungson”, 2016).

List of all synthesized elements:

Element Symbol At. No.

Technetium Tc 43
Promethium Pm 61
Astatine At 85
Francium Fr 87
Neptunium Np 93
Plutonium Pu 94
Americium Am 95
Curium Cm 96
Berkelium Bk 97
Californium Cf 98
Einsteinium Es 99
Fermium Fm 100
Mendelevium Md 101
Nobelium No 102
Lawrencium Lr 103
Rutherfordium Rf 104
Dubnium Db 105
Seaborgium Sg 106
Bohrium Bh 107
Hassium Hs 108
Meitnerium Mt 109

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Darmstadtium Ds 110
Roentgenium Rg 111
Copernicium Cn 112
Ununtrium Uut 114
Ununpentium Uup 115
Ununseptium Uus 117
Ununoctium Uuo 118

Transuranium Elements

Any chemical element with atomic numbers greater than 92 and lies beyond
uranium in the periodic table are transuranium elements. Twenty-six of these elements
was discovered and named while some are waiting for confirmation of their discovery.
(“Seaborg”, 2016).

List of transuranium elements

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Binding Energy and Mass Defect

The difference in mass between an atom and the sum of the masses of the
protons, neutrons, and electrons of the atom is called mass defect. (“Helmenstine”,
2017). The energy required to break down a nucleus into its component protons and
neutrons is called the nuclear binding energy. “This represents the conversion of mass
and energy that occurs during an exothermic nuclear reaction.” (“Burdge”, 2017,
section 20.2). Einstein’s formula, E = mc2, may be applied to calculate the binding
energy of a nucleus. (“Helmenstine”, 2017).

Rate of Radioactive Decay

Another approach to describing reaction rates is based on the time required for the
concentration of a reactant to decrease to one-half its initial value. This period of time
is called the half-life of the reaction, written as t1/2. Thus the half-life of a reaction is
the time required for the reactant concentration to decrease from N0 to (1/2)N0. If two
reactions have the same order, the faster reaction will have a shorter half-life, and the
slower reaction will have a longer half-life.

The half-life of a first-order reaction under a given set of reaction conditions is a

constant. This is not true for zeroth- and second-order reactions. The half-life of a first-
order reaction is independent of the concentration of the reactants. This becomes
evident when we rearrange the integrated rate law for a first-order reaction to produce
the following equation:

𝑁 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ln = −𝑘𝑡 = ln
𝑁 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Substituting (1/2)N0 for Nt and t1/2 for t (to indicate a half-life), the equation becomes

1
𝑁
ln 2 = −𝑘𝑡 /
𝑁

0.693
𝑡 / =
𝑘

Example 1: If you have a 1.35 mg sample of Pu–236, calculate the mass that will
remain after 5.00 years. Half-life of Pu-236 is 2.86 yrs.

Given: mass Pu-236=1.35 mg; t=5 yrs; t1/2=2.86 yrs

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Required: mass remaining=?

Solution:

0.693
𝑡 / =
𝑘

0.693
𝑘=
𝑡/

0.693
𝑘=
2.86 𝑦𝑟𝑠

𝑘 = 0.2423/𝑦𝑟

𝑁
ln = −𝑘𝑡
𝑁

𝑁 =𝑁 𝑒

.
( )
𝑁 = (1.35 𝑚𝑔)𝑒

𝑵𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒈

Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a
technique which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace
radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The
method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope within
the material to the abundance of its decay products, which form at a known constant
rate of decay. The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by Bertram
Boltwood and is now the principal source of information about the absolute age of
rocks and other geological features, including the age of fossilized life forms or the age
of the Earth itself, and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made
materials.
Together with stratigraphic principles, radiometric dating methods are used
in geochronology to establish the geologic time scale.[3] Among the best-known
techniques are radiocarbon dating, potassium–argon dating and uranium–lead dating.
By allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant source
of information about the ages of fossils and the deduced rates of evolutionary change.

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Radiometric dating is also used to date archaeological materials, including ancient

artifacts.
Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are
accurate and the materials to which they can be applied.
Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, method of age
determination that depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon-
14). Carbon-14 is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with
nitrogen-14 in the Earth’s atmosphere; the neutrons required for this reaction are
produced by cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.
Radiocarbon present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide enters the
biological carbon cycle: it is absorbed from the air by green plants and then passed on
to animals through the food chain. Radiocarbon decays slowly in a living organism,
and the amount lost is continually replenished as long as the organism takes in air or
food. Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to absorb carbon-14, so that the
amount of the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily decreases. Carbon-14 has a half-life
of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the radioisotope present at any given time
will undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years. Because
carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism
died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.
The carbon-14 method was developed by the American physicist Willard F.
Libby about 1946. It has proved to be a versatile technique of dating fossils and
archaeological specimens from 500 to 50,000 years old. The method is widely used
by Pleistocene geologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, and investigators in related
fields.
Example 2: An ancient skull gives 4.50 dis/min∙g C. If a living organism gives 15.3
dis/min∙g C, how old is the skull?

Given: ratet=4.50 dis/min∙g C; rate0=15.3 dis/min∙g C

Required: Age of skull, t=?

Solution:

0.693
𝑡 / =
𝑘

0.693
𝑘=
𝑡/

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0.693
𝑘=
5730 𝑦𝑟𝑠

𝑘 = 1.209𝑥10 /𝑦𝑟

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ln = −𝑘𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ln 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑡=−
𝑘

4.50 dis/min ∙ g C
ln
15.3 dis/min ∙ g C
𝑡=−
1.209𝑥10−4 /𝑦𝑟

𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒚𝒓𝒔

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

IAEA (2017). Industrial applications of nuclear energy. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2148821720/1E8596B4783749D6PQ/1?
accountid=31259 Chapters 1-4 pp 1-35

Let’s Check

1. How can you harness energy from a nuclear power plant?

2. Differentiate fission from fusion.
3. What is the difference between nuclear reaction and chemical reaction?

Let’s Analyze

1. If gallium – 68 has a half-life of 68.3 minutes, how much of a 160.0 mg sample

is left after 1 half life? 2 half lives? 3 half lives?
2. Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-
life of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2.000 mg sample will remain after
133.5 days?
3. The anticancer drug cis-platin hydrolyzes in water with a rate constant of 1.5 ×
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10−3 min−1 at pH 7.0 and 25°C. Calculate the half-life for the hydrolysis reaction
under these conditions. If a freshly prepared solution of cis-platin has a
concentration of 0.053 M, what will be the concentration of cis-platin after 5 half-
lives? after 10 half-lives?
4. Ethyl chloride decomposes to ethylene and HCl in a first-order reaction that has
a rate constant of 1.6 × 10−6 s−1 at 650°C. What is the half-life for the reaction
under these conditions? If a flask that originally contains 0.077 M ethyl chloride
is heated at 650°C, what is the concentration of ethyl chloride after 4 half-lives?
5. In 1990, the remains of an apparently prehistoric man were found in a melting
glacier in the Italian Alps. Analysis of the 14C content of samples of wood from
his tools gave a decay rate of 8.0 dpm/g carbon. How long ago did the man
die?
6. It is believed that humans first arrived in the Western Hemisphere during the
last Ice Age, presumably by traveling over an exposed land bridge between
Siberia and Alaska. Archaeologists have estimated that this occurred about
11,000 yr ago, but some argue that recent discoveries in several sites in North
and South America suggest a much earlier arrival. Analysis of a sample of
charcoal from a fire in one such site gave a 14C decay rate of 0.4 dpm/g of
carbon. What is the approximate age of the sample?

In a Nutshell

1. Bataan Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant, completed but never
fueled, on Bataan Peninsula. It was the Philippines' only attempt at building a
nuclear power plant. It was mothballed due to safety concerns in the wake of
the 1986 Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant disaster in the former Soviet Ukraine
and issues regarding corruption. In 2019, the Department of National Defense
and Philippine Nuclear Research Institute expressed its support for the revival
of the nuclear power plant. Despite never having been commissioned, are you
in favor of setting a nuclear plant to operation in the country?
2. Is using nuclear power really the answer to clean, environmentally friendly
energy?

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3. What kind of resources does nuclear energy require? With this in mind, is it
worth the effort and the investment to acquire nuclear energy?
4. Are the impacts of the Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Three Mile Island
(Pennsylvania) nuclear accidents still relevant today? If so, how?
5. How likely is it that accidents like those in Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and
Fukushima will happen again?
6. In case a nuclear disaster happens, what suggestions can you give to protect
ourselves from the invisible bullet?

Keywords Index

Background Binding energy Carbon dating Critical mass

radiation
Dosimeter Electron Electroscope Fission
Fusion Geiger counter Half-life Isotope
Mass defect Neutron Nucleon Nuclide
Positron Proton Radioactivity Scintillation
counter
Transmutation

References

Bethel A., Kailyn S., Karen S., Jason D. (2018). Nucleon. Retrieved September 28,
2018, from EnergyEducation:https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/

EDP Sciences. (n.d.). Retrieved September 27, 2018, from Radiactivity:

http://www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Nuclear_Desexcitations.htm

European Nuclear Society. (2018). Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

euronuclear:
https://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/bindingenergy.htm

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2016). Spontaneous Fission Definition. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-spontaneous-fission-605681

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2017). Positron Definition. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-positron-605913

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2017). Transmutation Definition and Examples. Retrieved

from https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-transmutation-and-examples-
604672

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Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Branches of Chemistry. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/branches-of-chemistry-603910

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Definition of Alpha Decay. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-alpha-decay-604768

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Definition of Radioactivity. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-radioactivity-606338

Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Half-Life Definition. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-half-life-604523

Helmenstine, Todd. (2017). List of Radioactive Elements. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/list-of-radioactive-elements-608644

Isotope. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2018, from https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/isotopes

Nic M., Jirat J., Kosata B. (2006). IUPAC Gold Book. Retrieved September 28, 2018,
from Gold Book: http://goldbook.iupac.org

Nuclear Decay Pathways. (2018). Retrieved September 27, 2018, from Chemistry
LibraryTexts:https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Physical_and_Theore
tical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_The
oretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Radioactivity/Nuclear_Decay_Pathwa
ys

Nuclear Magic Numbers. (2018). Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

ChemistryLibraryTexts:https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Physical_a
nd_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physica
l_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Nuclear_Energetics_and_S
tability/Nuclear_Magic_Numbers

Nuclear reaction. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2018, from https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/nuclear reaction

Nuclear-Power. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-

power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/radioactive-decay/
nucleon

Radioactive Element. (n.d.) Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. (2009).

Retrieved September 27 2018 from
https://medicaldictionary.thefreedictionary.com/radioactive+element

Redd, N. T. (2012). What is Fission? Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

LiveScience: https://www.livescience.com/23394-fusion.html

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Redd, N. T. (2012). What is Fusion? Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

LiveScience: https://www.livescience.com/23394-fusion.html

US EPA. (2015). Retrieved from

http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/gamma.html#use

World Health Organization. (2018). Retrieved from WHO:

http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/about/what_is_ir/en/

Burdge, J. (2017). Chemistry (4th Ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

List of Transuranium Elements. Adapted from euronuclear.org. (NA).

https://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/t/transuranium-element.htm

Helmenstine, A. M. (2017, November 7). Mass Defect Definition in Physics and

Chemistry. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-mass
defect-605328

Loveland, W. D., Morrissey, D. J., & Seaborg, G. T. (2006). Modern Nuclear

Chemistry. United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Seaborg, G. T. (2016). Transuranium Element. In Encyclopaædia Britannica.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/transuranium-element

Ungson, O. B. (2016). Physical Science. Philippines: Trinitas Publishing Inc.

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Big Picture in Focus: ULOd. show understanding of the

concept of fuels

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the
study of fuels to demonstrate ULOd will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.

Anthracite the greater rank of coal. Its instable, moistness and ash contents are
very less. It is hard and most matured coal, it burns without smoke.
Ash a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of
coal
Asphalt a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined
product, and is classed as a pitch.
Autoignition the lowest temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in normal
temperature atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or
spark
Biofuel solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biofuel
can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished
rapidly e.g. plants.
Biomass plant or animal material used for energy production, or in various
industrial processes as raw substance for a range of products. It can
be purposely grown energy crops, wood or forest residues, waste from
food crops, horticulture, food processing, animal farming, or human
waste from sewage plants.
Bitumen One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It
is used for road making and making water-proofing roofs. It is the
liquid binder that holds asphalt together.
Bituminous coal further sub-classified on the source of its carbon content into three
categories as sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and semi-
bituminous coal. It is black, brittle, and burns with yellow smoky flame.
Cetane number the percentage of hexadecane present in a mixture of hexadecane
and 2-methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition lag as the fuel
under test
Charcoal shaped by slow heating of wood or other flammable substances in
the deficiency of oxygen.

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Cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax
in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance
Coal a highly carbonaceous substance that has been shaped as an
outcome of modification of vegetable substance (plants, etc.) under
firm favorable circumstances.
Cracking the decomposition of bigger hydrocarbon molecules into simpler, low
boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight
Diesel a high boiling portion obtained between 250 – 320 oC during fractional
purification of petroleum
Fire point the lowest temperature at which the vapor of that fuel will continue to
burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame
Fixed carbon the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off
Flash point the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed
over it
Fossil fuel hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural
gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and
animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of
oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years.
Fuel a combustible substance that containing carbon as a main constituent,
which on proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be
used economically for domestic and industrial purpose
Fuel oil the outcome after distilling off all the lighter fractions of petroleum
Gasoline a low boiling portion of petroleum attained between 40 – 120 oC. It is
used mainly as a fuel in interior combustion engines.
Kerosene a high boiling portion obtained between 180 -250 oC during fractional
purification of petroleum
Knocking a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise occurring in an Internal
combustion engine
Lignite an intermediate phase in the development of coal formation. Due to
the occurrence of high instable content, it burns with long steamy
flame.
Liquefied natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture
natural gas of ethane C2H6) that has been converted to liquid form for ease and
safety of non-pressurized storage or transport.
Liquefied is applied to certain specific hydrocarbons which can be liquefied
petroleum gas under moderate pressure at normal temperatures but are gaseous
under normal atmospheric conditions. The chief constituents of LPG
are propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and isobutane.
Lubricating oil One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It
is used as a lubricant.
Metallurgical a lustrous, dense, strong, porous and coherent mass left when
coke bituminous coal is heated strongly in absence of air
Natural gas a combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the earth’s crust and is
often found with accumulations of crude oil or coal
Octane number the percentage of iso-octane present in a mixture of iso-octane and n-
heptane

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Paraffin wax One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It
is used in boot polishes and candles.
Peat the first phase in the development of coal. It is a brown fibrous mass.
Petroleum a dark color viscous oil. Chemically, it is a combination of several
hydrocarbons with slight amounts of Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), and
Sulfur (S) compounds.
Pour point the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled under
prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
Specific gravity defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight
of the same volume of water at a given temperature
Volatile matter the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and
incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal
Viscosity a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow
Wood the hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or
branches of a tree or shrub, used for fuel or timber

Essential Knowledge

FUEL

Fuel is a combustible substance that containing carbon as a main constituent,

which on proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically
for domestic and industrial purpose (Shabudeen, 2014). Fossil fuel is the most
common fuel used. Fossil fuels are leftovers of plants and animals as an outcome of
decomposition. Since the rate of development of fossil fuels is extremely low, this fuel
source is considered nonrenewable. Fuels are classified into Primary (Natural) fuels,
and Secondary (Artificial) fuels. Primary fuels are found in nature. Secondary fuels are
derived from primary fuels. Both the primary and secondary fuels are divided into three
classes, solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.

During the process of combustion, the Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) of the fuel
syndicate with oxygen of air to form CO2 and HO2 correspondingly.

The combustion reaction can be explained as

C + O2 ---> CO2 + 94 kcals

2H2 + O2 ---> 2H2O + 68.5 kcals

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Figure 1. Classification of Fuels. Adopted From: Ryall, L. (n.d). Chemical Fuels

Definition.

SOLID FUELS (Primary Fuel)

Coal is a highly carbonaceous substance that has been shaped as an outcome

of modification of vegetable substance (plants, etc.) under firm favorable
circumstances. Coal is composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) as
well as non-combustible inanimate substance.

Wood → Peat → Lignite → Sub-bituminous coal → Bituminous

coal → Anthracite

Classification of Coal

1. Peat is the first phase in the development of coal. It is a brown fibrous mass.
Highly fibrous light brown in color. It is used as native fuel and power
generation. It is an uneconomic fuel due to its high amount of (80 - 90%)
humidity and lower calorific value.
2. Lignite is an intermediate phase in the development of coal formation. Due to
the occurrence of high instable content, it burns with long steamy flame. It is
also fibrous, brown colored coal. It is used to produce electricity.
3. Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the source of its carbon content into
three categories as sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and semi-bituminous
coal. It is black, brittle, and burns with yellow smoky flame. It is used as a power
generation, coke making, and domestic fuel.
4. Anthracite is the greater rank of coal. Its instable, moistness and ash contents
are very less. It is hard and most matured coal, it burns without smoke. It is
used a domestic fuel in either hand-fired stoves or automatic stoker furnaces.

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Analysis of Coal

Proximate Analysis includes the resolve of volatile matter, moisture, fixed

carbon and ash. It is valuable in determining its use for a specific manufacturing usage.

 Moisture - Air dried coal sample is heated in silica crucible at 100 to 105
°C for one hour. Smaller the moisture content, healthier is the worth of
coal as a fuel.
 Volatile Matter - After the examination of humidity content the crucible
with remaining coal sample is covered with a lid, and it is heated at 950
± 20 °C for 7.0 minutes in a muffle heater. Smaller the volatile matter,
healthier is the rank of coal.
 Ash - After the examination of volatile matter the crucible with remaining
coal sample is heated without lid at 700 ± 50 °C for 30 minutes in a muffle
heater.
 Fixed Carbon - It is determined by deducting the amount of overall
moisture, volatile and ash contents from 100. Greater the measurement
of fixed carbon, better is its calorific value and healthier is the worth of
coal.

Ultimate Analysis means finding out the bulk percentage of carbon and
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur of the pure coal free from humidity and
nonliving constituents.

 Carbon & Hydrogen – Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) in coal directly
contribute towards the calorific value of the coal. Higher the proportion
of Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H), better is the quality of the coal and
higher is its calorific value.
 Nitrogen - Since it is usually existing in small extents, its occurrence is
not of much importance. A good quality of coal should have very little
nitrogen content.
 Oxygen - As the oxygen content increases its moisture holding capacity
increases and the calorific value of the fuel is required.
 Sulphur - Though sulphur increases the calorific value, its occurrence in
coal is disagreeable because the ignition products of sulphur, i.e., SO2
and SO3 are unsafe and have corrosion effects on equipment.

Miscellaneous or Modified Analysis means finding out the material percentage

of calorific value, fusibility of coal ash, forms of sulfur in coal, mineral carbon dioxide,
and plasticity of coal.

 Calorific Value – The elements of coal whose ignition accounts for the
calorific value of coal are the carbon and hydrogen of the carbon-based
material and both organic and pyritic sulfur.

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 Fusibility of Coal Ash – As labelled in the discussion of ash, the ash of

coal and coke is the noncombustible filtrate that residues once all the
flammable material has been uninvolved by burning.
 Forms of Sulfur in Coal – The quantity of sulfate sulfur is typically very
low in fresh coals, but it may be noticeably higher in weather-beaten
coals.
 Mineral Carbon Dioxide – The fraction of inorganic carbon dioxide in
most Illinois coals is less that 1%, but in a few coals the quantity may be
advanced.
 Plasticity of Coal – Plasticity of coal is its propensity to fuse or unstiffen
and develop more or less fluid when heated. The chemical nature of the
elements that account for coal’s plastic properties is not recognized.

Carbonisation of Coal

1. Caking of Coal – When coal is heated sturdily, the form develops soft and
comprehensible, then it is called caking of coal.
2. Coking of Coal – When the coal is heated and if the mass produced is hard,
porous and strong then it is called coking of coal.

SOLID FUELS (Secondary Fuel)

Metallurgical Coke - When bituminous coal is heated strongly in absence of

air, the volatile matter escapes out and a lustrous, dense, strong, porous and
coherent mass is left, which is called metallurgical coke. The most important industrial
use of coke is in the metallurgical industry, especially in the blast furnace (Shabudeen,
2014). Coke is mostly used to make iron, which, in turn, is used as the core element
of steel.

Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke

1. Beehive Coke Oven Process

2. Otto Hoffman’s by-product method

Charcoal - is shaped by slow heating of wood or other flammable substances in

the deficiency of oxygen. Charcoal is mostly unpolluted carbon, called char, made by
cooking wood in a low oxygen surroundings, a procedure that can take days and burns
off volatile composites such as water, methane, hydrogen, and tar.

LIQUID FUELS (Primary Fuel)

Petroleum – According to Shabudeen (2014), petroleum is the important

primary liquid fuel. It is a dark color viscous oil. Petroleum are found deep in the earth's
crust. Chemically, it is a combination of several hydrocarbons with slight amounts of

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Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), and Sulfur (S) compounds. There are two types of drilling
out petroleum out of soil, the on-shore and off-shore drilling. On-shore drilling mentions
to drilling bottomless holes below the earth’s exterior while off-shore drilling states to
drilling beneath the seabed. These drilling approaches are used in order to remove
natural resources, typically oil and gas from the earth. While removing oil from
underneath the exterior of the ocean used to be far more problematic than the old-
style on-shore drilling method of making pits on land and drilling holes, off-shore
drilling has become easier through the advanced approaches that have textured such
as creating either fluctuating or secure platforms on the bed of the ocean to support
drilling.

Classification

1. Paraffin based oil - It is used as a corrosion prevention substance when applied

as a lubricant.
2. Asphalt Based oil - Comprises scented and alicyclic hydrocarbons.
3. Mixed base oil - Comprises advanced amount of aromatics and naphthenes.

Refining of Petroleum or Crude Oil

The procedure of eliminating impurities and separating out the oil into different
portions having different boiling points is known as refining of petroleum (Shabudeen,
2014).

Figure 2. Petroleum refining. Retrieved from: https://

www.chemhume.co.uk/ASCHEM/Unit%202/Ch9%20Alkanes/Alkanesc.htm

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LIQUID FUELS (Secondary Fuel)

1. Petrol or Gasoline is a low boiling portion of petroleum attained between 40

– 120 oC. It is used mainly as a fuel in interior combustion engines.
2. Kerosene is comparatively a high boiling portion obtained between 180 -250
oC during fractional purification of petroleum. Kerosene is widely used as a

supply of power in jet engines and is also usually used as a cooking and
igniting fuel.
3. Diesel is also a high boiling portion obtained between 250 – 320 oC during
fractional purification of petroleum. It is used as a diesel engine fuel.
4. Fuel Oil is the outcome after distilling off all the lighter fractions of petroleum.
There are two fractions that are obtained in the distillation of the fuel oil. First
one is the light fuel oil with a boiling point of 350 – 420 oC and heavy neutral
oil with 420-500 oC. It is widely used for heating and generating power in
small industrial applications.
5. Lubricating Oil, paraffin wax and bitumen are the products of deep vacuum
distillation of residual heavy oil. Lubricating oil is used as a lubricant, paraffin
wax is used in boot polishes and candles and bitumen is used for road
making and making water-proofing roofs.

Properties of Liquid Fuels

 Density. This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the
fuel at a reference temperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument
called hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations
and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.

 Specific gravity. This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of
oil to the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The
density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity
of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio, it has no units. The
measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.

 Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.

Viscosity depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature
increases. Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use
of fuel oil. It influences the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage
and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to
pump, hard to light the burner, and tough to operate.

 Flash point. The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel
can be heated so that the vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open
flame is passed over it.

 Autoignition temperature. The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a

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substance is the lowest temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in

normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or
spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed for
combustion.

 Fire point. The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapor
of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an
open flame. At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite
briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire.

 Pour point. The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will
pour or flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough
indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.

 Cloud point. In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature
below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance.
The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and
injectors in engines.

The next information were consolidated from the books Fuels and Fuel-
Additives by Hancsók, J., & Srivastava, S. P. (2014), and Fuel/Engine Interactions by
Kalghatgi, G. (2013).

Gaseous Fuels

Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary
conditions. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such
as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such gases
are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted and
distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption.
Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases
are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be
advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of
spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is possible for a fuel gas
to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion.
For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they may be detected
by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in current use is natural gas.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the earth’s crust
and is often found with accumulations of crude oil or coal. Natural gas termed dry has
less than 0.013 dm3/m3 (0.1 gal/1000 ft3) of gasoline. Above this amount, it is termed
wet.

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Natural gas consists of hydrocarbons with a very low boiling point. Methane is
the main constituent, with a boiling point of 119 K (-245 oF). Ethane, with a boiling point
of 184 K (-128 oF) may be present in amounts up to 10 percent; propane, with a boiling
point of 231 K (-44 oF), up to 3 percent. Butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane
may also be present.

Commodity natural gas is substantially free of sulfur compounds; the terms

sweet and sour are used to denote the absence or presence of H2S. Some wells,
however, deliver gas containing levels of hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds
(e.g., thiophenes, mercaptans, and organic sulfides) that must be removed before
transfer to commercial pipelines.

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some
mixture of ethane C2H6) that has been converted to liquid form for ease and safety of
non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural
gas in the gaseous state (at standard conditions for temperature and pressure). It
is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability after
vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia. The liquefaction process
involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and
heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is
then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to
approximately −162 °C (−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around 25 kPa
(4 psi).

Liquefied Petroleum Gas The term liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is applied to
certain specific hydrocarbons which can be liquefied under moderate pressure at
normal temperatures but are gaseous under normal atmospheric conditions. The chief
constituents of LPG are propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and isobutane. LPG
produced in the separation of heavier hydrocarbons from natural gas is mainly of the
paraffinic (saturated) series. LPG derived from oil refinery gas may contain varying
low amounts of olefinic (unsaturated) hydrocarbons.

LPG is widely used for domestic service, supplied either in tanks or by pipelines.
It is also used to augment natural gas deliveries on peak days and by some industries
as a standby fuel.

Other Gaseous Fuels

Hydrogen. Hydrogen is used extensively in the production of ammonia and chemicals,

in the refining of petroleum, in the hydrogenation of fats and oils, and as an oven
reducing atmosphere. It is also used as a fuel in industrial cutting and welding
operations. There are no resources of uncombined hydrogen as there are of the other
fuels. It is made industrially by the steam reforming of natural gas; as the byproduct of
industrial operations such as the thermal cracking of hydrocarbons; and, to a small
extent, by the electrolysis of water.

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Hydrogen is seen as the ultimate nonpolluting form of energy; when

electrochemically combined with oxygen in fuel cells, only water, heat, and electricity
are produced. Means for transforming the world’s fossil energy economy into a
hydrogen economy are being considered as a long-term option. Hydrogen can be
stored in gaseous, liquid, or solid forms; however, currently available technologies are
not suited to meet mass energy market needs. Technologies for economically
producing, storing, and utilizing hydrogen are being researched in the United States,
Europe, and Japan.

Acetylene. Acetylene is used primarily in operations requiring high flame temperature,

such as welding and metal cutting. To transport acetylene, it is dissolved in acetone
under pressure and drawn into small containers filled with porous material.

Miscellaneous Fuels. A variety of gases have very minor market shares. These
include reformed gas, oil gases, producer gas, blue water gas, carbureted water gas,
coal gas, and blast-furnace gas. The heating values of these gases range from 3.4 to
41 MJ/m3 (90 to 1100 Btu/ft3). They are produced by pyrolysis, the water gas reaction,
or as by-products of pig-iron production.

Hydrogen sulfide in manufactured gases may range from approximately 2.30

g/m3 (100 gr/100 ft3) in blue and carbureted water gas to several hundred grains in
coal- and coke-oven gases. Another important sulfur impurity is carbon disulfide, which
may be present in amounts varying from 0.007 to 0.07 percent by volume. Smaller
amounts of carbon oxysulfide, mercaptans, and thiophene may be found. However,
most of the impurities are removed during the purification process and either do not
exist in the finished product or are present in only trace amounts.

Biofuels

Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or
derived from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known
as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be
replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are
used for biofuel manufacture.

Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows

controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is
unknown which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early
species of Homo were present at the sites. As a fuel, wood has remained in use up
until the present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other
sources. Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg.

Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for
example Bioethanol and Biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about how
carbon efficient these fuels are.

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Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid

petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and
animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in
the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel
also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely
from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known
as mineral fuels.

Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum,
and natural gas. They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios
like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure
carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone,
associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from
the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's
crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by German
scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary

sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%,
amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the
world. Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and
others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%. World energy
consumption was growing about 2.3% per year.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years
to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made.
So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use
of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation
of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The
burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon
dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about
half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric
carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or
3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that
enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average
surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate
scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. Fuels are a source of energy.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:

Fekadu, M. W., Reshad, A. S., & Goud, V. V. (2018). Thermal degradation kinetics
study and thermal cracking of waste cooking oil for biofuel production. Journal of

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Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 131(3), 2157-2165.

doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10973-017-6760-z

Alshammari, Y. M. (2019). The energy transition in transport using alternative fuels:

Can new technologies achieve policy targets? OPEC Energy Review, 43(3),
301-326. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/opec.12158

Machac, J., Fries, J., PhD., Majer, M., Kovar, L., & Kolesar, M., PhD. (2019). Use Of
Hydrogen In Transport. Sofia: Surveying Geology & Mining Ecology
Management (SGEM). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2019/4.1/S17.071

Whiting, K., Carmona, L. G., Carrasco, A., & Sousa, T. (2017). Exergy replacement
cost of fossil fuels: Closing the carbon cycle. Energies, 10(7)
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10070979

Antoshkiv, O., Poojitganont, T., Jehring, L., & Berkholz, C. (2017). Main aspects of
kerosene and gaseous fuel ignition in aero-engine. The Aeronautical
Journal, 121(1246), 1779-1794. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aer.2017.113

Let’s Check

1. What are the products formed when a hydrocarbon burns in a plentiful supply
of oxygen?
2. How is oil formed?
3. How is crude oil extracted from the crust?
4. What is the difference between asphalt and bitumen?

Let’s Analyze

1. Why is propane stored in household tanks but natural gas is not?

2. What could a space ship do if it stopped because it ran out of fuel?
3. When fractions from crude oil are burned in air, new compounds are made.
These compounds can sometimes cause pollution. Describe how burning
fractions from crude oil can cause pollution. Name the compounds produced.
4. Burning fuels can sometimes cause the release of small solid particles
(particulates). It has been suggested that this can lead to global dimming. What
is global dimming?

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In a Nutshell

1. Is hydrogen a feasible replacement for fossil fuel to address future global

demand?
2. Which is more cost-efficient when cooking? Using electric stove or LPG?
Support your answer.

Keywords Index

Anthracite Ash Asphalt Autoignition

temperature
Biofuel Biomass Bitumen Bituminous coal
Cetane number Charcoal Cloud point Coal
Cracking Diesel Fire point Fixed carbon
Flash point Fossil fuel Fuel Fuel oil
Gasoline Kerosene Knocking Lignite
Liquefied natural Liquefied Lubricating oil Metallurgical coke
gas petroleum gas
Natural gas Octane number Paraffin wax Peat
Petroleum Pour point Specific gravity Volatile matter
Viscosity Wood

References

Entrance Consulting Services, Inc. (2003-2018) Onshore Versus Offshore Drilling.

Retrieved October 6, 2018, from
https://www.entranceconsulting.com/2013/10/23/onshore-versus-offshore-
drilling/

Rees, O. (1996) Chemistry, Uses, and Limitations of Coal Analyses. Urbana, Illinois:
Authority of State of Illinois, Ch. 127, IRS, Par. 58.25.

Ryall, L. (n.d). Chemical Fuels Definition. Retrieved September 18, 2018, from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3978141

Shabudeen, S. (2010, October) Fuels and Combustion CHAPTER – 4 FUELS AND

COMBUSTION 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Requirements of a Good Fuel.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265602602_Fuels_and_Combustion_
CHAPTER_4_FUELS_AND_COMBUSTION_41_Introduction_42_Requiremen
ts_of_a_Good_Fuel

Ungson, O., & Teope, F. (2016). Physical Science 11/12. Quezon City, Philippines:
Trinitas Publishing, Inc.

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Hancsók, J., & Srivastava, S. P. (2014). Fuels and fuel-additives. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com

Kalghatgi, G. (2013). Fuel/engine interactions. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com

Course Schedule

Activity Date Where to submit

Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities October 1, 2020 BlackBoard
Third Exam October 2, 2020 BlackBoard

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