PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

LECTURE NOTES 2
YEAR 1 SEM 1

MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION

THE RULE
The simplest and most commonly used instrument for making linear measurement is a steel
rule (machinist rule), bar or tape, with fractional or decimal graduations.
Length are measured directly to an accuracy that is limited to the nearest division usually
1
1mm or 64 ´´

Rules may be rigid or flexible and may be equipped with a hook at one end for easy of
measuring from an edge.
The most useful and convenient marking on a steel rule are millimeters on one face of the
rule and English units (imperial)on the other as shown below

CARE OF RULES
A good rule is worth looking after and should neither be used as a feller gauge under shape
tools or milling cutters nor for scrapping Tee slots and machine tools.
The end of the rule particularly should be preserved from wear as it generally forms the basis
for one end of the dimension.
Rusting of the rule should be avoided by oiling it during weekends and when it is not in use.
TAKING OF MEASUREMENT.
When taking measurement with a rule, it should be so held that the graduation lines are as
close as possible (preferably touching) to the faces being measured.
The eye which is observing the reading should be as near as possible opposite to the mark
being read. This avoids what is called parallax.
As far as possible the end of the rule should be held to flush with one of faces of the rule to
be measured, the reading then being taken somewhere along the rule.

VERNIER CALLIPER/ CALLLIPER GAUGES

CONSTRUCTION;
The metric Vernier caliper consists of a main beam of a rectangular section with an integral
fixed jaw.
The beam is marked with a scale graduated into millimeters and half millimeters.
A second jaw is mounted upon the beam and can be moved along it. This sliding jaw has a
clamp screw and a fine adjustment device and its frame is marked by a Vernier scale.
USE;
The component or thickness to be measured is placed between the jaws of the caliper and the
sliding jaw closed up to obtain an approximately correct feel.
The fine adjustment device is then clamped to the beam and the sliding jaw moved by the
fine adjustment screw until the correct feel is obtained.
The sliding jaw is then clamped to the beam and the caliper removed for reading.
Outside measurements may be taken by reading the length between the inner faces of the
jaws.
Internal measurements may be taken by reading the length between the radiused outer faces
of the jaws.
SCALES;
The main scale is divided into millimeters and half millimeters i.e. the smallest division is
0.5mm the length of the Vernier scale divisions (24mm) and is itself divided into 25 equal
parts.
A Vernier division therefore represents 12
25
or 0.48mm and the difference between the main
scale and the Vernier division is 0.02mm (0.5mm less 0.48)
READING THE VERNIER CALLIPER.
Example 1

First read the graduation on main scale just before Vernier scale starts i.e. 14th graduation
which gives 14mm.
Next read the graduation on Vernier scale where two graduation lines on main and Vernier
1
scales perfectly match i.e. 17th graduation which gives 17x 50 = 0.34

Finally add fine reading to the main reading i.e.

14 +0.34
=14.34mm.
Example 2
Reading on main scale = 91.0mm
1
Vernier scale reading = 15x50 = 0.3mm

Total reading =91.30mm

Example 3

Main scale reading = 32.0mm

1
Vernier scale reading =16x50 = 0.32mm

Final reading = 32.32mm

Example 3
Main scale reading =18.5mm
Vernier scale reading = 5x501 = 0.1mm

Final reading = 18.60mm

CARE OF THE VERNIER CALIPERS

Use great care when setting the calipers.
Make use of the fine adjustment and never use force.
The jaws can be easily strained and the calipers ruined

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

CONSTRUCTION;
They are designed for use in tool rooms, workshops, inspection departments in order to
measure a rod or mark off vertical distances and locating centre distances.
VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

Base; Is heavy, hardened steel with a ground finish on the underside and recessed to reduce
the bearing surface.
Main scale; A heavy gauge rule graduated like a Vernier caliper in millimeters.
Vernier; Gives reading to 0.02mm with a lock and fine adjustment screws.
Finger or Knife edge; Made of steel, hardened and ground.
Made in a range of sizes but those commonly in use measure 300-450mm.
USE;
The Vernier height gauge incorporates its own Vernier measuring scale and is practically
equivalent to a large Vernier caliper with its fixed jaw set rigidly into the base.
The reading of the Vernier is that of the height of the upper surface of the sliding jaw above
the base.
The jaw itself may be used for testing underneath surfaces and test plugs and when the finger
is camped on, this may be used to scribe lines.
NB;
A height gauge is an expensive precision instrument.
It must be treated with great care and must never be used for work where a surface gauge
would be sufficiently accurate.
APPLICATIONS
• Used for accurate marking out to close limits i.e. 0.02mm
• Used for testing components for parallelism
• Used for testing components for height, alignment etc.
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
THE IMPERIAL MICROMETER
Construction;

Micrometers are used for the accurate measurement of external diameters or length to a limit
of 0.001’’ or 0.0001’’.
They can also be used to measure inside dimensions of a component.
The spindle and screw are made of hardened steel with a ground thread of 40 TPI (Tooth per
inch).
The frame; Is roughly semicircular in shape holding anvil, barrel and locknut.
1 th 1 th
Barrel or sleeve is graduated in 10
and 40
for a length of 1 inch.

Thimble rotates around the barrel and is divided on its circumference 25 divisions.
Ratchet; This provides the correct feel.
Measurement is over a distance of one inch on the smaller micrometers but micrometers are
made to read to 24´´. These are usually provided with extension rods to increase the range of
measurement.
PRINCIPLE OF THE IMPERIAL MICROMETER
The Screw; Is threaded 40 TPI. Therefore, with a complete revolution of the thimble, the
1 th
spindle moves 40 or 0.25’’.
The Thimble; Is divided on its circumference into 25 parts. If the thimble is turned along one
1 th
of these divisions, the spindle will move 25 1 th
of 40 or 0.001’’. Therefore, each division on
the thimble represents 0.001 inch.
1 th
The Barrel; Carries a datum line with each tenth divided into four parts i.e. 40
or 0.025
inch.
When the micrometer is closed the ‘0’ on the thimble coincides with the ‘0’ line on the barrel.
READING THE MICROMETER

Read the largest whole number visible on the barrel - 2 = 0.200

Read the complete subdivisions after the 2 on the barrel – 3 = 0.075
Read the figure in the thimble before the datum line – 10 = 0.010
Read the extra divisions before the datum line – 2 = 0.002

Reading = 0.200
0.075
0.010
0.002

0.287´´
Some micrometers read to 0.0001 inch. They are similar to the 0.001inch micrometer but
they have a Vernier attachment on the barrel, ten graduations on the Vernier being to nine
divisions on the thimble.
PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF THE MICROMETER.
• The micrometer is a precision instrument, treat it with care at all times.
• It must not be allowed to come into contact with harmful materials e.g. fillings.
• Do not allow tools to come in contact with it on work bench or machine.
• Spindle, anvil and work must be wiped clean before using.
• It must be held square to the work when measuring.
• Do not use force when obtaining the correct feel.
• Store away safely in a container immediately after use.
• Do not set the micrometer to a size and try to push it over the work.
• A periodic check on its accuracy is needed.

VERNIER MICROMETER
Metric micrometers are similar in construction to the imperial micrometers.
They have threads of metric pitch and read in millimeters.
The range of measure is over 25mm e.g. 0 to 25mm, 25mm to 50mm etc.
The screw has a pitch of 21 mm and therefore the spindle moves 0.5mm for each turn of the
thimble.
The barrel; Is graduated in millimeters and half millimeters.
The Thimble; Is divided into 50 parts, therefore a movement of one division on the thimble
1 th
moves the spindle 50 of 21 mm = 100
1
mm = 0.01mm.

The reading are taken in the same order as the imperial micrometer.
Example 1
Sleeve division = 1mm
1 𝑡ℎ 1
Thimble division = 50 of sleeve subdivision = 100 mm
1 𝑡ℎ 1
Vernier division = 10
of thimble division = 1000 𝑚𝑚

Highest whole number visible on the barrel – 10 = 10mm

Additional subdivisions visible on the barrel -1 = 0.50mm
Figure visible on thimble before datum line – 15 = 0.15mm
Any additional divisions on thimble before datum -2 =0.02mm
Reading 10.00mm
0.5mm
0.15mm
0.02mm
10.67mm

Example 2

Whole number visible on barrel = 12.00mm

Additional subdivisions visible on barrel =0.50mm
Figure visible on thimble =0.15mm
Reading = 12.65mm
Example 3

Whole number visible on barrel = 11.00mm

Figure visible on thimble before datum line = 0.30mm
Additional subdivisions on thimble before datum line = 0.04
Reading = 11.34mm

Example 4
Sleeve full reading = 10
Sleeve half reading =0.5
Thimble divisions = 0.16
Vernier division = 0.06
Micrometer reading = 10.666mm

DIAL GAUGES

The dial indicator is a sensitive instrument for comparing or testing the accuracy of surfaces.
It gives no direct reading of size.
The main dial is like a clock face and has a plunger projecting from it.
The amount of movement of the plunger is registered by a hand moving around the dial
which is graduated to read to 0.01 or 0.002mm.
In use, the indicator is clamped to the surface gauge spindle in place of the scriber or used in
a special holder that fixes in the lathe tool post.
They have the following applications;
✓ Testing for parallelism.
✓ Testing for roundness.
✓ Testing for alignment of Centers
✓ Testing tailstock set over when taper turning.
✓ Testing alignment of stroke etc. on a shaper.

SLIP GAUGES
Construction.

Slip gauges or block gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross-section of about
32mm by 9mm which before being finished to size are hardened and carefully matured so
that they are independent of any subsequent variation in shape or size.
They were invented by a Swedish engineer Johannson in 1903 and are often called Johannson
blocks.
They are very expensive and are sold in sets e.g. 25.00mm to 52.20mm in steps of 0.02mm
making 11 slips in all.
Metallic faces when made very accurately flat can be wrung together by carefully cleaning
them, pressing them together and slightly twisting them.
The two faces will adhere together and considerable force is necessary to separate them.
In this way it is possible to wring a group of slip gauges together and handle them as one
gauge block, the overall accuracy being to within 0.0002mm.
USE;
They are used to verify dimensions or combined in a frame as accurate caliper gauge.
CARE OF SLIP GAUGES.
A set of slip gauges is such a fine piece of construction and serves such a vital purpose that
every care should be taken to prolong its life and accuracy.
When not in use, the blocks should be kept in their case.
When in use, the blocks should be in an environment free from dust, those not in use being in
a closed case.
Before being wrung together, their faces should be wiped clean and the measuring face
should not be fingered.
If a slightest sign of roughness or scratching be felt during wringing, stop immediately and
examine the gauge faces for burrs/scratches.
If before use the gauges have been handled for some time, they should be allowed to settle
down to the prevailing temperature of the room before a measurement is taken.
After use, the gauges should never be left wrung together, slide the gauges apart. Do not
break the wring.
Before returning the gauges to their casing, any finger marks should be wiped off.
If the gauges are not likely to be used again for some time, a thin smear of grease may be
applied but care should be taken to use a reputable grease which is free from acid.

LENGTH BARS
Slip gauges are not made in length above about 100mm and when a great length is required
than can be built up with these gauges, length bars are available.
These are circular in section about 22mm diameter with their ends hardened and finished to
the accuracy comparable with that of slip gauges.
The BS recommendation for a set of workshop length bars consist of 11pieces made up of 8
bars from 25mm to 22mm in steps of 25mm and 3 bars of length 375mm,575mm and
775mm.
These bars are held end to end when assembled into length by means of studs screwed into
tapped holes in their end faces.

COMPARATORS
These are instruments used to compare the dimension of some article to be checked with
dimension of some article to be checked with the length of a combination of slips assembled
to the required dimension.
The essential details of construction of a comparator are a base and measuring table above
which carried on a standard is a sensitive gauging head.
It carries an electronic probe as the gauging element and signals from this are fed into the
gauge unit.
When using a comparator, the dimension of the article to be measured is built up by wringing
together a suitable combination of slip gauges and with these placed under the measuring
plunger the comparator is set to zero.
The article to be measured is now substituted for the gauges and its similarity to or a variation
from their length is indicated on the dial.
The chief advantage of the comparator over some alternative methods of comparing
dimension is the reliability of the result due to the inherent accuracy of the instrument.
A good comparator should be able to record variations of 0.001mm and amongst other
desirable features it should poses the following;
➢ Maximum rigidity.
➢ Maximum compensation for temperature effects.
➢ Neither lag nor backlash in the movement of the plunger and recording mechanism.
➢ Straight line characteristics of the scale readings.
➢ Most suitable measuring force which remains uniform throughout the scale.
➢ The indicator should be constant in its return to zero.
➢ The method of indication should be clear and the pointer dead beat i.e. freedom of
oscillation.
➢ The instrument should have the maximum versatility (a wide range of operations)

ROLLER GAUGES AND TEST BARS

Roller gauges assist in measurement of components to very fine accuracy in workshops hence
relieving the frequent use of slip gauges hence saving these expensive tools from rapid un
necessary wear.
They are supplied by ball bearing manufacturers.
A useful set might consist each of balls and rollers rising from 4mmx2mm to 32mm.
When they have been collected, a simple wooden case should be made to hold and protect
them.
TEST BARS

Test bars are necessary for measuring Centre distances of holes.

The bars should be from 75mm to 100mm long on the working portion with a short-reduced
end provided with a flat for affixing a small lathe carrier to serve as the handle.
The bars may be of case-hardened mild steel and the diameter should be ground to dead size
and parallel.
The range of sizes necessary will depend on the range of hole sizes likely to occur but a
useful general-purpose set might consist of two each of the following sizes 6mm by 1mm to
25mm, then 5mm to 50mm diameter.
They should be stored in a wooden tray or box with a separate compartment for each one.
SQUARENESS
TRY SQURE

(a) Inside blade

b) Outside of blade
The try square is the most common tool for testing squareness and diagrams for use in
internal and external testing are shown in fig a and b above respectively.
When using a square, care should be taken to ensure that its blade is held perpendicular to the
surface being tested otherwise errors may occur.
A good square is valuable and should be treated with much care but since it is a delusion to
put one’s confidence in a square which is not accurate, its accuracy should be tested
occasionally.

COMBINATION SQUARE.

The combination square consists of a blade which may be used in conjunction with one of
three heads.
The various heads enable the tool to be used as a square, a protractor or a gauge for making
lines passing through the Centre of the round bars.
The complete set forms a very useful workshop accessory and fulfils many needs but when a
high degree of accuracy is required for squareness, an accurate solid try square is
recommended in preference to the square of the combination set.

INTERCHANGEBILITY
This is a system where two fitting components are machined to such allowances so that any
one component will assemble correctly with any mating components both being chosen at
random.

LIMIT SYSTEMS

LIMITS; These are two extreme permissible sizes between which actual size exists.
The maximum limit /high limit is the largest permissible size while the minimum limit/low
limit for a dimension is the smallest permissible size.
TOLERANCE; It is the difference between the upper and lower limit of the permitted
variation from the nominal size.
Tolerance may be allowed either on one side only of the nominal size or across the nominal
size.
Allowance; The variation for the purpose of providing different classes of fit is known as
allowance.
The various allowance for different fits may be obtained either;
a) By keeping the hole constant and varying the shaft diameter to give the fit require.
b) Keeping the shafts constant and varying the hole.
Keeping the hole constant is called the hole basis whilst the reverse is called the shaft
basis.
In a specific type of fit, the difference between hole size and shaft size is called allowance.
Positive allowance specifies a clearance fit while negative allowance specifies interference or
force fit.

CLASSFICATION OF FITS

FITS

Clearance fit Transition fit Interference fit

Sliding fit Running fit Light Push fit force fit/shrink fit press fit/driving fit
keying fit

There are three major classes of fits

Clearance fit
Interference fit
Transition fit
INTERFERENCE FIT
In interference fit, mating parts in sub-assembly are joined tightly together and no relative
motion is possible.
The minimum permitted diameter of the shaft is larger than the maximum allowable diameter
of hole i.e. the shaft is slightly larger than the hole or bearing into which it is to be fitted.
During fitting, some force or heat must be used to obtain the correct assembly and is unlikely
that the parts will be separated except for replacement.
Examples are valve seat inserts and fly wheel ring gears.
s
CLEARANNCE FIT
This is one in which two assembled parts are always free to move relative to each other in the
assembly. Hear the shaft is a small amount less in diameter than the hole.
In the clearance fit, the largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter of the
smallest hole.
TRANSITION FIT.
Between the zones of interference and clearance, there exists a range of fits which are neither
one nor interference nor clearance. These are called transition fits.
In this type of fit, the diameter of the largest allowable hole is greater than that of the smallest
shaft but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft, so that small positive or negative
clearance between the shaft and hole member is employable.
DEFINITION OF FITS
a) Running fit; A smooth easy (but not loose) fit for the purpose of a moving bearing
pair.
b) Push fit; Can be assembled with light hand pressure (locating plugs, dowels etc.)
c) Driving or press fit; Can be assembled with a hammer or by medium pressure. Gives a
semi-permanent fit such as is necessary for a keyed pulley on a shaft.
d) Force fit; Require great pressure to assemble and gives a permanent fit. Used for
wheels and hubs on shafts from which they are never likely to be removed.
To provide for various kinds of engagement between the shaft and the hole, there
must be variations in the difference between their average sizes.
For a running fit, the shaft is a small amount less in diameter than the hole (clearance
fit), whilst to obtain a force fit, the shaft must be a little larger than the hole
(interference fit).
Between the zones of interference and clearance there exists a range of fits which are
neither one nor the other. These are called transition fits.