College of Engineering Education

2nd Floor, B&E Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education
Civil Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCE 222 (Mechanics of Deformable Bodies)

Name of Teacher: Engr. Noroddin V. Melog
Author: Engr. Michelle A. Daarol

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

Page 1 of 49
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Course Outline: BCE 222 - (MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES)

Course Coordinator: Noroddin V. Melog, RCE

Email: [email protected]
Student Consultation: By appointment (thru SMS, email and LMS)
Mobile: 0916-5732-111
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Effectivity Date: May 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 90 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: CEE 117 (Statics of Rigid Bodies)
Co-requisite: CEE 118 (Dynamics of Rigid Bodies)
Credit: 5.0 units lecture
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 5-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery
with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 90 including the face-
to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions
shall include the summative assessment tasks (exams)
since this course is crucial in the licensure examination
for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall be
attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the name
of the course coordinator, date of submission and name
of the student. The document should be emailed to the
course coordinator. It is also expected that you already
paid your tuition and other fees before the submission
of the assessment task.

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.

Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by

Page 2 of 49
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index and
other reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the request.

Page 3 of 49
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account
which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal. Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: [email protected]
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the
course coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative assessment
tasks should still be in the service of achieving the
desired course learning outcomes.
Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
[email protected]
09055267834
Page 4 of 49
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
[email protected]
09562082442
082-2272902

GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
[email protected]
09212122846

Silvino P. Josol
[email protected]
09060757721

Library Contact LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
[email protected]
09513766681

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello future engineer! Welcome to this course BCE 222 - (Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies). By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a
civil engineer. Thus, by taking this subject, you will be equipped with the
necessary knowledge needed for all further structural subjects of Civil like
structural analysis and structural design. The application of Mechanics of
Deformable Bodies also includes other subjects like geotechnical engineering,
transportation engineering. You must be able to master this subject since this is
a basic subject for advanced civil engineering courses.

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1. Explain the concepts of stress and strain in relation to material

deformation caused by the applied loads.
CO 2. Compute stresses due to bending, shears, and torsion under plain and
combined loadings.
CO 3. Analyze statically determinate and indeterminate structures in relation to
the beam criteria in terms of shear, moment, and deflection.
CO 4. Determine the elastic stability of columns generally subdivided into three
types: Short, Long, and Intermediate columns.
Let ug begin!

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College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2. Develop a working knowledge and understanding

on concepts of strain and deformation of bars due to axial loadings and
temperature changes which includes stress – strain diagrams, deformations
on axially loaded bars, working stress and factor of safety, Generalized Hooke’s
Law, statically indeterminate problems, thermal stresses.

Metalanguage

These are the frequent terms that you may encounter as you go along the course:

These are the changes of a body caused by a normal load/force

Normal Strain, 𝜀 or
Axial strain
It is always computed by deformation over original length.
Axial The direction along the longitude of the body
Tensile testing is a destructive test process that provides
Tensile Test
information about the strength of the material.
The last point on the stress vs strain diagram where stress is still
proportional to strain.
Proportional Limit
or simply, the last point of the linear graph stress vs strain
diagram.
In a universal condition, stress is always proportional to strain.
Hooke’s Law
“As stress increases, so does the strain”
Modulus of Elasticity The coefficient of proportionality of Hooke’s Law.
Elastic Limit The stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic.
Point where we can locate the yield stress on the stress vs. strain
Yield Point
diagram.
The stress level where the material starts to strain plastically.

“Plastically” refers to the permanent distortion that occurs when

Yield stress
a material is subjected to tensile, compressive, bending, or torsion
stresses that exceed its yield strength and cause it to elongate,
compress, buckle, bend, or twist.
The highest stress attained by the material before the graph
Ultimate Stress
begins to slope down.
Rupture Stress This is the stress at which failure occurs, or the strain becomes 0.
Uniaxial Loading The application of load is only in one direction.
The ratio of strain between transverse direction and the strain
Poisson’s ratio
along the direction of the force.
Biaxial Loading The application of load is in two directions simultaneously.
Triaxial Loading The application of load is three-dimensional, simultaneously.
It is the ratio of the change in deformation to its original length
Shear strain
perpendicular to the axes of the member due to shear stress.
The unknown forces on the structure can be solved through the
Statically Determinate
three equilibrium equations sufficiently.
The unknown forces on the structure cannot be solved through
Statically the three equilibrium equations alone. These structures need to
Indeterminate determine other relationships to match the number of unknown
forces acting on it.

Page 6 of 49
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Compatibility Relationship of strains.

Equation
This is caused by the free expansion or contraction due to a
thermal deformation
change in temperature.
This is the stress developed due to the restriction of thermal
thermal stress
expansion or contraction of a body.

Essential Knowledge

Introduction to the subject matter:

The strength of a material is not only the only criterion that must be considered when
designing machine parts or structures. We now turn to deformation, the analysis of which is as
important as that of stress. Deformation, rather than stress, may be the controlling factor in the
design of a member.

Part 1: Normal (Axial) Strain

Normal Strain, 𝜺 refers to the quantification of changes of a body caused by a normal

load/force. The normal strain 𝜀 is defined as the deformation per unit length. Therefore, the
normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as the axial strain,

𝛿 𝐿 − 𝐿0
𝜀= =
𝐿0 𝐿0

where:
𝛿 = deformation (displacement)
𝐿 = final length
𝐿0 = initial length

Examples 1b-1. A pin-connected frame ABCD consists of three bars and a wire. After a
horizontal load 𝑃 is applied at joint 𝐵, joint C moves 10 mm to the right. Determine the normal
strain in the wire.

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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Solution:

Step 1: From the definition of normal strain, we must find the value of deformation and as well
as determine the original length and final length of the wire.

[Assumption: the bar members are rigid; hence their own deformation is not considered.]

Based from the figure:

For original length of wire, 𝐿𝐶𝐵 : √1.32 + 22 = 2.385 𝑚

For final length of wire, 𝐿𝐶𝐵 ′ ∶ √(1.3 + 0.01)2 + 22 = 2.391 𝑚

Thus: 𝛿 = 2.391 – 2.385 = 0.006 m

𝛿 0.006 m
𝜀= 𝐿𝐶𝐵
= 2.385 𝑚
= 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏𝟓𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ans.

Tension Test. To perform the tensile test, a specimen of the material is made into a standard
shape and size. Before testing, two small punch marks are placed along the length, located away
from the end of the specimen. In a tensile test, a specimen of the material is mounted in the
grips of a testing machine and subjected to a tensile loading, applied slowly and steadily or
statically at room temperature. The ends of the specimen may be of any geometric form to fit
the test machine in such a way that the load is axial.

Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s initial or original cross-sectional-area,

𝐴0 and the gage length 𝐿0 between punch marks. Often, when a metal bar is used in a tensile
test, it has an initial diameter 𝑑0 = 0.5 𝑖𝑛. and a gage length of 𝐿0 = 2.0 𝑖𝑛. A tensile-test machine

Page 8 of 49
College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

with automatic control and data processing systems is shown. The machine is designed to sense
the load and maintain a uniform stretching of the specimen until it breaks.

For further visualization of the test, visit the YouTube Video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM

During the test, continuous readings are taken of the applied load and the elongation of
the gage length. These data are then converted to stress and strain. The stress is obtained from
𝑃
𝜎 = 𝐴, where P is the load and A represents the original cross-sectional area, 𝐴0 of the specimen.
𝛿
The strain is computed from 𝜀 = , where 𝛿 is the elongation a dimensionless quantity.
𝐿
However, ‘‘units’’ such as in./in. or mm/mm are frequently used for normal strain.

After converting the data into stress and strain stress-strain diagram will be generated.

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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law. As seen on the figure, the stress-strain diagram is a straight
line from the origin O to a point called the proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation of
Hooke’s Law. Hooke’s Law states that from the beginning of the test up to proportional limit stress
is proportional to strain; that is,
𝜎𝛼𝜀

where the coefficient of the proportionality is 𝐸 (modulus of elasticity) also known as the
Young’s modulus.

Thus, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀

The units of 𝐸 are the same as the units of stress – that is, 𝑃𝑎 or psi. For steel 𝐸 = 29𝑥 106 psi
or 200 GPa.

Elastic Limit. As name implies, the stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic.

Yield Point. This is the point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal. The
corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or yield strength. To determine the yield stress,
use the offset - method. This method consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the
stress-strain curve; this line starts at a prescribed offset strain, usually 0.2% ((𝜀 = 0.002). The
intersection of this line with the stress-strain curve, shown in the figure, is called the yield stress
at 0.2% offset.

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Ultimate Stress. This is called the highest stress on the stress-strain curve.

Rupture Stress. This is the stress at which failure occurs.

• Nominal rupture strength – this is computed by dividing the load at rupture by the
original cross-sectional area or at “fracture”.
• True rupture strength – this is calculated using the reduced area of the cross-
section where the fracture occurred.

The difference between two is necking. As failure approaches, the material stretches very
rapidly, causing the cross-section to narrow, as shown.

Rupture Stress. This is the stress at which failure occurs.

Examples 1b-2. The following data were recorded during a tensile test of a 14.0 mm diameter
mild steel rod. The gage length was 50.0 mm.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties:

(a) proportional limit;

(b) modulus of elasticity;
(c) yield stress;
(d) ultimate stress; and
(e) nominal rupture stress

Load (N) Elongation (mm)

0 0
6310 0.010
12600 0.020
18800 0.030
25100 0.040
31300 0.050
37900 0.060
40100 0.163
41600 0.433

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46200 1.25
52400 2.50
58500 4.50
65400 7.50
69000 12.50
67800 15.50
65000 20.00
61500 Fracture

Solution:

Step 1: Convert the load into stress and elongation to strain.

𝐷 = 14 mm and 𝐿 = 50 mm

Load (N) Stress, 𝝈 Elongation Strain, 𝜀

(mm)
𝑷 [MPa] 𝜹
𝑷 𝜺=
𝑳
𝑨
0 0.00 0 0
6310 40.99 0.010 0.0002
12600 81.85 0.020 0.0004
18800 122.13 0.030 0.0006
25100 163.05 0.040 0.0008
31300 203.33 0.050 0.001
37900 246.20 0.060 0.0012
40100 260.49 0.163 0.00326
41600 270.24 0.433 0.00866
46200 300.12 1.25 0.025
52400 340.40 2.50 0.05
58500 380.02 4.50 0.09
65400 424.85 7.50 0.15
69000 448.23 12.50 0.25
67800 440.44 15.50 0.31
65000 422.25 20.00 0.4
61500 399.51 0 , “Fracture” 0

Step 2: Plot the stress (ordinate) vs. strain (abscissa) diagram.

Page 12 of 49
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Stress vs. Strain Diagram

500
450
400
350
300
Stress,

250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain

Step 3: Determine the parameters by looking at the graph.

(a) proportional limit;

The “last stress” of the straight – line, 𝝈𝑷𝑳 → 246.20 MPa

(b) modulus of elasticity;

𝜎 246.20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐸= 𝜀
= 0.0012
= 𝟐𝟎𝟓, 𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 MPa or 205. 17 GPa Ans.

(c) yield stress;

The next stress after the “last stress” of the straight – line,

𝝈𝒀 → 260.49 MPa Ans.

(d) ultimate stress;

The highest stress on the diagram, 𝝈𝑼 → 448.23 MPa Ans.

(e) nominal rupture stress;

The stress on the diagram right before fracture, 𝝈𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 → 399.51 MPa Ans.

Part 2: Working Stress and Factor of Safety

Working stress 𝝈𝒘 , also called the allowable stress. This is the maximum safe axial stress used
in design. In most designs, the working stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic range (the straight-line portion of
the stress-strain diagram). However, because the proportional limit is difficult to determine
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accurately, it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress 𝜎𝑦 or the ultimate
stress 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 , divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety. Thus,

𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕
𝝈𝒘 = OR 𝝈𝒘 =
𝑵 𝑵

𝜎𝑦 → yield stress is used for structural steel

𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 → ultimate stress is used for other materials

Example 1b-3. Two steel plates A and B are joined by one bolt carrying an axial load 𝑃. Find the
permissible value of 𝑃 that the joint will safely support if the maximum stress 𝜏 = 160 MPa
(shear), 𝜎𝑏 = 390 MPa in bearing and 𝜎𝑡 = 210 MPa in tension. Assume that the factor safety,
𝑁 = 1.5 is to be used.

Solution:

Step 1. Since factor of safety, 𝑁 is given, we can determine the allowable shear, bearing and
tension stress to be used in the design.

160 390 210

𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = ≅ 106. 67 MPa; 𝜎𝑏(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = ≅ 260 MPa; 𝜎𝑡(𝑎𝑙𝑙) = ≅ 140 MPa
1.5 1.5 1.5

Step 2. Determine the 𝑃 allowed using the computed allowable stresses:

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By shearing:
𝜋 𝑁
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) = 4
(12)2 𝑚𝑚2 (106.67) 𝑚𝑚2 = 12,064,09 N or 12.064 kN

By bearing:
𝑁
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝜎𝑏(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = 𝑑(𝑡𝑏 )(𝜎𝑏(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = (12)(10)𝑚𝑚2 (260) = 31,200 N or 31.2 kN
𝑚𝑚2

By tension in plates:
𝑁
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝜎𝑡(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = (𝑤 − 𝑑)(𝑡𝑏 )(𝜎𝑡(𝑎𝑙𝑙) ) = (60 − 12)(10)𝑚𝑚2 (140) 𝑚𝑚2 = 31,200 N or 31.2 kN

Step 3. By following the working stress design principle, determine the final P to be adopted.

𝑃 = 12.064 kN Ans.

Part 3: Relationship Between Normal Stress and Normal Strain

If the stress or strain in the bar is uniform,

𝑃 𝛿 𝜎
𝜎= ; 𝜀= and 𝐸=
𝐴 𝐿 𝜀

𝑃
( ) 𝑷𝑳
𝐴
𝐸= 𝛿 → 𝜹=
𝑨𝑬
𝐿
where:
𝛿 = deformation or displacement
𝑃 = normal or axial load
𝐿 = Length of the member
𝐴 = cross sectional area of the member
𝐸 = modulus of Elasticity of the member

In the case where the axial strain varies with the x-coordinate, the elongation of the bar can be
obtained by integration,
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𝐿𝜎 𝐿 𝑃
𝜀 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ; 𝜀 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Note that a positive (tensile) 𝑃 results in + 𝜹 (elongation); conversely, a negative P

(compression) gives - 𝜹 (shortening).

Example 1b-4. The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in the figure. What
is the general effect of the loads applied to the shaft? Take 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 106 psi.

Solution:

Step 1. Determine the net force acting on each bar segment:

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 2000 lb ; 𝑃𝐵𝐶 = - 4000 lb ; 𝑃𝐶𝐷 = 2000 lb

Step 2. Determine the area on each bar segment:

𝜋
𝐴𝐴𝐵 = (0.5)2 𝑖𝑛2 = 0.1963 𝑖𝑛2
4

𝜋
𝐴𝐵𝐶 = (0.75)2 𝑖𝑛2 = 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2
4
𝜋
𝐴𝐶𝐷 = (0.75)2 𝑖𝑛2 = 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2
4

Step 3. Convert the length of each bar segment per units used on the bar segment:

𝑙𝑏
Since the area is expressed in 𝑖𝑛2 and the Elasticity is in 𝑖𝑛2 , convert ft to in:

12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 5 𝑓𝑡 ( 1 𝑓𝑡 ) = 60 in
12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝐵𝐶 = 4 𝑓𝑡 ( 1 𝑓𝑡 ) = 48 in
12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝐶𝐷 = 4 𝑓𝑡 ( 1 𝑓𝑡 ) = 48 in

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Step 3. Determine the accumulated deformation in the bar:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿= ∑
𝐴𝐸
𝑃𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐵𝐶 𝐿𝐵𝐶 𝑃𝐶𝐷 𝐿𝐶𝐷
𝛿= + +
𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐸𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝐸𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶𝐷 𝐸𝐶𝐷

(2000 𝑖𝑛) (60 𝑖𝑛) (−4000 𝑖𝑛) (48 𝑖𝑛) (2000 𝑖𝑛) (48 𝑖𝑛)
𝛿= + +
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
( 0.1963 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 ) ( 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 ) ( 0.4418 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 )
𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑛2

𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟗 in Ans.

Since the resulting answer is positive, the end result is elongation.

Example 1b-5. The rigid bar BC in the figure is supported by the steel wire AC of cross-sectional
area 0.25 in2. Find the vertical displacement of point C caused by the 2000-lb load. Neglect the
weight of the bar. Use E = 29 x 106 psi for steel wire.

wire

Solution:

Step 1. Draw the FBD to determine the reactions at B and Tension of wire at C.

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∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; 𝑇𝐶 (sin 40°)(8 𝑓𝑡) = 2000 𝑙𝑏(8 𝑓𝑡)

𝑇𝐶 = 3111.448 𝑙𝑏

Step 2. Draw what will happen to the structure when 2000 lb. downward force is applied at C.
Note that BC is rigid, it just rotates but it will not elongate nor shrink. The wire at C will elongate
if this downward force will be applied. The purpose of doing this is to find the relationship
between the deformation of the wire and the vertical displacement of C. A deformation triangle
will be formed, it will look like this:

where:
𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = deformation of the wire

∆𝐶 = vvertical displacement of C of
point C

∆𝑪

The deformation of the wire, 𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 is a result of Tension at C. We can compute it by:

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𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

where:
P = 𝑇𝐶 = 3111.448 𝑙𝑏
𝐿 = length of the wire: 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠40° = 8 ft
12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿 = 10.443 𝑓𝑡 ( ) = 125. 316 𝑖𝑛
1 𝑓𝑡
𝐴 = 0.25 𝑖𝑛2
𝐸 = 29 x 106 psi

(3111.448 𝑙𝑏)(125. 316 𝑖𝑛)

𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 =
𝑙𝑏
(0.25 𝑖𝑛2 )(29 𝑥 106 ) 2
𝑖𝑛

𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 0.05378 𝑖𝑛

Step 3. From the deformation triangle, we can determine or get the relationship between the
deformation of the wire and the vertical displacement of C.

𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒

40°

𝛿
Thus: 𝑠𝑖𝑛40° = 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
∆𝐶
𝛿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
∆𝐶 =
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 40°)
0.05378 𝑖𝑛
∆𝐶 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛 40°)
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑𝟒 𝒊𝒏 ↓ Ans.

Example 1b-6. The rigid bar AB, attached to aluminum and steel rods, is horizontal before the
load P is applied. Find the vertical displacement of point C caused by the load P = 50 kN. Neglect
the weight of the bar.

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Solution:

Step 1. Draw the FBD of the structure to determine the tension of aluminum and steel bars:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ; ↑ + ; 𝑃𝐴𝐿 + 𝑃𝑆𝑇 = 50 → 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 ; 𝐶𝑊 + ; (𝑃𝐴𝐿 𝑘𝑁)(6 )𝑚 − 50 𝑘𝑁(2.5 𝑚) = 0

𝑃𝐴𝐿 = 20.833 𝑘𝑁 → 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑡𝑜 equation 𝟏

20.833 + 𝑃𝑆𝑇 = 50

𝑃𝑆𝑇 = 29.167 𝑘𝑁

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Step 2. Draw what will happen to the structure when 50 kN downward force is applied at C. Note
that AB is rigid, it just rotates/swings but it will not elongate nor shrink. The aluminum and
steel rods will elongate if this downward force will be applied. The purpose ofdoing this is to
find the relationship between the deformation of the aluminum rod and the steel rod. A
deformation triangle will be formed, it will look like this:

𝜹𝑺𝑻
∆𝑪
𝜹𝑨𝑳
∆𝑪 - 𝜹𝑺𝑻
𝜹𝑨𝑳 − 𝜹𝑺𝑻

By looking at the diagram, we can get a deformation relationship:

3.5 m 2.5 m
∆𝑪 - 𝜹𝑺𝑻
𝜹𝑨𝑳 − 𝜹𝑺𝑻

𝛿𝐴𝐿 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ∆𝐶 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇

=
6 𝑚 2.5 𝑚

2.5(𝛿𝐴𝐿 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ) = 6(∆𝐶 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ) → equation 2

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Step 3. Compute the deformation of aluminum and of steel.

Deformation of aluminum:

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝐴𝐿 (𝐿𝐴𝐿 ). 20.833 𝑘𝑁( ) (3 m ( ))
𝛿𝐴𝐿 = = 1 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
𝑁
𝐴𝐴𝐿 (𝐸𝐴𝐿 ) 1,000
300 𝑚𝑚2 (70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ( 𝑚𝑚2))
1 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝛿𝐴𝐿 = 2.976 mm
Deformation of steel:

1000 𝑁 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑆𝑇 (𝐿𝑆𝑇 ). 29.167 𝑘𝑁 ( ) (4 m ( ))
𝛿𝑆𝑇 = = 1 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚
𝑁
𝐴𝑆𝑇 (𝐸𝑆𝑇 ) 1,000
500 𝑚𝑚2 (200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ( 𝑚𝑚2 ))
1 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝛿𝑆𝑇 = 1.167 mm

Step 4. Substitute the computed values to equation 2 to determine the vertical displacement of
point C.

2.5(𝛿𝐴𝐿 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 ) = 6(∆𝐶 − 𝛿𝑆𝑇 )

2.5(2.976 𝑚𝑚 − 1.167 mm) = 6(∆𝐶 𝑚𝑚 − 1.167 mm)

∆𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟏 𝒎𝒎 Ans.

Example 1b-7. The rigid bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and a steel rod at B. Determine the
largest vertical load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 35 ksi and
the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.12 in. Neglect the weights of the members.

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Steel

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. This is an example of Working Stress/Strain Design. Not only that
the limiting stress of the steel is a consideration, but also how long is point C allowed to deflect
or displace. To start, always draw the FBD of the figure to determine the forces involved.

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ; 𝐶𝑊 +: 𝑃(5 𝑓𝑡) = 𝑃𝑠𝑡 (2 𝑓𝑡)

𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑷𝒔𝒕 → equation 1

Step 2. Draw what will happen to the structure when downward force 𝑃 is applied at C. Note
that AC is rigid, it just rotates/swings but it will not elongate nor shrink. The steel rod will
elongate if this downward force will be applied. The purpose of doing this is to find the
relationship between the deformation of the steel rod and displacement at C. A deformation
triangle will be formed, it will look like this:

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𝜹𝒔𝒕
∆𝑪

𝛿𝑠𝑡 ∆𝐶
=
2 𝑓𝑡 5 𝑓𝑡

𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.4∆𝐶 → equation 2

Since “vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.12 in”, then ∆𝐶 = 0.12 𝑖𝑛,

𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.4∆𝐶 = 0.4(0.12) = 0.048 𝑖𝑛

Step 3. Correlate the computed deformation of steel to formula.

𝑃𝑠𝑡 (𝐿𝑠𝑡 )
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝐸𝑠𝑡 )
Substitute the known values:
12 𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (4 𝑓𝑡 𝑥 ( ))
1 𝑓𝑡
0.048 in =
𝑙𝑏
0.5 𝑖𝑛2 (29 𝑥 106 ) 2
𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 14,500 lb

Step 3. Solve the largest P that can be applied according to parameters:

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𝐵𝑦 allowable deformation at C, 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 14,500 lb

From equation (1), 𝑃 = 0.4𝑃𝑠𝑡

𝑃 = 0.4(14,500) = 5,800 𝑙𝑏

𝑙𝑏
𝐵𝑦 allowable stress of steel 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≤ 35,000 𝑖𝑛2

𝑃𝑠𝑡
𝜎=
𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑙𝑏 𝑃𝑠𝑡
35,000 2
=
𝑖𝑛 0.5 𝑖𝑛2
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 17,500 𝑙𝑏

From equation (1), 𝑃 = 0.4𝑃𝑠𝑡

𝑃 = 0.4(17,500) = 7,000 𝑙𝑏

Thus, the final P that should be adopted is P = 5,800 lb. Ans.

Part 4: Normal Strain (Uniaxial Loading and Deformation in all Directions)

Experiments show that when a bar is stretched by an axial force, there is a contraction in the
transverse dimensions, as illustrated. Simeon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the transverse
strain to the axial strain is constant for stresses within the proportional limit, hence the
Poisson’s ratio.

Poisson's ratio, 𝑣 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 is a measure of the Poisson effect, that describes the expansion or
contraction of a material in directions perpendicular to the direction of loading.

If the force is applied in one direction only,

−𝜀𝑦 −𝜀𝑧 Strain in transverse direction

𝑣 = or or
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥 Strain in the direction of the force

The negative sign in the formula signifies that in transverse direction and in the direction of the
force have opposite effects. For example, if the force in 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 is tensile, then the length
along x direction would elongate, as compared to the effect in the other directions 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑧, in
which the cross-sectional area becomes much smaller.

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Since no force applied at y or z (the transverse direction) then 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 = 0.

𝝈𝒙
and an axial force 𝑃 is applied along the x direction, so, 𝜺𝒙 = 𝑬

−𝜀𝑦
Since 𝑣 = 𝜀𝑥
, thus, 𝜀𝑦 = −𝑣𝜀𝑥
𝝈
𝜺𝒚 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙)
𝝈
𝜺𝒛 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙)

Example 1b-8. A 100-mm-long rod has a diameter of 15 mm. If an axial tensile load of 10 kN is
applied to it, determine the change in its diameter. E = 70 GPa, 𝑣 = 0.35.

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The load is applied along its length or 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, thus, we can
actually solve the stress in this direction, 𝜎𝑥 .

𝑃𝑥 10, 000 𝑁
𝜎𝑥 = = 𝜋 = 56. 588 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴 (15)2 𝑚𝑚2
4

Note that this is a uniaxial loading, only one direction of applied load, thus,

𝜎𝑦 = 0 ; 𝜎𝑧 = 0

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Step 2. The problem asks for the “change in the diameter”. Naturally, we can see this as change
in transverse direction. So, we have to solve the strain in this direction.

𝝈 𝝈
𝜺𝒚 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙) or 𝜺𝒛 = −𝒗 ( 𝑬𝒙) [both define change in diameter]

Since 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 , 𝑣 = 0.35 and 𝐷0 = 15 𝑚𝑚:

56. 588 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜀𝑦 = −0.35 ( )
1,000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 )

𝜀𝑦 = −2. 829 𝑥 10−4

Thus, the change of diameter, ∆𝐷 is:

∆𝐷
𝜀𝑦 =
𝐷0

∆𝐷
−2. 829 𝑥 10−4 =
15 𝑚𝑚

∆𝑫 = −𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝒎 Ans.

Part 5: Normal Strain (Biaxial Loading and Strain in all Direction)

If the force is applied in two directions simultaneously, as in the figure:

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𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙
𝜖𝑦 = -v 𝑜𝑟 𝝐𝒚 = -v
𝐴𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝐴𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑬 𝑬

𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚
𝜖𝑥 = -v 𝑜𝑟 𝝐𝒙 = -v
𝐴𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝐴𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑬 𝑬

𝑃𝑧 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒙 )
𝜖𝑧 = - v -v Since 𝑃𝑧 = 0; 𝝐𝒛 = - v
𝐴𝑥𝑦 𝐸 𝐴𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝐴𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑬

Part 6: Normal Strain (Triaxial Loading and Strain in all Direction)

If the force is applied in all directions simultaneously, as in the figure:

𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑧 𝝈𝒚 (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝜖𝑦 = 𝐴 -v𝐴 - v𝐴 or 𝝐𝒚 = -v
𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑥𝑦 𝐸 𝑬 𝑬
𝝈𝒙 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧 𝝐𝒙 = -v
𝜖𝑥 = 𝐴 - v𝐴 - v𝐴 or 𝑬 𝑬
𝑦𝑧 𝐸 𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑥𝑦 𝐸

𝝈𝒛 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒙 )
𝜖𝑧 = 𝐴
𝑃𝑧
- v𝐴
𝑃𝑦
-
𝑃
v 𝐴 𝑥𝐸 or 𝝐𝒛 = -v
𝑥𝑦 𝐸 𝑥𝑧 𝐸 𝑦𝑧
𝑬 𝑬

Example 1b-9. A rectangular steel block is 3 inches long in the x direction, 2 inches long in the
y direction, and 4 inches long in the z direction. The block is subjected to a triaxial loading of
three uniformly distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips
compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction. If ν = 0.30 and E = 29 ×
106 psi, determine 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , 𝜖𝑧 .

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The loads are applied in all directions; thus, we can compute the
stress in these directions.

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z direction
3 ‘’
x direction

4 ‘’

𝑃𝑥 48 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝑥 = = = 6 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 2 (4)𝑖𝑛2

𝑃𝑦 −60 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝑦 = = = −5 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 3 (4)𝑖𝑛2

𝑃𝑧 54 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝜎𝑧 = = = 9 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 2 (3)𝑖𝑛2

Step 2. Compute the strains 𝜖𝑥 , 𝜖𝑦 , 𝜖𝑧 according to the formula:

𝝈𝒙 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 ) 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜺𝒙 = -v = [6,000 2 − (0.30)(−5,000 2 + 9,000 2 ) ]
𝑬 𝑬 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
29 𝑥 106 ( 2 )
𝑖𝑛
𝜺𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

𝝈𝒚 (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒛 ) 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜺𝒚 = -v = [−5,000 2 − (0.30)(6,000 2 + 9,000 2 ) ]
𝑬 𝑬 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
29 𝑥 106 ( 2 )
𝑖𝑛
𝜺𝒚 = −𝟑. 𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

𝝈𝒛 (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 ) 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜺𝒛 = -v = [9,000 2 − (0.30)(6,000 2 − 5000 2 ) ]
𝑬 𝑬 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛
29 𝑥 106 ( 2 )
𝑖𝑛
𝜺𝒛 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

Example 1b-10. A 2-in.-diameter steel tube with a wall thickness of 0.05 inch just fits in a rigid
hole. Find the tangential stress if an axial compressive load of 3140 lb is applied. Assume ν =
0.30 and neglect the possibility of buckling.

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Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The tangential direction is the x direction. Further, the P is applied
along the length of the steel tube, thus, this is 𝜎𝑦 .

𝑃𝑦 3140 𝑙𝑏
𝜎𝑦 = = = 9994. 93 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐴 (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟) 𝜋(2)(0.05) 𝑖𝑛2

Step 2. Since the problem mentioned that “neglect the possibility of buckling”, then the strain in
this direction must be zero. 𝜀𝑥 = 0.

Thus, compute the tangential stress, 𝜎𝑥 if 𝜎𝑦 = 9994.93 psi, ν = 0.30, 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 106 psi and .
𝜀𝑥 = 0:

𝜎𝑥 ν (𝜎𝑦 )
𝜀𝑥 = −
𝐸 𝐸
1
𝜀𝑥 = [𝜎 − ν(𝜎𝑦 )]
𝐸 𝑥

0 = [𝜎𝑥 − 0.3(9994.93 𝑝𝑠𝑖)]

𝝈𝒙 = 2998. 479 psi Ans.

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Example 1b-11. A 150-mm-long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has
a wall thickness of 3 mm. It fits without clearance in an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is
then subjected to an internal pressure of 4.00 MPa. Assuming ν = 1/3 and 𝐸 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎,
determine the tangential stress in the tube.

Solution:

Step 1. Analyze the problem. The tangential direction is the x direction. The longitudinal stress
is the x direction. This stress is caused by the internal pressure; thus, we can solve it like this:

𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑦 (𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) =
4𝑡

4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (80 𝑚𝑚)

𝜎𝑦 = = 26.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4(3 𝑚𝑚)

Step 2. Since the problem mentioned that the walls around the bronze tube is rigid with no gap,
then we can say that 𝜀𝑥 = 0.

Thus, we can solve the tangential stress, 𝜎𝑥, , with 𝜎𝑦 = 26.67 MPa, ν = 1/3 and 𝐸 = 83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and
𝜀𝑥 = 0.
1
𝜀𝑥 = (𝜎𝑥 + ν𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸
1 1
0= (𝜎𝑥 − (26.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎) )
𝐸 3

𝜎𝑥 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟗 𝑴𝑷𝒂 Ans.

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Part 7: Shear Strain

The shearing strain or shear strain is the tangent of the total change in angle occurring between
two originally perpendicular lines in a body during deformation. To illustrate, consider the
deformation involving a change in shape or distortion of a rectangular plate. We note that the
deformed state is shown by the dashed lines in the figure, where 𝜃′ represents the angle
between two rotated edge lines. Since the displacements considered are small, we can set the
tangent of the angle of distortion equal to the angle.

Thus, the shear strain, 𝜸,

𝝅
𝜸= 𝟐
− 𝜽′

The shear strain is positive if the right angle between the reference line decreases, as in the
figure, otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.

Just like the normal strain, the shear strain also follows the Hooke’s law for shear. The coefficient
equivalent in shear is the material constant G, the shear modulus of elasticity (or simply shear
modulus), or the modulus of rigidity. The shear modulus has the same units as the modulus of
elasticity (Pa or psi).

𝝉
𝑮=
𝜸

Correlation between 𝐺 and 𝐸:

𝑬
𝑮 =
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝒗)

Example 1b-12. An initially rectangular element of material is deformed as shown in the figure
(note that the deformation is greatly exaggerated). Calculate the normal strains 𝜀x and 𝜀y, and
the shear strain 𝛾 for the element.

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Solution:

Step 1. Compute the normal strains 𝜀x and 𝜀y using the definition for normal strain:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

For 𝜀x:
0.7 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑥 = = 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.
0.25 𝑖𝑛
For 𝜀y:
1.2 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛
𝜀𝑦 = 0.2 𝑖𝑛
= 𝟔. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Ans.

Step 2. Compute the total shear strain:

1.5 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛 1.8 𝑥 10−4 𝑖𝑛

𝛾𝑇 = +
0.2 𝑖𝑛 0.25 𝑖𝑛

𝛾𝑇 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ans.

Example 1b-13. An initially rectangular element of a material is deformed into the shape shown
in the figure. Find 𝜀𝑥 and 𝜀𝑦 , and the shear strain 𝛾 for the element.

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Solution:

Step 1. Compute the normal strains 𝜀x and 𝜀y using the definition for normal strain:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

For 𝜀x:
0.1992−0.2 𝑚𝑚
𝜀𝑥 = = −𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Ans.
0.2 𝑚𝑚
For 𝜀y:
0.1515−0.15 𝑚𝑚
𝜀𝑦 = 0.15 𝑚𝑚
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 Ans.

Step 2. Compute the total shear strain:

𝛾𝑇 = tan(16.6° − 15.7°)

𝛾𝑇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟕 Ans.

Part 8: Statically Indeterminate Beams

• If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces (including support
reactions) that act on a body, these forces are said to be statically determinate.

• In statically determinate problems, the number of unknown forces is always equal to the
number of independent equilibrium equations. If the number of unknown forces exceeds
the number of independent equilibrium equations, the problem is said to be statically
indeterminate.

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Procedure in Solving Statically Indeterminate Beams:

1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
2. Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is
often helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations.
3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations
in terms of forces (or stresses).
4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

Example 1b-14. The figure shows a rigid bar that is supported by a pin at A and two rods, one
made of steel and the other of bronze. Neglecting the weight of the bar, compute the stress in
each rod caused by the 50-kN load, using the following data:

Solution:

Step 1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.

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∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; 𝐶𝑊+ ; 𝑃𝑠𝑡 (0.6) + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (1.6) = 50(2.4) → equation 1

Step 2. Derive compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often

helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations:

𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝛿𝑏𝑟

Determine the compatibility equation through the relationship of the deformations:

By similar triangles,
𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝛿𝑏𝑟
=
0.6 𝑚 1.6 𝑚

𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.375𝛿𝑏𝑟

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Step 3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in
terms of forces (or stresses).

𝑃𝐿
But 𝛿= 𝐴𝐸
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (𝐿𝑠𝑡 ) 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (𝐿𝑏𝑟 )
= 0.375
𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝐸𝑠𝑡 ) 𝐴𝑏𝑟 (𝐸𝑏𝑟 )

1000 𝑚𝑚 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑠𝑡 (1 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 )) 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (2 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 ))
= 0.375
𝑁 𝑁
1000 2 1000 2
2 𝑚𝑚
600 𝑚𝑚 [200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 )] 2 𝑚𝑚
300 𝑚𝑚 [83 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 )]

𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3.614𝑃𝑏𝑟 → equation 2

Step 4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

Substitute eq. 2 to eq. 1

(3.614𝑃𝑏𝑟) (0.6) + 𝑃𝑏𝑟 (1.6) = 50(2.4)

𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 31.844 𝑘𝑁

and 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3.614𝑃𝑏𝑟

𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3.614(31.844 𝑘𝑁) = 115.084 𝑘𝑁

Thus, the stresses in steel and bronze are:

𝑃𝑠𝑡 115.084 𝑥 1000 𝑁

𝜎𝑠𝑡 = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 MPa Ans.
𝐴𝑠𝑡 600 𝑚𝑚2

𝑃𝑏𝑟 31.844 𝑥 1000 𝑁

𝜎𝑏𝑟 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟏𝟓 MPa Ans.
𝐴𝑏𝑟 300 𝑚𝑚2

Example 1b-15. The three steel rods, each of cross-sectional area 250 𝑚𝑚2 , jointly support the
7.5-kN load. Assuming that there was no slack or stress in the rods before the load was applied,
find the force in each rod. Use E = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 for steel.

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Solution:

Step 1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; → + ; 𝑃𝐴𝐷 (sin 25°) = 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (sin 25°)

𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴𝐵

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ; ↑ + ; 𝑃𝐴𝐷 (cos 25°) + 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (cos 25°) + 𝑃𝐴𝑐 = 7.5

Since 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 𝑃𝐴𝐵

2[ 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (cos 25°)] + 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 7.5 →equation 1

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Step 2. Derive compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often

helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations:

𝛿𝐴𝐶

By symmetry,
𝛿𝐴𝐷 = 𝛿𝐴𝐵

By LOOKING AT THE FORCE TRIANGLE ABOVE,

𝛿𝐴𝐵
cos 25° =
𝛿𝐴𝐶
Compatibility equation:

𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝛿𝐴𝐷 = 𝛿𝐴𝐶 (cos 25°)

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Step 3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in
terms of forces (or stresses).

𝑃𝐿
But 𝛿= 𝐴𝐸
𝛿𝐴𝐵 = 𝛿𝐴𝐶 (cos 25°)

2.75 1000 𝑚𝑚 1000 𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝐴𝐵 ( 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 )) 𝑃𝐴𝐶 (2.75 𝑚 𝑥 ( 1 𝑚 ))
𝑐𝑜𝑠25°
= cos 25°
𝑁 𝑁
1000 1000
250 𝑚𝑚2 [200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑚2 )] 250 𝑚𝑚2 [200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑥 ( 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑚2 )]
{ }

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 0.8214𝑃𝐴𝐶 → equation 2

Step 4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

Substitute eq. 2 to eq. 1

2[ 0.8214𝑃𝐴𝐶 (cos 25°)] + 𝑃𝐴𝑐 = 7.5

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝑵 Ans.

and 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 0.8214𝑃𝐴𝐶

𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴𝐷 = 0.8214(3.013) = 2.47 𝑘𝑁 Ans.

Part 9: Thermal Deformation and Stress

Consider the consequences of increasing or decreasing the uniform temperature of an

unconstrained isotropic body. The resultant expansion or contraction occurs in such a way as to
cause a cubic element of the element of the solid to remain cubic while undergoing changes of
length om each of its sides.

The strain due to a 1° temperature change is denoted by 𝛼 and is called the coefficient of thermal
expansion. Thermal strain caused by a uniform increase in temperature ∆𝑇 is therefore,

𝜺𝒕 = 𝜶 ∆𝑻

The coefficient of expansion, 𝛼 is approximately constant over a moderate range of temperature

1 1
change. It represents a quantity per degree Celsius °𝐶 or per degree Fahrenheit °𝐹

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Thermal deformation is caused by the free expansion or contraction due to a change in

temperature. While thermal stresses are stresses due to the restriction of thermal expansion or
contraction of a body.

𝜹𝑻 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻)
Where:

𝜹𝑻 = deformation caused by temperature change

𝜺𝒕 = strain due to temperature
𝜶 = coefficient of thermal expansion
∆𝑻 or ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) = change in temperature

It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in a body:

• An increase in temperature results in expansion,
• whereas a temperature decrease produces contraction.

Example 1b-16. A steel tube of length L and cross-sectional area A is secured between two
walls, as seen in the figure. In operation, the tube is uniformly heated throughout and its
temperature increases by ∆𝑇. The data are:

𝐿 = 5 𝑓𝑡 𝐸 = 30 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝛼 = 6.5 𝑥 10−6 /°𝐹
𝜎𝑦 = 36 𝑘𝑠𝑖 ∆𝑇 = 80°𝐹

Calculate the stresses for the two cases:

a. The walls are immovable.

b. The walls move apart a total distance of 𝛿𝑤 = 0.01 𝑖𝑛.

Solution:

a. The walls are immovable:

Step 1. Determine the forces that are acting on the structure. The supports exert equal and
opposite axial forces 𝑃 on the rod following a temperature increase in order to prevent
elongation.

Step 2. Allow one of the supports to release, in this case, support B. When it is released, the rod
expands freely due to a positive temperature change. We call this expansion 𝛿𝑇 (deformation
due to temperature).
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EXPAND FREELY
𝜹𝑻 𝛿

𝜹𝑷 𝛿
GO BACK

Step 2. But then, since in the beginning, the rod is fully restrained and no movement is
supposedly be allowed, the axial force on the surface will bring back this expansion into rod’s
original length. We call this 𝛿𝑃 (deformation due to force). Since this is like contraction
𝛿𝑃 becomes (−)𝛿𝑃 :

Thus,
𝛿𝑇 + (−𝛿𝑝 ) = 0

[𝑒quated to zero because the rod is fully restrained in the first place]

𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝑝

𝑷𝑳
𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) =
𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑳
𝑬𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) =
𝑨
𝑃
Since →𝜎
𝐴
𝜎= 𝑬𝜶(∆𝑻)

𝑙𝑏 10−6
𝜎= 30 𝑥 106 (6.5 𝑥 )(80°𝐹)
𝑖𝑛2 °𝐹

𝝈 = 15,600 psi Ans.

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a. The walls move apart a total distance of 0.01 in.

Step 1. In this case, the bar can expand an amount of 0.01 in, and hence, the geometric
compatibility should be:

Thus,
𝛿𝑇 + (−𝛿𝑝 ) = 0.01

[𝑒quated to 0.01 because the wall moved by 0.01 in]

𝛿𝑇 − 𝛿𝑝 =0.01

𝑷𝑳
𝑬𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) − = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
𝑨𝑬
𝑃
And since 𝜎 =
𝐴

𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝒏
10−6 𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝒏 𝟓 𝒇𝒕( )
𝟏 𝒇𝒕
6.5 𝑥 (𝟓 𝒇𝒕 𝒙 ) (80°𝐹) − 𝝈 𝑙𝑏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 in
°𝐹 𝟏 𝒇𝒕 30 𝑥 106 2
𝑖𝑛

𝝈 = 10,600 psi Ans.

*Self-Help! You can also refer to the sources below to help

you further understand the lesson:

*Pytel, A., Kiusalaas J. (2010). Mechanics of Materials. Phil. Edition, Cengage Learning

*R. C. Hibbeler (2008). Mechanics of Materials. (7th Ed). Pearson Prentice Hall

Let’s Check!

Activity 1. Explain the following terms based on your own understanding and own words.
You can use figures to emphasize your point.

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a. Factor of Safety.
b. Hooke’s Law.
c. Proportional Limit.
d. Elastic Stress.
e. Yield Stress.
f. Ultimate Stress.
g. Rupture Stress.
h. Nominal rupture strength.
i. True rupture strength.
j. Necking.
k. Statically Indeterminate.
l. Thermal Deformation.
m. Thermal Stress.

Activity 2. Should the downward 10-kip force be applied at A, draw the exaggerated deformation
of the members. Reflect also the deformation triangle.

Activity 3. Consider the pipe shown. Answer the questions that follow. Circle your choice.

i. What is considered to be the tangential stress of the bar?

a. 𝜎𝑥 b. 𝜎𝑦 c. 𝜎𝑧 d. 𝜎𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑧

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ii. What is considered to be the longitudinal stress of the bar?

a. 𝜎𝑥 b. 𝜎𝑦 c. 𝜎𝑧 d. 𝜎𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝜎𝑧

iii. If the pipe is rigidly fitted just like in the figure below, what can you appropriately
assume?

a. 𝜀𝑥 = 0
b. 𝜀𝑧 = 0
c. 𝜀𝑦 = 0
d. 𝜎𝑥 = 0
e. 𝜎𝑦 = 0
f. 𝜎𝑧 = 0

Activity 4. Investigate the figure, is this a determinate structure? Why or why not? Prove your
point.

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Activity 5. Referring to the figure of Activity 4, draw the behavior of the structure should the
force P is applied at the free end of the structure.

Activity 6. Two 1.75-in.-thick rubber pads are bonded to three steel plates to form the shear
mount shown. Draw the exaggerated behavior of the rubber pads should force P is applied on
the system.

Activity 7. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed
points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. Draw the behavior of the rod and the deformation.

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Let’s Analyze!

Activity 1. The following data were obtained during a tension test of an aluminum alloy. The
initial diameter of the test specimen was 0.505 in., and the gage length was 2.0 in.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties:

(a) proportional limit;

(b) modulus of elasticity;
(c) yield stress at 0.2% offset;
(d) ultimate stress; and
(e) nominal rupture stress.

Activity 2. The rectangular concrete block has the following dimensions: 200 mm along x direction,
100 mm along y direction, and 50 mm along z direction. The force applied in the x direction is 100
kN, in y direction is 150 kN and in z direction is 50 kN. 𝐸 = 24 𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝑣 = 0.2

(a) Changes in the lengths of the block.

(b) The value of a single force system of compressive forces applied only in y direction
that would produce the same deformation as do the initial forces.

Activity 3. A welded steel cylindrical drum made of a 10-mm plate has an internal diameter of 1.20
m. Compute the change in diameter that would be caused by an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa.
Assume that Poisson's ratio is 0.30 and E = 200 GPa.

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3
Activity 4. The length of the 32-inch diameter steel wire CD has been adjusted so that with no
1
load applied, a gap of 16-in. exists between the end B of the rigid beam ACB and a contact point
E. Knowing that E = 29 × 106 psi, determine where a 50-lb block should be placed on the beam in
order to cause contact between B and E.

Activity 5. The rigid bar is supported by the pin-connected rod CB that has a cross-sectional area
of 14 mm2 and is made from aluminum. Determine the vertical deflection of the bar at D when
the distributed load is applied. 𝐸 = 68.9 x 109 Pa.

Activity 6. A thin rectangular plate is uniformly deformed as shown. Determine the total shear
strain.

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Activity 7. The horizontal steel rod, 2.5 m long and 1200 mm2 in cross-sectional area, is secured
between two walls as shown in the figure. The rod is stress-free at 20°C, compute the stress when
the temperature has dropped to 20°C. 𝜶 =11.7𝑥10-6/°C and E = 200 GPa.

In a Nutshell!

This section presented the concept of deformation and strain in loaded bodies under the action
of static loads, the relationships between stress and strain in various types of materials, as well
as the effect temperature. The normal strain is the deformation per unit length of a bar. The
shear strain represents the change from a right angle between two perpendicular small line
segments. In general, the strain components and rate of change displacements at points within
bodies are related.

Plotting the stress versus strain as the load increases in a simple tension test, we obtain the
𝜎 𝑣𝑠 𝜀 diagram for the material used. Mechanical properties including yield stress, ultimate
stress, and fracture stress are determined from such diagram. For a linearly elastic material, the
slope of the curve within the elastic region is termed as the modulus of elasticity, E. The
relationship of 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 is known as Hooke’s Law. The generalized Hooke’s Law is applicable to
most structural materials for stresses in linear-elastic region. To further reinforce
understanding and inculcate analytical skill on the topics matter, answer the following
exercises:

Selected Problems and Review Problems found on Chapter 2 of *Pytel, A., Kiusalaas J.
(2010). Mechanics of Materials. Phil. Edition, Cengage Learning

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