PART A: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND MAP READING

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Objectives
i. Draw a labeled diagram of the internal structure of the earth
ii. Describe the characteristics of the different layers of the internal structure of
the earth.
iii. Explain the continental drift theory
iv. Explain the plate tectonic theory
v. Describe features produced along plate boundaries
vi. Describe mountain building process associated with plate tectonic.
vii. Analyze the effects of mountain building process on human activity
The earth is the planet in which we live and is divided into the following parts
a) The lithosphere
b) Hydrosphere
c) Atmosphere
THE LITHOSPHERE / CRUST
 The uppermost part of the mantle is solid. This solid portion of the mantle and
the crust above it makes the Lithosphere.
 It consist of
- Soil
- Mass of hard rock ( where soil lies)
 It is divided into
i. Continental crust
ii. Oceanic crust
A. Continental Crust
 This is sometimes referred to as SIAL
 SIAL-This is the upper part of the earth‟s crust comprising of lighter
rocks e.g. granite
- Its mineral composition consist of Silica and Aluminum hence SIAL
- This part forms the continents
B. Oceanic crust
 This is sometimes referred to as SIMA
 SIMA: - This is the lowest part of the earth‟s crust comprising of dense
rocks e.g. basalt
-Its mineral composition consists of Silica, Iron and Magnesium collectively
known as SIMA
- The continent is believed to be floating on the layer of denser SIMA
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The internal structure of the earth consist of
i. Inner core (barysphre)
ii. Outer core
iii. Mantle (mesosphere) (Refer to the diagram below)

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1. THE CORE/BARYSPHRE
 The core is divided into two parts namely
 Inner core
 Outer core
a. The Inner Core
 It is solid
 It consists of Iron (fe) and Nickel, collectively called NIFE
 Its temperatures are very high therefore subject to high pressure hence liquid
(however recent studies have shown that core is a solid mass)
 Its density is about 13.6g cm-3
b. The Outer Core
 It is liquid
 Consist largely of iron
 Its density is about 10-12g cm-3
 The earth‟s magnetic field is believed to be generated in this layer.
Note: Gutenberg discontinuity separates the core from the mantle
2. THE MANTLE/MESOSPHRE
 It is found between core and crust
 It is solid, consist of lower density material known as Peridotite
 Its density is 4-5g cm-3
 The upper part is capable of flowing
 It is composed of silicate minerals
 It is approximately 2900 km thick
Note: Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) separates mantle from the crust.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT/EARTH CRUST MOVEMENT

 The theory states that the earth was once one large mass known as PANGEA
which means „all lands‟ .The land was surrounded by huge ocean known as
PANTHALASSA which means “all seas”
 The internal movements within the earth‟s crust caused the pangea to be
fragmented into large plate like segments which means plate tectonic
referring to breaking of old major continent pangea into the present
continents.

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 This theory was developed by Alfred Wegener (Vay gen ner) in 1915, he was
a meteorologist and geologist.
Causes of plate motion
 The main cause of lithosphere plates is motion convection (see diagram
bellow)

 Tidal influence on the moon

EVIDENCE THAT THE EARTH WAS ONE LAND MASS
 Similarity of fossils found on both sides of Atlantic coast and especially east
coast of south America and West Coast of South Africa. The presence of
similar land based animals on both sides (see figure below).

 Similarity in the structure and rock type, that is rock of Eastern coast of
American continent and the West Coast of Africa and North coast of Africa
and Europe e.g. Rocks found at cape of Africa and North coast of Africa.
(See figure below).
 Coast line fit (jig-saw) – The coast of continents fit if the continents are put or
joined together e.g. South America and South Africa as illustrated below

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 Formation of coal – Coal is believed to have been formed in areas in areas
with equatorial climate. But large scale coal deposits are found in areas
which do not have such characteristics e.g. Britain
 Study of magnetism in ancient rock – Rocks that have different alignment
along boundaries shows that originally were not where they are but moved.
WEAKNESS OF THE THEORY
 The theory only dealt with continental crust and did not include the crust
beneath the ocean.
 No explanation of what led to movement of Pangaea apart
 The theory suggested that one of the causes of plate motion was tidal
influence on the moon yet if this was true meant that tidal friction of the
magnitude needed to displace the continents would bring the earth‟s
rotation to a halt, in a matter of few years.
 No evidence existed to suggest that the ocean floor was weak enough to
permit passage of the continents without themselves being deformed in the
process.
 Some of the plants that were found on the other side of the continents could
be due to seed dispersal.
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
Objectives
i. Explain the plate tectonic theory
ii. Describe features produced along plate boundaries
 This is the theory that describes continental movements and also explains
how and why continents move.
 The term tectonic comes from Greek word „tektonikos’, which means
construction.
 Tectonic activity is the breaking and bending (deforming of rocks in the
earth‟s crust due to different forces
 The earth crust consists of two types of crusts, oceanic crust and continental
crust.
 The figure below shows crustal plates formed due to earth movements.

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 Crustal plates are portions of the crust (lithosphere) that float on molten
underlying material.
 Places where plates collide are called plate boundaries
Causes of tectonic activity
 The plates consist of an outer layer of the Earth, the lithosphere, which is cool
enough to behave as a more or less rigid shell.
 The lithosphere due to pressure is broken into separate plates that float on a
denser asthenosphere like block of wood that float on water.
 Convection Cells - Thought to be primary driving force for plate motion.
Unequal heat distribution in the mantle may produce convection cells below
the lithosphere. Hot material rises (correlates to spreading center), spreads
laterally, cools and sinks deeper into the mantle to be reheated.
FEATURES PRODUCED ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES
 There are different types of plate‟s boundaries and these produce different
features
1. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
 This is where crust is destroyed as one plate dives (meet) under another as
shown below;

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Types of collisions at Convergent boundaries
i. The first type occurs when a plate with oceanic crust at its leading edge collides
with a plate with continental crust at its edge.
 Oceanic crust being denser is sub ducted or forced under continental crust.
 Result into volcanism
 Examples are Andes and Cascades

ii. The second type of collision occurs when two plates with continental crust at the
leading edges come together hence colluding edges crumple and uplift
producing large mountain ranges e.g. Himalaya Mountains result from folding

iii. The third type of collision occurs when oceanic crust collides with oceanic crust
and these form;
a. Oceanic Islands b. Oceanic deep/trench c. Oceanic ridges

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 Examples are Philippines, Japan, and Aleutian islands
2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
 This occurs where two plates move away from each other as shown below;

 As plate move apart, molten rock from asthenosphere rises and fills the space
between the plates creating new oceanic crust.
 Most of these boundaries are found on the ocean floor
 There location are marked by mid-oceanic ridge
 In the center of mid-ocean ridge formed a valley called rift valley.
3. TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARY
 Occurs where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide
horizontally past each other.
 Plate edges do not slide along smoothly instead they scrape together and
move in a series of sudden spurts of activity separated by periods of little or
no motion. E.g. San Andreas fault in California.
NOTE:
 Earths movements explained above may result into folding and volcanism.
These movements may be either lateral/ sideways (Orogenic) or Vertical
(Epeorogenic which are cause by two forces namely
i. Compression force
ii. Tensional force
MOUNTAIN BULIDING PROCESSES

There are five basic kinds of mountains:

1. Fold Mountains (Folded Mountains)

2. Fault-block Mountains (Block Mountains)
3. Dome Mountains
4. Volcanic Mountains
5. Plateau Mountains

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1. FOLD MOUNTAINS

THE FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

1. Where an area of sea separates two plates, sediments settle on the sea floor in
depressions called geosynclines. These sediments gradually become
compressed into sedimentary rock.
2. When the two plates move towards each other again, the layers of sedimentary
rock on the sea floor become crumpled and folded.
3. Eventually the sedimentary rock appears above sea level as a range of Fold
Mountains.
Note:
 Where the rocks are folded upwards, they are called anticlines. Where
the rocks are folded downwards, they are called synclines. Severely
folded and faulted rocks are called nappes.

 Examples of Fold Mountains include:

i. Himalayan Mountains in Asia

ii. the Alps in Europe
iii. the Andes in South America
iv. the Rockies in North America
v. the Urals in Russia

 The Himalayan Mountains were formed when India crashed into Asia and
pushed up the tallest mountain range on the continents.
 South America, the Andes Mountains were formed by the collision of the
South American continental plate and the oceanic Pacific plate

CLASSIFICATION OF FOLDS
 Folds can be classified based on their appearance.

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 If the two limbs of the fold dip away from the axis with the same angle, the
fold is said to be a symmetrical fold / simple fold as shown below;

 If the limbs dip at different angles,

the folds are said to be ASYMMETRICAL FOLDS
as shown beside

 If the folding is so intense that

the strata on one limb of the fold
become nearly upside down, the
fold is called an OVERTURNED
FOLD as shown below

 An overturned fold with an axial

plane that is nearly horizontal is
called a RECUMBENT FOLD.

 A fold that has no curvature in its

hinge and straight-sided limbs that
form a zigzag pattern is called a
CHEVRON FOLD.

FEATURES FORMED DUE TO FOLDING INCLUDE

i. Ridges
ii. Valleys
iii. Escarpments
iv. Fold mountains

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

i. They are high

ii. Some of them are formed in parallel sets
iii. They have igneous rocks that form from the root

IMPORTANCE OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

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i. Ridges in folded mountains make good areas for forestry
ii. Their valleys make rich agricultural areas
iii. Some folded areas are rich in minerals such as limestone and coal.
iv. Folding helps in transformation of some resources into more
economically beneficial resources e.g. anthracite and slate.
v. Most fold mountains attract tourists
vi. They help to bring rainfall.

2. F A U L T - B L O C K M O U N T A I N S

 These mountains form when faults or cracks in the earth's crust force some
materials or blocks of rock up and others down.
 Instead of the earth folding over, the earth's crust fractures (pulls apart). It
breaks up into blocks or chunks. Sometimes these blocks of rock move up
and down, as they move apart and blocks of rock end up being stacked on
one another.

 Often fault-block Mountains have a steep front side and a sloping back side.
 Causes of folds

i. Stress of the rock mass that is tensional forces lead to the stretching of
the crust or compression force that tend to squeeze the rock together.
ii. Faults occur in rocks that are old and usually become hard such that
when compressed or pulled apart they don‟t bend but break.

 Results of fault occurrence

i. Rocks slips: this is where layers of rocks get separated.

ii. Displacement along the plane of breakage takes place.
iii. Earthquake.

EXAMPLES OF FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS INCLUDE:

i. the Sierra Nevada mountains in North America

ii. the Harz Mountains in Germany
iii. Ruwenzori (Congo/Uganda border)
iv. Ethiopian Highlands

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v. Congo horst
vi. Khana mountain in Namibia

TYPES OF FAULTS

i. HALF-GRABENS /NORMAL FAULT

 This is the fault which has a curved fault plane with the dip decreasing with
depth can cause the down-dropped block to rotate. In such a case a half-
graben is produced, called such because it is bounded by only one fault
instead of the two that form a normal graben as shown below;

 If the hanging wall of a fault appears to have moved down the fault, then
the fault is called NORMAL FAULT

ii. REVERSE/ THRUST FAULT

 If the hanging wall of a fault appears to have moved up the fault, then the
fault is said to be reverse or thrust fault.
 Below is the process from which a reverse fault is formed

iii. STRIKE FAULT

 If the movement along the fault is horizontal, then the fault is called Strike slip
as shown below

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 Features formed due to faulting
i . Valleys (rift valley) or Grabens
ii. Lakes(rift valley lakes)
iii. Block mountains
iv. Fault scarps
3. D O M E M O U N T A I N S
 Dome Mountains are the result of a great amount of melted rock (magma)
pushing its way up under the earth crust. Without actually erupting onto the
surface, the magma pushes up overlaying rock layers.
 The magma cools and forms hardened rock. The uplifted area created by
rising magma is called a dome because of looking like the top half of a
sphere (ball).
 The rock layers over the hardened magma are warped upward to form the
dome. But the rock layers of the surrounding area remain flat.

 As the dome is higher than its surroundings, erosion by wind and rain occurs
from the top.
 This results in a circular mountain range. Domes that have been worn away in
places form many separate peaks called Dome Mountains.

4. V O L C A N I C M O U N T A I N S

 As the name suggests, volcanic mountains are formed by volcanoes.

 Volcanic Mountains are formed when molten rock (magma) deep within the
earth, erupts, and piles upon the surface. Magma is called lava when it
breaks through the earth's crust. When the ash and lava cools, it builds a
cone of rock. Rock and lava pile up, layer on top of layer
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 Examples of volcanic mountains include:

i. Mount St. Helens in North America

ii. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines
iii. Mount Kea and Mount Loa in Hawaii

5. P L A T E A U M O U N T A I N S ( E R O S I O N M O U N T A I N S )

 These mountains are formed by erosion.

 Plateaus are large flat areas that have been pushed above sea level by
forces within the Earth, or have been formed by layers of lava.
 Plateau Mountains are often found near folded mountains. As years pass,
streams and rivers erode valleys through the plateau, leaving mountains
standing between the valleys.
 The mountains in New Zealand are examples of Plateau Mountains.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. a. Explain continental drift theory.
b. With aid of diagrams where possible give any three evidences that the
earth was one super continent.
c. What are the weaknesses of continental drift theory (give three)
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d. explain the causes of the disintegration of pangea.
2. Explain the different kinds of plate boundaries.
3. Explain with an aid of a diagram how Ethiopian highland were formed.
4. a. Differentiate simple fold from recumbent fold.
b. Give ant two features formed due to folding
4. Define the following terms
a) Lithosphere b). Sial
5. With the aid of a clearly labeled diagram describe the internal structure of the
earth.
6. Give any two features formed when oceanic plate meets another oceanic plate.
7. Study figure below which shows plate boundaries .Use it to answer Questions that
follow

i. Identify this type of plate boundary.

ii. Name any one Physical feature which is likely to be found along this
plate boundary
iii. Describe the two types of plate boundaries

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ROCKS
Objectives
i. Define a rock
ii. Explain the formation of rocks
iii. Identify different types of rocks
iv. Explain how rock are classified
v. Explain characteristics of rocks
vi. Assess the importance of rocks.

 This is any naturally formal aggregate of minerals

 Rocks are classified according to the following factors
i. Texture
ii. Structure
iii. Permeability
iv. Degree of resistance to erosion
Generally rocks may be classified according to origin and appearance
TYPES OF ROCKS
There are three types of rocks
i. IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Igneous rocks are created when magma (molten rock under the
Earth‟s crust) cools and becomes solid.
 The name comes from Latin word „ignis‟ which means fire.
 These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten
material called magma from the interior of the earth crust.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
i. They are crystalline in nature
ii. They do not occur in strata
iii. They contain no fossils
iv. They are less dense and lighter in colour e.g. granite
v. They contain basic oxides formed from magnesium or aluminum
vi. They contain high proportion of silica which are said to be acidic
There are two classes of igneous rocks
a) PLUTONIC OR INTRUSIVE ROCKS
 These are formed when magma cools deep down the earth crust and
have large crystals because they cool slowly.
Examples are
i. Granite
ii. Diorite
iii. Gabbro
iv. Periodite

b) VOLCANIC OR EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

– These are formed when magma cools on the surface of the earth and have
small crystals because they cool faster.
Examples of these rocks are
 Obsidian
 Pumice
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 IGNEOUS ROCKS IN DIAGRAMS
 Rhyolite
 Basalt etc

ii. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 These are rocks formed from accumulation and hardening of sediments of
sand, silt and other materials.
 These are rocks that originate from rocks through sediments that come from
the breaking of rocks.
 These rocks are formed from sediments that are transported and
accumulated below water bodies or at any undisturbed place then become
compressed to form layers of sedimentary rocks.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
i. They are hot crystalline in nature
ii. They form in layers or they are stratified and each layer of sedimentary rock is
known as stratum.

iii. They have fossils

Examples of these rocks are
 Sandstones
 Gravel chalk
 Conglomerate
 Sedimentary rocks are formed in three ways;
a. Mechanically/physically b. Organically c. Chemically.
a. . MECHANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 These are formed by accumulation of both organic and inorganic materials
collected together e.g. sandstone formed from sand grains
 The coarser sand stone is called GRIT
 Where pebbles are connected together the stone formed is called
CONGLOMERATE
 Angular pebbles form a stone called BRECCIA
b. ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

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 These are formed from the remains of organic matter such as coral shells, fish
whose fresh have decomposed leaving hard shells e.g. limestone, chalk, coal
etc.
c. CHEMICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
These are formed from evaporation of salt lakes with potash nitrate. SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS IN DIAGRAMS

PROCESS INVOLVED IN SEDIMENTARY ROCK FOMATION

iii. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

 These are rock formed through the process of metamorphism.
 The existing rock change in the nature of original rock when subjected to
environments or conditions that are different from those which they were
formed by either of the following
i. By compression from the weight of overlying rock
ii. Movements inside the earth‟s crust
iii. By heat from pressure within the crust or nearness to flow of igneous rocks.
iv. By chemical action i.e water containing other minerals changes the form of the
rock.
 The type of rocks are commonly found in the following areas
i. Shields ii. Eroded mountain range s iii. Volcanic areas
CHARACTERISTICS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
i. These rocks are not permanent because they are greatly altered by intense
earth movement
 Examples of these rocks include;
i. Slate which changed from clay
ii. Marble which changed from limestone.
iii. Quartzite which changed from sandstone
iv. Schist changed from shale
v. Graphite changed from coal

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METAMORPHIC ROCKS IN DIAGRAMS

ROCK CYCLE
 The rock cycle represents the alteration of rock-forming minerals above and below
the earth's surface.
 The rock cycle illustrates how rocks formed and altered by erosion, heat and
pressure to form new rock types.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ROCKS

i. Rock helps in the formation of soil through the process of weathering
ii. Clay is used in brick making for building construction
iii. Limestone is used for cement making
iv. Rocks are also used for decorations
v. Some rocks are precious as such they are source of income after extraction e.g.
gold.
vi. Source of energy e.g. coal

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SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Below is a diagram of a rock cycle, study it and answer the questions that follow;

i. Name the rock type labeled b

ii. Explain processes involved at a.
2. Give any four economic importance of rocks.
3. a. What is the difference between plutonic igneous rock and volcanic rocks?
b. Give three characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
4. i. What type of rock is granite?
ii. Why are sedimentary rocks stratified?

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WEATHERING

Objectives

i. Define weathering
ii. Explain different types of weathering
iii. Explain different weathering processes.

 All rocks are vulnerable to weathering; this is "the breakdown and decay of rocks
in-situ related to elements of the weather (e.g. temperature, rainfall, frost etc.)"
(although biological weathering - does not directly involve elements of the
weather, it is still classed as a weathering process).
 Do NOT confuse with erosion (erosion - involves the breakdown and removal of
material - weathering occurs "in-situ")
 Weathering is the first stage in the denudation of the landscape. Rocks are
weakened and loosened by weathering processes. This weakened material is
then removed by agents of erosion (e.g. ice, water etc.)

 Weathering can be classified into Physical, Chemical and biological

Weathering)

A.PHYSICAL WEATHERING

 Physical weathering is also known as mechanical weathering and it involves the

physical breakdown of rock - it does not involve chemical change.

i. Freeze thaw

 This is the breakdown of rocks due to

the expansion of water during freezing, a process common

in upland Britain where evening temperatures often fluctuate

around 0oC.

 Freeze thaw is most effective in jointed rock (e.g. granite) during freezing, water
expands by 9% in volume.
 Water freezing in cracks in rocks, exerts pressure.
 Alternating freeze-thaw cycles gradually force the rock to split or cause rock
fragments to break off.
 Where this process occurs on steep slopes, rock fragments collect at the base of
the slope due to gravity in the form of a scree slope.

ii. Pressure release (also known as dilation)

 Rocks such as granite, formed as igneous intrusions are formed under pressure.

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 When weathering and erosion removes overlying rocks, the pressure is released
and the underlying rock expands.
 This expansion results in the fracturing of the rock, which weakens it by making it
susceptible to other weathering agents.
 If cracks develop parallel to the surface, sheeting of rock layers may occur.

iii. Thermal expansion (insolation weathering)

 This process results from large diurnal temperature ranges which result in heating
and cooling of the rock.
 When heated, expansion of the rock occurs, whilst during cooling the rock
contracts. This expansion and contraction during cycles of temperature change
results in stresses in the rock layers.
 Outer layers of rock heat and cool quicker than inner layers and over time the
upper layers flake / peel off (exfoliation).

 It should be noted that the effectiveness of this process is heavily debated and
some believe that it is only really effective when water is also present.

iv. salt crystallisation

 Water passing through crevasses and joints in rocks, may be saline (carrying salts
in solution).
 As the water evaporates, the dissolved salts precipitate and crystallize forming
salt crystals.
 This may also take place where in rocks such as chalk, the rock is decomposed
by solution to form salt solutions such as sodium carbonate which will then
crystallize upon evaporation of the moisture.
 The salts may expand up to 3x their original size, and therefore the crystals put
stresses upon the rock as they grow, resulting in granular disintegration (gradually
breaking off individual grains of rock).

B. CHEMICAL WEATHERING

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 Chemical weathering is where rocks are decomposed by chemical reaction
between elements of the weather and rock minerals, resulting in either the
alteration of a rock's internal mineral structure or the formation of new minerals
(e.g. feldspar forming Kaolin in the process of hydrolysis).
 Weakened rock or the consequent deposits are then more easily removed by
erosion processes.
 Water plays a key role in most chemical reactions and also provides a transport
mechanism for other elements that carry out weathering.
 Chemical weathering is most dominant in hot and humid areas such as
equatorial zones and least effective where there is little rain such as in desert or
Polar Regions (where most water is held as ice).
 The susceptibility of rocks to chemical weathering is determined by the types of
minerals they contain and their mineral structure. There are a number of different
types of chemical weathering.

i. Oxidation

 The exposure of rocks to oxygen in air or water can result in a reaction between
the oxygen and iron-based minerals in the rocks.
 Iron readily oxidises and during oxidation, blue grey ferrous iron (Fe2+) is
transformed to red ferric iron (Fe3+).
 This causes a weakening of the rock structure enabling them to crumble easily
and making them more susceptible to other weathering processes.

ii. Carbonation

 Rainwater contains dissolved CO2 which forms a weak carbonic acid (H20 + C02
= H2C03). Carbonic acid is able to react with calcium carbonate (common in
rocks such as limestone and chalk) to form calcium bicarbonate which is then
easily removed in solution in water.
 Limestone is gradually dissolved in this way as the calcium carbonate is
converted to calcium bicarbonate and carried away in solution by running
water.

iii. Solution

 Water can act as a solvent by breaking down chemical bonds in minerals

causing them to dissolve in a process known as solution - carbonation is
therefore a form of solution although it is mineral specific in relation to calcium
carbonate.
 Solution rates tend to increase with an increased acidity of water.

iv. Hydrolysis

 This is where acidic water reacts with rock forming minerals such as feldspar.
 This is a common process in the weathering of granite.
 Hydrogen ions in the water displace potassium ions in the feldspar.
 This causes the feldspar to break down into a secondary mineral, Kaolin (China
Clay).

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 Whilst the feldspar in granite decomposes, the quartz and mica remain relatively
unaffected but the structure weakened.

v. Hydration

 This occurs as the addition of water causes minerals in rock to swell (by about
0.5%) due to a chemical reaction as the mineral absorbs water ('hydrates'), thus
involving both chemical and physical (mechanical weathering).
 The formation of gypsum when water combines with anhydrite (CaS04
(anhydrite) + 2H20 (water) = CaS04.2H20 (gypsum)).
 Gypsum is fairly soluble and can then be fairly easily removed by solution.

C. Biological Weathering

 Usually consists of a combination of physical (growth of Roots into joints in rocks)

and chemical (e.g. impact of organic acids) processes.

i. Tree Roots

 As roots of plants and trees grow downwards, they often enter and exploit cracks
joints in rock.
 As they grow they are able to gradually wedge the joints further apart, eventually
resulting in detachment of rock fragments (similar to freeze-thaw)

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ii. Organic Acids

 As roots as well as surface litter decays, organic acids are released into the ground.
Percolating rainwater moves these acids further down and the organic acids may
react with minerals in the rock through a process called chelation.
 The combination of rainwater and organic acids combines with aluminum and iron
which are washed out of the soil.
 Respiration of bacteria and tree roots also releases C02 which when becomes
dissolved in water forms a weak carbonic acid which can increase the chemical
weathering process, carbonation.

iii. Animal Activity

 Burrowing animals help to open up joints in rock and also help to bring rock
fragments to the surface, where they are exposed to further weathering.
 At the coast, animals such as limpets increase the rate of chemical weathering
through the acids secreted as they cling to rock surfaces.

SAMPLE QUESTION

1. Define the following terms in weathering

a. Exfoliation b. solution
2. Differentiate freezing thaw from crstallisation as physical processes of
weathering.
3. With and aid of a diagram explain how plant roots contribute in weathering
process.
4. Explain the following process of weathering

a. Physical weathering
b. Biological weathering.

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VOLCANOES
Objectives
i. Explain formation of volcanoes
ii. Locate major areas of volcanic activity
iii. Assess effects of volcanism.

 Volcanoes are vents (openings) in the ground from which magma (molten rock),
ash, gas, and rock fragments surge upwards, in an event called an eruption.
 They are often found at boundaries between the plates in Earth‟s crust. Volcanic
eruptions produce volcanoes of different shapes, depending on the type of
eruption and the region‟s geology. HYDROTHERMAL ACTIVITY occurs where
underground water is heated by rising magma.
 Volcanic activity is closely connected with crustal disturbances particularly
where there are zones of weakness due to folding and faulting.
 As the temperature increases with increasing depth below the earth crust, the
interior of the earth is expected to be in a semi- acid state. This liquid is called
MAGMA. The magma can force its way through the cracks/fault. Some of the
magma can be erupted to surface of the crust by activities and from volcanoes
or lava floor.
 Some of the magma may solidify within the crust and form different intrusive
features as illustrated below;

 Crustal disturbance caused by deep faulting or rock folding due to collision of

crustal plates permit magma to come out.
 Volcanic features formed in crust (Intrusive)
i. Batholith ii. Sill iii. Dyke
i. SILL- This is magma sheet lying along the bedding plain.
ii. Dyke – this is a wall like feature formed across the bedding plane and lie
vertically or inclined. If exposed to the surface they may act as a ridge or an
escarpment.

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iii.Batholith – Large mass of magma which after removed of overlying rocks form a
resistant upland region
iv. Lacolith – Dome shape mound with level bone fed by a pipe or conduit from
below
 Features formed on the surface (extrusive)
iv. Caldera lake iii. Lava plateau iii. Spine or plug
NOTE:
 Volcanoes are difficult to predict but scientists have done this by developing
some warning systems. These detect possible volcanoes. This is done by looking
possible conditions that precede volcanoes
 The condition that precedes volcanic eruption is earthquakes or earth tremors.
The do occur because magma beneath that rises to force its way out.
TYPES OF VOLCANIC LAVA
1. BASIC LAVA
Characteristics of basic lava
 They are very hot and highly fluid
 They are poor in silica
 They flow quietly affecting extensive area
 They give rise to lava plains and plateaus
 They are rich in iron and magnesium and are dark in colour.
2. ACID LAVA
Characteristics of acid lava
 They are vicious (thick)
 They flow slowly
 They are explosive, often throwing out volcanic bomb or pyroclasts.
 They give rise to steep-sided cones.
 They are rich in silver and are light in colour.
 They produce fine dust, ash and fragments of rocks
 They produce rocks that are dense and lighter in colour.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
1. ACTIVE VOLCANOES
 These are volcanoes that are known to erupt frequently and are expected
any time.
 Examples are: i. Stromboli (Italy) ii. Asama (Japan)
iii. Nyiragongo and Nyamlagira (Congo/DRC)
iv. Erte Ele (Ethiopia)
2. DORMANT VOLCANOES
 These are volcanoes that have not erupted in recent times but could erupt
anytime.
 They are said to be sleeping
 Examples are: i. Lassen Peak (California) ii. Paricutin (Mexico)
3. DEAD OR EXTINCT VOLCANOES
 These refer to those volcanoes that stopped or cease to erupt.
 They may have features associated with volcanoes but never erupt.
 Examples are: i. Mount Kenya ii. Mount Elgon

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WORLD MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

STRUCTURE OF A VOLCANIC CONE

TYPES OF VOLCANIC CONE

1. Ash/Cinder Cones
 These result from small volcanoes( minor eruption)
 They form dust, ash and fragments(cinders) that accumulate after explosion and
form a small- hill like structure (cone)
 The cones formed are relatively small
 The slopes are steep such that wind easily erode the dust that accumulates
 Examples include Paricutin (Mexico)
2. COMPOSITE CONE / STRATO VOLCANOES
 They are formed from big volcanoes
 When they erupt there is steam, rock fragments (cinders), very big rocks (bombs),
and ash and lava flow.
 Sometimes they are built of layers of ash and lava
 They are high and steep
 Examples include: mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) and mount Kenya.
FEATURES FROMED FROM VOLCANIC ACTION
i. Lava domes

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 These are formed from lava that flow without explosion and its fluid
 They are formed from lava issuing from extensive cracks
 Lava spreads extensively and form gentle slopes.
ii. Caldera lakes
 A caldera is a depression that forms on upper part of a pre-existing volcano.
 It is formed either by the top of the already existing cone blown off or if rocks that
formed the pre-existing volcano are broken down and become part of the
volcano as illustrated below;

 Example of this lake is Lake Toba in Sumatra.

iii. Lava Plateau
 Fluid lava give rise to lava plane or plateau
 They are rocky, high and steep with fairly flat tops
 They give rise to important rivers that flow with speed and ideal for Hydro-
electric generation.
 Their tops are sometimes ideal for forestry
 Others contain valuable mineral e.g. bauxite
 Example is Deccan plateau.
iv. Lava domes/ Shield volcanoes
 These are formed from lava that flow without an explosion and is fluid.
 A shield is a large area of ancient rocks. These rocks are usually igneous and
metamorphic which have been exposed.
 The rocks in a shield are resistant to erosion.
 Shields are found in area that have for a long time been un disturbed due to
earth movement except for erosion.
v. Spines or Plug
 These result from vicious lava
 These are formed at the crater
vi. Hot Spring
 These are springs that ooze hot or warm water
 Water underneath the earth crust is heated and forced to rise to the surface
quietly (without explosion)
vii. Geysers
 A Geyser is a hole in the earth's crust, spouting fountains of boiling water. Hot
rock heats up water in an underground chamber and when the water boils, it
sends out a fountain of boiling water, up to 500 metres.
 Water is usually ejected with an explosion

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GOOD AND BAD SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES.
1. GOOD EFFECT
v. Ash that fall may change the soil to become fertile
vi. They give rise to beautiful and attractive sceneries and these do attract tourists.
E.g. mount Kenya and Mount Kilimanjaro
vii. They bring about precious minerals that are of economic important e.g.
Diamond.
viii. Lakes (crater) that are formed provide water to people e.g. Ngorongoro and
L.Ngozi (Tanzania), L. Shaka (Ethiopia).
ix. Some volcanoes produce geothermal energy which can be used for in homes
and industries e.g. geothermal energy is used to produce electricity in Mexico.
x. They produce hot water through spring which is used by people to heat homes.
xi. They help scientists to know about the interior of the earth.
2. BAD EFFECTS
1. They cause destruction of villages, towns and cities.
2. Eruption of volcanoes may causes large waves in oceans and seas called
(Tsunami) which affects coastal areas.
3. Sometimes they give rise to un productive agricultural land.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. a. Define „volcano‟
b. what are the three stages of a volcano
2. Give ant three constructive effects of a volcanic eruption
3. What is a difference between a spring and a geyser?
4. Explain any two differences between a basic lava and acid lava.

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EARTHQUAKE

Objectives
i. Define earthquake
ii. Explain causes of earthquake
iii. Describe effects of earthquakes
iv. Locate areas where earthquakes occur
v. Explain relationships among fold mountains, earthquakes and volcanic zones
 An earthquake is a vibration of the Earth produced by a rapid release of energy
 These are shaking or vibration of the ground that originate from the point known
as FOCUS in the rocks of the earth.
 These are shaking of the ground caused by deep-seated disturbances,
producing series of elastic shock waves spreading outwards from the EPICENTRE
 FOCUS is a point in the interior of the earth where an earthquake originate
 Epicentre is a point on the earth‟s surface which is directly above the focus and
its where the impact of earthquake is felt first and it is great.
 Its impact is greater at the epicenter because this is the point which is nearest
the focus from the earth‟s surface.
 Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes generated by adjustments following a major
earthquake.
 Earthquakes are measured at Seismographic station by seismologists

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES.
 The origin of earthquakes is ultimately the jostling between moving plates which
produces the strain within the lithosphere that must be relieved by earthquakes.
 Pressure builds up along the fault lines and eventually slips, sending shock waves

i. Earthquakes are caused when tension is released from the rocks in the Earth's
crust and upper mantle. This tension is due to friction between large 'plates' floating
on magma on the Earth‟s surface.
ii. Sometimes earthquakes happen when the rocks in the earth's crust bend and
break. This causes shock waves to travel on the earth's surface, resulting in
widespread destruction.
iii. Human activities e.g. explosion – these cause earth tremors

v. Volcanoes or earth movement

vi. Extensive landslides may cause tremors.
Classification of earthquakes
 Earthquakes are classified according to the depth of their origin

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 The Mercalli Scale (Ritcher scale) relies on how much damage is caused by an
earthquake.
I Only felt by instruments. VII Most people run outdoors. Damage
to weakly constructed buildings. Felt
by people in moving vehicles
II Felt by people at rest, especially on VIII Considerable damage to most
upper floors. Suspended objects buildings. Heavy furniture
may swing. overturned. Some sand fluidised.
III Felt indoors. Vibrations like passing IX Even well-designed and sturdy
traffic. buildings badly damaged, moved
from their foundations. Ground
cracks. Pipes break
IV Many people feel it indoors, a few X Most masonry destroyed. Landslides
outdoors. Crockery and windows occur. Water slops from reservoirs
rattle. Standing cars rock. Some and lakes. Railway lines bend.
sleepers awake.
V Felt by nearly everyone. Tall objects XI Few structures remain upright.
rock. Plaster cracks. Bridges fall. Extensive fissures in the
ground. Underground pipes totally
out of action
VI Most people run outdoors. Damage XII Total destruction. Ground thrown
to weakly constructed buildings. Felt into waves. Objects flung into the
by people in moving vehicles. air. You would be lucky to survive
this one

 The shallow earthquakes cause a lot of damage because they occur near to the
earth‟s surface.

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG FOLD MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC ZONES

i. Areas where there is folding result into crustal disturbance which in turn cause
sudden shaking of the earth called earthquake
ii. Where there is a volcanic eruption, there is a disturbance in the earth crust and
this lead to earthquake and most of these occur along those zones

MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF EPICENTRES OF MAJOR EARTHQUAKES

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HAZARDOUS EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
i. They may cause buildings to collapse.
ii. They may mix power lines and cause short circuits that often cause fire.
iii. They induce landslides when they are highlands such as hills, mountains are
shaken.
iv. They cause large waves in the oceans called TSUNAMI which sink ships and boats
and cause damage to infrastructures along the coast.
v. People may loose their lives
vi. They make rivers to change direction
MEASURES TO AVOID DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
i. Complying to warning and orders by seismologist
ii. Buildings should be erected away from vulnerable areas e.g. along fault line or
near dormant volcanoes.
iii. Building in areas that often experience earthquakes should be furnished with
materials that can absorb the shock of the earthquake thereby sparing them
collapsing.
iv. Buildings should be made from materials that can not easily get disintegrated
e.g. wood materials, plastic or fiberglass.
Some term on earthquakes

i. Aftershocks: smaller earthquakes following the main earthquake

ii. Body waves: seismic waves that propagate from earthquake focus to the surface;
classified as primary (P) and secondary (S) waves
iii. Elastic Rebound Model: states that the sudden release of stored strain in rocks results
from movement along a fault
iv. Epicenter: location on Earth's surface that lies directly above the focus of an
earthquake
v. Focus: zone within Earth where rock displacement produces an earthquake
vi. Lithosphere: rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle
vii. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: measures the intensity of an earthquake

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viii. Richter scale: measures the magnitude of an earthquake
ix. Secondary effects: no tectonic surface processes that are directly related to
earthquake shaking
x. Seismograph: instrument that records earthquake waves, help locate the epicenter
and focus of an earthquake
xi. Surface waves: seismic waves that travel along the outer layer of the Earth; classified
as Love and Rayleigh waves

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HYDROSPHERE

Objectives
i. Explain the composition of the hydrosphere in relation to the earth‟s surface.
ii. Describe the main features of the hydrological cycle.
iii. Explain factors that can disturb hydrological cycle
iv. Explain importance of hydrological cycle,
v. Suggest ways of maintaining hydrological cycle.

 This describes the circulation and distribution of water on the surface of the land,
underground and in the air.
 It covers nearly 70% of the earth‟s surface.
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 It is the movement of water from the water bodies to the atmosphere, from there
to the land, and back to the water bodies.

 There are several basic processes in the hydrologic cycle. These can occur at
the same time and, except for rainfall, happen continuously:

i. Condensation: This refers to the changing of water vapor in the air to form droplets
that eventually merge and fall as rain.
ii. Precipitation: This refers to water droplets that fall from the atmosphere in from of rain,
mist or snow.
iii. Runoff: This is the water that does not soak into the ground or percolate into aquifers.
iv. Evapotranspiration

 Evaporation occurs when water is returned to the atmosphere in vapor form by

the combined effects of solar radiation, the energy source, and wind.
 The evaporation process occurring in plant leaves is called transpiration, and
together the processes are called evapotranspiration.

vi. Infiltration: This refers to diffusion of water into the earth surface.
vi. Percolation: This is the downward movement of water in the earth after it have

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infiltrated in the soil.
vii. Water table: This is the water found in the earth above the impervious rock.

Features

 These are the features in the Hydrological cycle

i. Trees
ii. Lakes/Oceans/Rivers
iii. Land
iv. Sun

IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

i. It maintains the water supply that is water, which is lost from water bodies and
plants, is brought back.
ii. It maintains life of living things such as plants and animals.
iii. Source of recreation, people tend to do sporting activities on some water bodies
such as lakes e.g. boat riding.
iv. Source of natural beauty of the environment.
HOW CAN HUMANS DISTURB HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE?
i. Cutting down trees carelessly, this will disturb hydrological cycle because trees
contribute to the cycle then upon being cut down transpiration will be reduced.
ii. Setting of harmful bushfires, these bush fires will result into clearing all grass hence
reducing transpiration.
iii. Dumping of industrial wastes in oceans, rivers and lakes result into water pollution
which will lead to acid rains.
iv. Pollution through ozone destruction, some human activities such as factory
fumes, smoke from cars will lead to ozone destruction
v. Overstocking, this is keeping of more number of animals than the area can
accommodate. Too much animals will result into overgrazing which will reduce
infiltration and also reduce transpiration since land will be bear. More cattle
means more methane which is one of the greenhouse gases.

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HOW CAN MAN MAINTAIN HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE?
i. Avoid careless cutting down of trees
ii. Avoid harmful bushfires
iii. Avoid dumping wastes in water bodies
iv. Avoid overstocking.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms
i. Evapotranspiration ii. Run- off iii. Percolation
2. With aid of well labeled diagram explain five processes involved in the hydrological
cycle.
3. a. Discuss any three ways how human can disturb hydrological cycle.
b. Give two importance of hydrological cycle.
c. Explain any three ways how man can maintain hydrological cycle

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OCEAN CURRENTS
Objectives
i. Define the following terms
i. Ocean currents ii. Continental drift( drift)
ii. Explain causes of ocean currents
iii. Name types of ocean currents
iv. Discuss factors that affect direction of 0cean currents.
v. Explain the effect of ocean currents on the following
i. Climate ii. Fishing iii. Shipping/water transport
vi. Locate warm and cold ocean currents on the World Map
Ocean Currents
 Is the large mass of conteously moving ocean water.
 Is a body of water, moving vertically or horizontally in a define direction
 Is the permanent or semi-permanent, horizontal movement of surface water of
ocean.
 Are the moving masses of water in the ocean.
Drift
 Is the slow movement of surface waters in the ocean under the influence of
prevailing wind.
 Refers to horizontal and vertical movements of ocean waters.
IMPORTANCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS TO MAN
i. Ocean currents permit countries and regions to trade with one another. Goods
can be moved in very large quantities by ship more cheaply than by any other
means.
ii. Some land margins would have colder winter if there were no warm currents in
the nearby ocean. This would have an adverse effect upon agricultural
activities.
iii. The ocean contains a valuable source of food such as fish found where warm
and cold currents meet.
CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS
There two movements of water in the ocean and these are
iv. Horizontal movements- Ocean currents
v. Vertical movements- the rising of bottom water and sinking of surface water
 These movements are caused by the following factors
a) Differences in temperature of Ocean water
b) The World Wind belt/ Wind
c) The Rotation of the earth/ Coriolis effect
d) Shape of the land masses.
e) Salinity
A. DIFFERENCE IN TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATER
 Waters from the poles are cool (the temperature are lower) and this water is
therefore cooled and descend and move towards the equator at the low
depth in the ocean.
 Tropical waters, temperature are high and the water is heated then expand
and move away toward the pole as illustrated in the diagram below:

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 The sun heats the atmosphere creating winds and moving the sea surface
through friction. This tends to drag water surface along as the wind blows over
earth.
 Heat from the sun also alters the density of surface water directly by changing
its temperature and or its salinity. If water is cooled or becomes Salter through
evaporation it becomes denser. This can result in the water column becoming
unstable, setting up density-dependent currents also known as THERMOHALINE
CIRCULATION.
B. ROTATION OF THE EARTH

 The rotation of the earth also affects the ocean currents through the Coriolis
force (the effect of the force produced by the earth‟s rotation on a body e.g.
water or air moving on its surface).
 Coriolis force causes water to move to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
 This exists because moving water is affected by friction with the earth only at the
seafloor and become the eastward linear velocity of the earth decreases from
maximum at the equator to zero at the poles. (The rotation, velocity however
does not change.
 The Coriolis force increases away from the equator.
C. SHAPE OF THE LAND MASSES.
 The angle of the coastline will affect the direction of moving mass of water
directing it in a certain path e.g. The current coming up due south in north
America will be turned to the north east by the coastline.
 Examples of the ocean currents whose direction have been influenced by
shape of the continents include;
i. North Atlantic Drift ii. Mozambique current
D. WORLD WIND BELTS.
 Global winds drag on the ocean‟s surface, causing the water to move in the
direction that the wind is blowing and thus create surface ocean currents.
Deflection of these currents by Earth‟s rotation produces spiral currents called
gyres.

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 Trade winds cause water to move towards the equator from the north-east and
south-east hence cause cold water to up well along the west coast of Africa.
 The examples of currents influenced by wind/world wind belts include the
following;
I. Canaries and Banguela currents in Africa
II. The California and Humboldt currents along the west coast of America.
E. TIDAL MOTION
 Tidal currents are most strongly influenced by motions of the moon.
- When the moon is at full or new phases, the tidal current velocities are
strong and are called spring currents. When the moon is at first or third
quarter phases, tidal current velocities are weak and are called neap
currents.

TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

There are two types of ocean currents namely;
a) COLD OCEAN CURRENTS
 These are ocean currents that originate from the cool regions of the world
such as polar region.
 Examples of such ocean currents
i. Labrador current
ii. Canaries current
iii. Kamchatka current
iv. West Australian Current
v. Banguela current
vi. California current
WARM OCEAN CURRENTS
 these are ocean currents that originate from the warm regions of the world
such as the tropical regions.
 Examples of such ocean currents include
i. Brazilian current
ii. Kurosiwo current
iii. North Atlantic drift - Mozambique Current
iv. East Australian Current

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OCEAN CURRENTS OF THE WORLD

EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

A. i. WARM OCEAN CURRENTS

 They bring the rain to the coast
 They raise temperature of the coastal regions
 They provide warmth for the growth of the planktons
ii. COLD OCEAN CURRENTS
 They lower temperatures of the coastal regions
 The bring little or no rains
 Since they bring no rain as such they encourage desert development.
FACTORS AFFECTING DIRECTION OF OCEAN CURRENTS
1. Wind – This will influence the direction in such a way that large masses of water
will move according to the direction where wind is blowing to.
2. Shape of continents- shape of continents will influence direction of ocean
currents in such a way that one large masses of water heat the coast of the
continents will be forced to take the shape of that continent.
3. Temperature- Different place have places have different temperatures hence
different pressure pattern that has an influence on direction of ocean current.
e.g. from high pressure region to low pressure regions.
EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS ON
A. CLIMATE.
 Ocean currents consist of great masses of water as a result they act as major
heat transfer hence affect climate of the region where the wind blow to.
 Ocean currents carry large quantities of heat either hot or cold from one point
to another.

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 They also influence precipitation as air passes warm currents, humidity
increases and result into higher rainfall.
B. ON WATER TRANSPORT/SHIPPING

 Cold water of Labrador Current carries many ice bergs which are dangerous to
ship for example Titanic disaster in 1991. Because of this incident an
International Ice control was set up.
 Ship sailors also take advantage by following the direction of ocean currents as
a result they find navigation easy and fuel consumption also becomes
cheaper
C. ON MARINE LIFE
 Large quantity of nutrients brought to the surface areas is rich in planktons due
to upwelling of waters when two different ocean currents meet e.g. where
warm and cold currents meet they create fishing ground e.g. Coast of Japan.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between a drift and an ocean current?
2. Discuss how the following factors can affect the direction of an ocean current,
diagram can be used to illustrate your points;
i. Temperature ii. Shape of the continents iii. Wind.
3. Using World map (figure 1) give on it insert any two warm ocean currents and any
two colds ocean currents.
4. Explain any effects of ocean currents on the following
i. Marine life ii. Climate iii. Shipping.
5. i. Explain why some currents are warm while others are cold
ii. Explain any two beneficial effects of ocean currents on human activities.
6. With aid of diagram, explain how ocean currents are caused by temperature
differences between Polar Regions and tropics.

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THE ATMOSPHERE
Objectives
i. Define season
ii. Explain causes of seasons
iii. Describe characteristics of seasons
iv. Explain factors which influence air pressure
v. Locate the main pressure belts of the world
vi. Account for the distribution of pressure belts of the world
vii. Explain how air pressure influence wind
viii. Interprete isobars on pressure maps
ix. Locate prevailing winds on the map of the world
x. Describe the pattern of prevailing winds
xi. Locate local winds on the map
xii. Describe characteristics of local winds
xiii. Explain the occurrence of Land and Sea breeze on local weather
xiv. Explain the effects of cyclones and anticyclones
SEASON
 This is the division of the year associated the duration of daylight, and or
characteristics of climatic condition brought about by the sun.
 Division of the year according to weather conditions. These weather conditions
are repeated in a set order every year.
What causes season?
 Seasons are caused by the following factors
i. Change in the length of day and night:
ii. Changes in temperature: these changes of temperature are influenced by Tilting
of the earth towards and away from the sun.

 Seasons are experienced at different points on the earth surface.

 There are four types of seasons experience and these are
i. SUMMER – this is the hot season
ii. AUTUM - This is the warm to cool season
iii. WINTER - This is a cool season
iv. SPRING – This is a warm season
CYCLE OF SEASONS
A. IN THE TROPICAL ZONE (MALAWI)

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i. Warm Wet season: this is experience from November to March
ii. Cool Dry season : this is experience from April to July
It is characterized by showers under chaperon conditions.
iii. Hot Dry season: this is experienced from August to October.

NOTE :
 In the tropical altitudes temperature changes do not differ so much,
therefore there are no seasons in the way that they are in temperate
regions
 There are only Wet and Dry seasons
 Human activities like agriculture depend greatly on the cycle of seasons.
B. IN THE TEMPERATE ZONES (BRITAIN)
I. Winter season : experienced from November to February
II. Spring season : experienced from March to may
III. Summer : this season is experienced from September to October.

NOTE: In Temperate latitude the difference between seasonal changes occur

because temperature changes are very large enough to divide the year
into seasons.

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: Summer is the hottest season and Winter is the coldest
: Spring and Autumn are in between seasons.
C. IN THE POLAR REGIONS
i. A very cold and dark season : from September to February
ii. Cold, slight warm and light seasons: from March to August and is characterized
by sun shine all the six months.

NOTE: It has its own seasons

a. A Cold slight warm and light summer season.
i. The sun shines all the time for six months, but not as it shines in
the tropics because it stays very low on the horizon
ii. It is cold and occasionally warm.
b. A very Cold dark winter season
i. It has no sunshine at all.
ii. It is very cold indeed.
 These seasons differ from place to place that is other areas experience the four
seasons while others three (Britain experience four while Malawi experiences
three). These are due to earths movements which are;
a) Rotation: This refers to the spinning of the earth around central point.
b) Revolution: This refers to the movement of the earth on its orbit around the
sun.
A. ROTATION OF THE EARTH
 The earth turns on its axis
 It rotates from west to east
 It takes twenty four (24) hours for the earth to make a complete turn 360°
 It causes day and night

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 The side of the earth that faces the sun receives light hence DAY while the side
that is away from that sun experience darkness hence NIGHT.
REVOLUTION
 This is the movement of the earth around the sun on its orbit (the path that
the sun follows as it is going around the sun.
 It takes 365¼ days or 366 days to make a complete turn around the sun
 The earth does not stand upright, had it been it was so there would be
twelve hours of day and twelve hours of night every day and everywhere on
earth.
 The earth is tilted at an angle of 66½°. This tilting of the earth result into;
i. Changes in the altitude of the midday sun at different times of the
year
ii. Changes in length of day and night at different times of the year.
iii. The four seasons as shown below;

 The opposite of Northern Hemisphere is southern Hemisphere.

ATMOSPHERIC/AIR PRESURE
 This is the weight of air

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 This is the measurement of how much weight there is at any given point on the
earth or atmosphere.
 The atmosphere is composed of the following gases
i. Nitrogen 78%
ii. Oxygen 21%
iii. Argon 0.93%
iv. Carbon dioxide 0.03%
v. Other rear gases 0.003%
 Because air has weight it presses down unto the surface of the earth.
 Air pressure is measured with an instrument called BAROMETER and it is measures
in MILLIBARS
 The lines that join places of equal amount of pressure on weather maps are
called ISOBARS as shown below

 There are two types of Barometer

i. Mercury barometer
ii. An aneroid barometer
A. MERCURY BAROMETER
How it works
 The pressure of air on the mercury in the container forces the mercury inside the
glass tube to rise to a height of 760mm.
 A vacuum is produced in the glass tube due to falling of pressure on the
mercury in the container

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 When the level of mercury drops inside the glass tube it means that air pressure is
low and when it rises above 760mm it means that air pressure is high.

B. AN ANEROID BAROMETER

How it works
 Inside the instrument is metal box which contains a little air. The lid of this box is
flexible so that it goes up and down slightly when there is any change in the
atmospheric pressure.
 The movements are transferred by a system of levers to a pointer which moves
across a scale on the top of the instrument
 When air pressure raises the box lid bend inwards and when the pressure falls the
spring pushes the lid outwards.
FACTORS INFLUENCING AIR PRESSURE
 Atmospheric pressure is not the same in all regions and does not remain the
same at all times. WHY?
i. Temperature
ii. Rotation of the earth
iii. Altitude
1. ALTITUDE
 This refers to height above the sea level.
 Air at the ground level is heavier than it is higher above the earth‟s surface.
 The amount of air pushing down at sea level is 1.034kg per square centimeter.
 Air density decreases with height, the higher one goes over the earths surface
the less air weighs and hence less air pressure.
NOTE:
 When air sinks its pressure increases
 When air rises its pressure decreases

2. TEMPERATURE
 This is the degree of sensible heat or cold in the atmosphere
 Temperature affects air pressure and air pressure affects temperature. HOW?

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i. When air sinks its pressure increases. WHY? It becomes compressed and
when air is compressed its molecules move more quickly hence heat is
produced
ii. When air rises its pressure decreases. WHY? Because it expand and when
air expands its molecules move more slowly and the heat is produced
iii. When air is heated it expands and when this happens the outward
pressure of its molecules are spread over a larger area hence air pressure
decreases.
iv. When air is cooled it contracts and when this happens the outward
pressure of its molecules is spread over a smaller area hence pressure of
air increases.

v. When air rises or sinks the air temperature changes. The sinking air
becomes compressed by the air above it. Compression causes heat to be
produced hence air temperature rises, when air pressure increase.

When air rises, air pressure decreases as the air expands. When air expands, air
pressure increases and when it contracts that is it loses heat.
NOTE
 If pressure was only affected by temperature then there would be a belt of
low pressure at the Equator and high pressure over the poles and on top of
mountains

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3. ROTATION OF THE EARTH.
 Low pressure at the pole causes contraction of air and so high pressure
develop.
 High pressures at the equator cause air to expand hence low pressure
develop.
 The low pressure belt at the Equator is called the DOLDRUM

THE EFFECTS OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH ON PRESSURE

 Air from the poles moves across large areas and spreads out to occupy great
spaces, thus it expands and pressure falls. Low pressure start along latitude 60° north
and 60° south. As air moves away from the poles more air moves from higher levels
to take its space.
 Air rising from the equator spreads out and moves towards poles. It crosses latitudes
which decrease and therefore the air has less space to occupy.

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 Air moving towards the equator replaces air which is rising there. When the air that is
moving towards the poles reaches latitudes 60° North and 60° South, it replaces air
that is rising there.
 The earth‟s surface consists of land and water and is tilted towards the sun. Land
and Water heat and cool at different rates and the temperature outside the
tropical regions differ very much from season to season. All these changes also
contribute to the pressure system
 The diagram below illustrates how temperature and rotation affect pressure;

PRESSURE MAPS

A. JANUARY PRESSURE

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 The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt extends well into Southern Hemisphere where it is
summer season.
 Low Pressure is well developed over Australia.
 There is low temperatures experienced over the parts of northern continents that
produce high pressure system
 There is High Pressure in the Southern Hemisphere that forms only over oceans.
 Low pressure systems are well developed over the north Atlantic and northern
Pacific oceans.

B. JULY PRESSURE

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 The Pressure belts that develop at the Equator now expand well into the northern
hemisphere where it is summer. This links up with very low pressure areas over North-West
India and Pakistan and South-West USA.
 The high pressure belt in the northern hemisphere is no longer continuous; it extends in the
oceans across the three continents.
 The low pressure belts in the northern Atlantic and north Pacific Oceans are poorly
developed and move northwards.
NOTE:
 Seasonal pressure changes over the continents in the northern hemisphere are
caused by seasonal temperature changes.
 Areas of Low pressure (DOLDRUM) are the key to pressure system and move north and
south of the positions they occupy when the sun is overhead along the equator.
 Revolution of the earth and tilting on its axis result in the overhead sun „shifting‟
between the tropics and this causes the Doldrums to move north and south of the
equator.

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WIND

Objectives

i. Define „wind‟

ii. Explain factors that affect wind direction

iii. Describe instruments used to measure wind

iv. Interpret information in a wind rose

 Wind is air in motion or it is air that moves.

 This refers to sideways movements of the atmosphere
 Air moves from high pressure to low pressure area for instance from Horse latitude to
Doldrums.
 Wind can be described as
i. strong winds
ii. very fierce/very strong (GALE)
 The wind speed is measured by an instrument called CUP ANEMOMETER.

A CUP ANEMOMETER
 It consists of there or four arms with cups fixed at the end pivoted on a shaft as
shown below;

 When wind blows it forces the arms and cups to rotate.

 The rotating spindle generates the force that moves the VOLTMETER
 Wind speed is measured in kilometers per hour. That is 1-5km/h wind is regarded as
light wind while 50-60km/h is gale and >121km/h is hurricane.
 The scale of wind forces and the effect of wind on objects and natural features is
called BEAUFORT SCALE
Kilometers per hour Wind effect on land Wind description
Less than 1 0. Calm: smoke rises vertically Light air
1-5 1.Direction of wind shown by Light air
smoke but not by wind vanes
6-11 2. Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; Light Breeze
wind vane moves

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WIND DIRECTION
 Wind direction is measured by an instrument called WIND VANE
 Wind vane consists of rotating arm which is pivoted on vertical hollow shaft.
 The arrow of the wind vane always points towards the direction from which wind is
blowing

 The frequency and direction of wind is recorded on a WINDROSE( chart on which is

recorded the direction and frequency of wind)

 This shows from where and for how long the wind was blowing during a month.
 The wind rose above shows the following
N S NE SE W SW NW E CALM
6 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 11

 The records show that the month had 31 days and most of the days during this
month it was calm.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED
1. PRESSURE GRADIENT
 This is the force caused by differences, which tend to move air from higher
pressure areas to lower pressure areas.
 This is shown by isobars on the map

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 When isobars are close together the pressure gradient is high and wind
will be strong as shown below;

 When isobars are far apart the pressure gradient is light and wind will be
light as shown below;

2. ROTATION OF THE EARTH

 According to Ferrell‟s Law it states that a freely moving bodies are
deflected ( turns aside ) to the left in the Southern hemisphere and to the
right in the Northern Hemisphere (Ferrell‟s Law states that LNS /RSH) as
shown below;

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 Wind as a freely moving body it will deflect to the West in the in the
Southern Hemisphere and to the East in the Northern Hemisphere.
 As the earth rotates, it drags the atmosphere around with it.
1. PREVAILING WINDS
 These are winds that blow more frequently as compared to other winds that
blow in a particular area or region.

 Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.

 There are three types of Prevailing winds
A. TRADE WINDS
 They are characterized by the following;
1. They blow from high pressure areas (Horse latitude) to Low pressure area
(doldrums).
2. They deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and become North
East Trades and to the left in the Southern hemisphere and become South
East Trades.
3. They are constant in both strength and direction.
4. They contain cyclones ( a large system of air circulation centred on a
region of low atmospheric pressure) and anticyclones (a large system of

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air circulation centered on a region of high atmospheric pressure where
air descends)
B. WESTERLIES
 They are characterized by the following
1. They blow from Horse Latitude to the temperate Low Pressures.
2. They are deflected to the right to become S.Westerlies in the Northern
hemisphere and to the left to become N. Westerlies in the Southern
Hemisphere.
3. They change from time to time in both strength and direction
4. They contain depressions (area of low pressure) and cyclones.
C. POLAR WINDS
 They are characterized by the following;
i. They blow from the Polar High Pressures to the Temperate Low Pressures.
ii. They are best developed in the Southern hemisphere because there is more
water than land as compared to the Northern hemisphere.
iii. They deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere to become NE Polar winds
and to the left and become S.E. Polar winds in the Northern Hemisphere.
iv. They change in terms of strength and direction in the Northern Hemisphere and
Constant in the Southern Hemisphere.
2. LOCAL WINDS
i. These are winds which affect a limited area and they only blow for a short period of
time.
ii.There are of two types
a. Depression winds
b. Descending winds
A. DEPRESSION WINDS/TEMPERATE CYCLONES
i. There are of two types of depression winds
a) Hot winds
 They are characterized by the following
i. They are hot
ii. They are dusty
iii. They become humid after crossing the sea.
 Names of hot winds

i. In North America
o The Santa Ana- the blow from Mojave desert towards Mexico
across Gulf of California.

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ii. In South America
 The Zonda – they blow from semi-desert of Patagonia and gran
Chaco Of South America towards river plate estuary

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iii. In Europe
 The Laveche from Algeria through Mediterranean sea towards Spain
 Sirroco from Algeria through Mediterranean Sea toward Italy and Sicily.
 The Khamsin blow towards Turkey and Greece from Egypt part of Sahara.

iv. In Africa
 The Harmattan from Sahara desert towards West Africa.

v. In Australia
 The Bricherfield from Australia desert towards Western Australia.

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b) Cold winds
 They are characterized by
i. Being strong
ii. Being gusty
iii. Being bitterly cold
 Example of colds winds
i) In South America
 The Pampero- originates from South Pacific and blows across southern Chile.
ii) Western Europe
 The Mistral in France blows along the Rhine valley
 The Bora- experienced in Yugoslavia
iii) Australia
 The Southerly Burster- originates from south Pacific and is influenced by the
West wind drifts.
B. DESCENDING WINDS.
 These are winds which are warmed by compression when they descend on a
leeward slope of a mountain.
 These are dry winds
 Examples are
i. In North America
 Chinook winds
i. The wind descends the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains into the prairies,
helping to melt the snow in winter.
ii. The Western slopes of the Rocky Mountains receive more rainfall because they lie
on the windward side while the prairies receive no rain from the Chinook winds.
iii. The advantage received by the prairies is that it allows for the growth of winter
wheat.

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ii. In Europe
 The Fohn- these winds descend from Northern slopes of the Alps is
Switzerland, where they help to melt the snow earlier in winter.
iii. In Africa
 Bergs of natal descends from Drankensberg mountain
 The Chiperoni originate from Chiperon Mountain in Mozambique and
affects Malawi bringing drizzle and very low temperatures.
 Other descending winds include: the samun in Iraq ,Nevados in Equador,
The Nor Wester of Southern Island, new Zealand

LAND AND SEA BREEZE

 These are the local convectional currents along the sea or lake.
 They develop due to differences in temperature which result into pressure
differences
 When an area is hotter than the neighboring area, air moves into hotter region,
from the cooler regions to take place of hot air which has risen and expanded.
 Equal surface areas of land and water may receive the same amount of energy
from the sun but the land surface reaches a higher temperature than water does
A.SEA BREEZE
 This refers to the wind that blows from the sea towards land, usually during day.
 This refers to cool, gentle wind that flows from the water to land.
 They are caused because of the following
i. During the day there is an onshore wind which occurs because land
temperatures rise more rapidly during the day.
ii. The warm air above the land rises and cool air from above the water
moves in replace it.

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 Since the Sea breeze are cool they lower the temperature of coastal
regions, but eventually, the temperature of the air will become the same
with that over the land as such it will have no effect over the temperatures
of the interior l land.

B. LAND BREEZE.
 A land breeze is a type of wind that blows from the land to the ocean.
When there is a temperature difference between the land surface and the
ocean, winds will move offshore. Although commonly associated with
ocean shorelines, land breezes can also be experienced near any large
body of water such as a lake.

 Land breezes usually occur at night. During the day, the sun will heat land
surfaces, but only to a depth of a few inches. At night, water will retain
more of its heat than land surfaces. Water has a high heat capacity.

 At night, the temperature of the land cools quickly without the insolation
from the sun. Heat is rapidly re-radiated back to the surrounding air. The
water along the shore will then be warmer than the coastal land creating a
net movement of air from the land surfaces towards the ocean.

 Why? The movement of the wind is a result of differences in air pressure over
the land and the ocean. Warm air is less dense and rises. Cool air is denser
and sinks. As the temperature of the land surfaces cool, the warm air rises
and creates a small area of high pressure near the land surface. Since
winds blow from areas of high to low pressure, the net movement of wind is
from the shore to the water as shown in the image to the right.

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In summary

1. Air temperatures decrease at night.

2. Rising air creates a thermal low at the ocean surface.
3. Cool air collects forming a high pressure zone above the surface of the ocean.
4. A low pressure zone forms above the land surface from the rapid loss of heat.
5. A high pressure zone forms as the cooler land cools the air immediately above the
surface.
6. Winds aloft flow from the ocean to the land.
7. Winds at the surface flow from high to low pressure creating a land breeze.

CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES

1. CYCLONES
 This refers to a large system of air circulation centred on a region of low
atmospheric pressure.
 These are depression which develop in the Westerlies and sometimes in the Trade
winds and have low pressure at the center.
Cause:
 They are caused by the mixing of cold air from Polar Regions with Warm, humid air
from the tropics.
 Air in cyclones rotates counter clock-wise in the northern hemisphere but clock-
wise in the southern hemisphere. This is so because pressure is low at the center
and high outside as such wind moves from outside towards the centre as
illustrated below‟

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TYPES OF CYCLONES
1. TROPICAL CYCLONES
 These are system of intense low pressure known locally as hurricanes, typhoons and
cyclones.
 They are characterized by the following
i. They contain winds of extreme velocity and accompanied by torrential rainfall
which causes wide spread of damages and loss of life.
ii. They are regular and rarely stationary
iii. They follow a definite track
iv. They are mostly often found in maritime areas because they are weakened over
land area.
DEVELOPMENT OF TROPICAL CYCLONE
i. They develop over warm tropical oceans, where sea temperature exceeds 26°C
and where there is considerable depth of warm water.
ii. They develop when north trade winds and south trade winds meet along Inter-
tropical front between latitudes 5° and 20° North or South of the equator (near the
equator the Coriolis force is insufficient to enable the features to spin.

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iii. Tropical cyclones develop over ocean masses because air masses which have
traveled over oceans have warm moist lower layer.
v. Tropical cyclones die out when they reach the land because their supply of warm
moist air is cut off.
vi. Cyclones are called
a) Typhoons in Asia b).Hurricanes in West Indies
c).Willy Willies in Coast of Queens land d). Tornadoes in USA
e).Cyclone in USA
WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH TROPICAL CYCLONES
i. Temperature and humidity are high
ii. It is associated with winds and thick clouds
iii. They are also associated with heavy rains
2. TEMPERATE CYLONES/DEPRESSION
 They rise in the belt of Westerly winds
DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATE CYCLONES
i. They rise in the belt of westerly winds and caused by mixing of cold air from Polar
Regions with warm, humid air from tropical regions.
ii.They consist of swirling masses of air
iii. They bring prolonged rain to coastal regions and often very windy weather.
Stages in the development of Depressions
I. -Along the polar front, cold polar air moves in a general westerly direction
and warm tropical air moves in general easterly.
-The frictional effect of the two air flows cause a wave to develop as shown
below;

II. The wave bulges into colder air and gets larger.

III. As the bulge develops, the warm air rises up over the air at the front of the bulge.
- This front is called warm front
- The warm air between the two fronts is called WARM SECTOR.
- The warm front is much more greatly stopping than cold front

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- As cold air catches up with warm front and lift it off the grounds and this
then becomes OCCLUDED FRONT and it soon dies.

OCCLUDED FRONT
 This is the contact area at the boundary between cold and warm air of
depression with the warm air lifted off the earth surface. As shown below;

WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH DEPRESSION

 In the diagram above the depression is approaching point A and sequence of

air at A will be as follows;
i. Clear sky except for a little cirrus clouds.
ii. Wind is from south-east
iii. After a while definite cloud cover develops and light showers of rains occur
iv. The rain stops and the wind changes direction from south- east to
South-west.
v. As the cold front passes the weather changes very rapidly
vi. Wind blows from north-east and temperature falls.
FRONT: This is the boundary between warm and cold air masses.
TYPES OF FRONTS
1. WARM FRONT
- This develops when warm air masses uplift the cold air masses.
- On the weather map it is shown by the diagram shown below;

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b. COLD FRONT
- This develops when cold air masses uplift warm air masses.
- There is a sharp drop in temperature
- it is associated with scattered or occasionally showers.
- it is illustrated on the weather map with the diagram shown below;

c. OCCLUDED FRONT
 This develops when cold and warm air mass uplift each other as shown below

 The overtaking cold front elevates the warm tropical maritime air which result
into
i. mass lifting of humid tropic air
ii. gives rise to short, sharp showers
iii. thundery in summer
d. STATIONERY FRONT: This develops when warm air masses and cold air
masses remain stationery where they meet because of opposing forces as
illustrated below

ANTICYCLONES
 These are areas of high pressure
 They are characterized by high pressure at the center and low pressure outside
as shown below

 Air moves towards the poles from equatorial regions descending forming sub-
tropical high pressure.

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 Wind blows outwards from center in an a clockwise direction in the northern
hemisphere (due to coriolis effect)
 Anticyclone is a uniform air mass which gives fair weather especially in summer.
 They remain stationery before gradually fading out.
 They usually affect the whole land.
 Sample Questions
1.

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WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS

Objectives

i. Locate local climatic regions

ii. Describe criteria used in classifying world climates
iii. Describe characteristics of each type of climate and its associated vegetation
 Outline the influence of climate and its associated vegetation on economic
activities

Climate: This is the average weather condition throughout the season over fairly wide
or very extensive area of the earth surface and considered over many years (30-
35years)

 It is easy to predict climate

Weather: This refers to the condition of the atmosphere over short period of time and
over a small area.

 Weather is un predictable
 It includes temperature, air pressure, wind, etc

CLIMATIC REGION

 This is part of the world which have similar climatic conditions

 It is the main area into which the earth is divided according to climate.

HOW ARE CLIMATIC REGIONS CLASSIFIED?

 There are a number of factors to consider when classifying world climate

I. Temperature: This refers to degree of hotness or coldness of air in the atmosphere.
There is un even distribution of heat over space and this will result into
different climatic regions
II. Rainfall : The type and amount of rainfall experienced in an area differ from
Place to place. Other types of rainfall dominate in a specific area.
III. Vegetation : The type of vegetation experienced varies from one geographical
area to another.
IV. Agricultural Development: The type of agricultural activities carried out in an area is
influenced by weather elements which make up climate.

NOTE:

 Climate does the following

i. It determines where people can live, if the area is experiencing harsh climatic
conditions people run away them.
ii. It controls the type of crop to be grown and type of animals to be raised.
iii. It controls the type of housing and type of clothing.

MAIN CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

 There are four main climatic regions namely
a) Hot climatic region
b) Warm climatic region

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c) Cool temperate climatic region
d) Cold climatic region
WHY DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS?
l. LATITUDE
 This refers to distance from the equator.
 Most of the warm regions are near the equator while cold areas are near the
poles.
 Places across the equator may have different climate, for instance Andes
mountain have very cold climate while Sahara, and 3000km north of the equator
is the hottest and the driest. These are due to altitude.
 Equator is very hot throughout the year because the land receives much warmth
everyday because is almost directly overhead.
II. ALTITUDE
 This refers to height above the sea level
 It determines the following.
i. The height of the noon sun over and area.
ii. The length of the day.
iii. These determine the amount of heat received from the sun.
 The higher you go the cooler it becomes as such most hills and mountains are
cooler than nearby lowlands.
III. TERRAIN
 This refers to things that constitutes natural surroundings e.g. soil, rocks and
vegetation.
 Some surfaces for instance sand, rocks city pavements keep heat in turn the
heat the air above them.
 Forests, water and grass retain less heat as such they warm the air but not as
much as sand and rocks.
 It influences wind that is wind flows easily along the valleys hence bring warm or
cold air in the same region.
 Mountains block the wind and force it to rise over the mountain.
 It may cause rainfall when moist air rises to pass over the mountains clouds
develops and then rain falls.
V. OCEANS/WATER
 Availability of oceans/water has an influence of weather elements hence affect
climate
 The coastal regions of the continents have mild climate.
 In Summer, the oceans do not become as warm as land because they
absorb heat slowly.
 The oceans are source of rainfall because wind picks up moisture from oceans
which turn into clouds and rain falls over land.
NOTE:
THINGS TO BE LOOKED INTO ON EACH CLIMATIC REGION
a. Location in terms of
i. Latitude, which is how far, is the place from the equator.
ii. Places on the continents that is if it found in the Northern Hemisphere or
Southern Hemisphere.
b. Climatic characteristics in terms of
i. Monthly rainfall (graphs and tables)
ii. Total annual rainfall

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iii. Annual temperature range
iv. Other relevant climatic factors
c. Agricultural developments
i. Type of vegetation
ii. Crops grown and animals raised
iii. Problems faced, that hinder agricultural development.

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

A. EQUATORIAL CLIMATE
I. Location:
 It is found in lowlands between 5° North and 5° South of the equator
 It is experienced in Amazon and Zaire Basin, Guinea Coast, Malaya
Peninsula, Indonesia and Philippines.
 Being closer to the equator the temperatures are high but in highlands this is
not the case they experience low temperatures.
II. Characteristics of Equatorial Climate
 High temperature all year round of about 26°C and every day is like summer.
 It experiences heavy convectional rainfall all year round (2413mm/year)
 It has no seasons because of the effects of the DOLDRUM.
 Extensive clouds cover and heavy rainfall prevents temperature from rising
over 26°C
 Some areas such as Guinea Coast of west Africa, Accra, receive low annual
rainfall of about 700mm due to modified changes by monsoon winds.
 Graphs below show rainfall and temperature of equatorial climate

 The diurnal (daily) temperature range is between 6°C and 8°C while
annual temperature range is 3°C

III. Vegetation is equatorial which is characterized by the following

 Vegetation is evergreen
 They are broad leaved

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 They have canopy as shown below
 The typical vegetationInclude
Mahogany, Ebony and chengal.

IV. Agricultural Developments

 Heavy rains experienced result into area being heavily forested hence
sparse (scattered population e.g. Zaire basin)
 Hunting and collection of fruits is practiced in this region
 Some area practice shifting cultivation.
V. Problems faced
 Development is difficult in the areas because of the following reasons
i. There are many diseases and pests which attack human,
animals and crops. If humans are sick they could not cultivate in
their fields hence low development and on the other hand if
crops are and animals are attacked by pests and diseases they
will be of poor quality as a result there is low development.
ii. It is difficult to establish communication since the area is heavily
forested.
iii. Soils are generally poor because of thin layer of rich top soil are
eroded very quickly by running water and heavy rains also result
into a lot of leaching.
iv. There is excessive heat and high humidity.
B. TROPICAL CONTINENTAL (SUDAN) CLIMATE/ SAVANA
I. Location
 It is found between latitudes 5°- 15° North and 5°- 15°South of the
equator.
 It best developed in Africa in countries such as Malawi, Zambia and
Zimbabwe and also in Central part of South America.
II. Climatic characteristics
 The area is affected by trade winds in winter and by doldrums in
summer
 Summers are hot with temperature around 32°C and cooler winter
21°C with annual range of 11°C.
 There areas experience heavy convectional rains in summer but
winters are generally dry.
 The effects of trade winds are mainly felt in West Africa, South Africa
and South America
 In West Coast Africa the winds blow from Sahara desert and are hot,
dry and dusty (Hammatan), while in South Africa and America they blow
from sea bringing rain to the coastal regions
 Humidity is high in summer.
 Annual rainfall is around 760mm and highest temperature occurs
before rainy season beginning in April in the Northern Hemisphere and
October in the Southern Hemisphere as shown below:

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III. Vegetation

 Natural vegetation consists of tall grass and in Africa this type of vegetation is
called SAVANNA while is South America is known as LLANOS (Guinea
Highlands)/ CAMPOS (Brazil). Savanna is associated with clumps of trees and
animals such as elephants, zebra, giraffe, antelope, lions and
leopards.
 The trees are deciduous, these are trees that
shed leaves during dry season and these include
baobab and bottle trees that store water in their
swollen trunks as such they are able to survive the
dry season.
Beside is a diagram depicting one of the trees in tropical grasslands.
iv. Agricultural developments
 Agriculture is not fully developed. The Masai of East Africa herd large number
of Zebu cattle, goats and sheep. Cattle are raised for milk and blood and
rarely for meat.
 They grow crops such as guinea corn, millet, maize, bananas, groundnuts and
beans as food crops and non food crops include cotton and tobacco.
 Commercial farming is also practiced in large scale using tractors, fertilizer in
Malawi, Kenya, Uganda etc and crops include sugarcanes, tobacco, sisal
and cotton.
VI. Problems faced
 The factors that prevent agricultural development includes
i. Drought occurs frequently as such is causes problem to farming
ii. Torrential down pour of heavy rains cause leaching which reduce the fertility
of the soil.
iii. Most of the savanna areas have poor soils which are incapable of supporting
good crops.
iv. Present of typical diseases and pests also affect agricultural in such a way
that if attack animals they die or they are of poor quality.
v. There is poor communication from agricultural regions to the markets.

c. TROPICAL DESERT CLIMATE

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I. Location

 It includes the major hot deserts of the world.

 They are located on the Western coast of continents between 15°C and 30°C
North and South of the equator. WHY?
i. The Ocean water is cold, prevailing winds blow parallel to the coast line
and due to the earth‟s rotation, and they tend to push surface water
seaward at right angles to the wind direction
ii. This is the zone of sub tropical high pressure where air is subsiding. The
tropical air is forced to rise at equator, producing convectional rain, and
later the air once cooled stripped its moisture descends at approximately
30° North and south of the Equator. As this air descends it is compressed,
warmed and produces an area of permanent high pressure. If the is air is
warmed it can hold an increasing amount of water vapour which causes
the lower atmosphere to become very dry.
iii. The rain shadow effect produced by high mountain ranges. As the
prevailing winds in the subtropics are the trades, blowing from North east
in the Northern Hemisphere and South east in the Southern hemisphere
then any barrier such as the Andes, prevents moisture from reaching the
western slopes hence the rain shadow effect create much large extent of
desert. Aridity increases as trade winds blow towards the equator,
becoming warmer and therefore drier.
 These deserts include; Sahara, Great Australian, Arabian, Kalahari,
Namibia, Movane and Atacama.

II. Climatic characteristics.

 The areas rarely experience rainfall and the average rainfall is 12mm and
when it falls it is usually in form of heavy thunder-showers.
 Temperatures are high because of the following reasons
i. Clear/cloudless sky.
ii. Intense insolation (great exposure to heat).
iii. Dry air
iv. Rapid rate of evaporation
 The deserts have xerophic or drought resistance shrubs such as cactus, thorny
bushes (these characters reduce rate of transpiration),ong roots (absorb deep
waters and plant foods) and dwarf scattered acacia. Beside is a diagram
of cactus

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 In the tropical desert climate there is little rainfall because most of winds
blowing into the deserts begin in cooler regions and when they get hotter and
this prevents condensation therefore very little or no rain falls.
 Because of clear skies it is often much hotter at the mid day at the equator,
but at night great deserts are very cold. Temperature varies from 29⁰C in hot
season to 10⁰C in cold season.
 Graphs below depicts temperature and rainfall graphs for this region;

IV. Agriculture development

 Through the use of irrigation canals in the valleys of the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates and
the Indus valley are being cultivated.
 Other cultivations are done in Oasis (an area in a hot desert where the presence
of water at suitable level permits sustained plant growth).
 Crops grown include dates. Wheat, vegetables and fruits
 Rearing of flocks of sheep and goats is practiced by the Nomads (the wandering
tribesmen)

V. Problems faced.

 Problems faced prevents development in terms of agriculture

i. Most water is found below the surface for instance in Sahara and this
water is obtained through drilling aquifers.
ii. Strong winds that blow across the desert areas cause chimney eyes and
lots of dust and this is prevented by wearing long trousers.
iii. Too much heat from the sun
iv. Plenty of locusts which live on plants and migrate in swamps and these
are controlled by spreading poisonous baits so that they eat and die.

E. WARM TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN/ MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

I. Location

 It is experienced between 30° - 45° North and 30° - 45° South of the equator in
the western sides of continents.

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 Climate is best developed around the shores of Mediterranean Seas hence
Mediterranean climate and in South-West Africa (Wavis Bay), Central Chile,
central California, South west Australia and Cape Province and Cape Town.

II. Climatic characteristics

 The temperature range from 21°C in summer to 10°C or below in winter.

 The effect of on-shore and off-shore winds is very evident. In summer the winds
blow off-shore and they are dry and they bring no rain while in winter they blow
on-shore which brings cyclonic rain, sometimes up to 500mm
 The annual rainfall ranges from 500mm to 760mm
 There are series of hot and cold winds blowing over Mediterranean region and
these winds include
i. Sirocco winds: hot and dry winds which blow in summer and originate
from Sahara desert.
ii. Bora winds: winter cold wind that blows from Central Europe.
 The region experience bright, sunny, hot and dry summer and mild rainy
winter.
 The graphs below show temperature and rainfall experienced in this region;

III. Natural vegetation.

 Trees, shrubs, grass may predominantly dominate depending upon local winds.
 Plant growth is not luxuriant
 Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
 Absence of shade is distinctive feature.
IV. Agricultural development
 The climate is favourable for agriculture such as growing of citrus fruits (oranges,
lemons grapes) and cereal crops (wheat and barley).
 Olive trees are also grown and these are rich in oil used for cooking.
 Production of these fruits gives rise to development of industries such as fruit
canning and food-processing.

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 The cultivation of Grapes is called Viticulture and large part of the fruit is used for
making wine, some is dried to make sultan, currants and raisins.

F. COOL TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL (SIBERIAN) CLIMATE

I. Location

 It is mainly found in Canada and the USSR.

 It is located between the cool interior climate and the Tundra in both North
America and Eurasia.
 In Eurasia they are called the Steppes while in North America they are extensive
and are called Prairies and lie between foot of Rockies and the Great lakes. In
Argentina they are called Pampas while in South Africa they are called Bush-
veld and in Australia they are known as the Downs.

II. Climatic characteristics

o Winter temperatures ranges from -34°C to -50°C and warmer temperatures

averages about 21°C and the annual temperature range is over 70°C.
o Total annual rainfall rarely exceeds 380mm and most of it occurs in summer.
These rains result from the entry of moist sea air.

III. Agricultural Development

 There is no cultivation of crops because the subsoil is frozen almost all year long.
 Wheat is being cultivated under extensive mechanization.
 Pastoral farming is practiced and cattle, sheep, pigs and horses are kept.
TUNDRA CLIMATE
I. Location

 These include Barrow points in Alaska and Bulon in the USSR

 The climate is best developed in the Northern Canada and Northern Asia.
 It occurs in the northern continents and north of the cold temperate continental
climates.

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II. Climatic characteristics

 In winter the nights are long and in summer the days are short.
 Winter temperatures range from -2°9C to -40°C while summer temperatures are
about 10°C to -50°C.
 The total annual precipitation is about 250mm, some of which falls as rain in
summer and some as shown in winter. Because of low temperatures humidity is
always low as well.
III. Agricultural development
 There are no agricultural developments as sub soils are permanently frozen.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Study the tables below and answer questions that follow;

STATION A.

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Temp ⁰C 27 27 28 29 27 27 29 28 29 26 27 27

Rain 0 5 2 8 11 15 10 12 0 16 0 0
(mm)

STATION B.

Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Temp ⁰C 27 27 28 28 28 29 29 28 29 28 29 28

Rain 200 250 300 350 300 280 300 300 350 300 290 300
(mm)

a. i. Identify the climate for station A and B

ii. Which climate favors irrigation farming and why?

b. i. Name the type of vegetation associated with station B.

ii. In station A. what structures have vegetation development in order to survive

such climatic condition?

iii. Draw a temperature and rainfall graph for station B.

2. a. i. define „climatic region‟

ii. Explain why climate vary from region to region.
b. Discuss any three problems of agricultural development in the equatorial.
c. Why is it that there is little rainfall in tropical desert climate?

3. Explain and account for the following

i. Hot deserts usually located on the western sides of continents
ii. Desert plants are able to survive for long period without water.

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4. a. Name the vegetation which is associated with each of the following
i. Tropical continental (Sudan) Climate
ii. Mediterranean climate
b. i. Identify the vegetation associated with the tree
shown fig 12
iii. Explain how the vegetation type adapt to climatic
conditions.
iv. Give one characteristic of this type of vegetation.
v. Outline any two factors which hinder economic development
in this region.

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THE ENVIRONMENT
Objectives
i. Define the terms “environment”, “wetland”, “Desertification”
ii. Explain how human being endanger environment
iii. Explain the reasons for the conservation of the environment
iv. Describe the effects of desertification
v. Explain the importance of wetlands
vi. State the causes of environmental pollution
vii. Describe the threats to wetlands
viii. State the causes of environmental pollution
ix. Describe the effects and control measures of pollution
x. Explain the global warming and its effect.
xi. Explain causes off acid rains and its effects
Environment
 This is the sum total of conditions of the surroundings within which an organism, or
group or an object exist.
Wetland
 This is the aquatic, a natural or artificial landscape in where the soil is waterlogged.
 This is the land which is covered occasionally, periodically or permanently by
shallow fresh or salt water e.g., marsh, swamps.
Desertification
 This is the spread of desert-like conditions in semi-arid land and the outward spread
of the desert fringes there, brought about by the activities of people and their
livestock and/or by climatic change.
Ecosystem

 This is the interaction of all living organisms (plants, animals, bacteria etc) with
each other and with their surroundings.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT ENDANGER THE ENVIRONMENTS

1. Poor agriculture activities such as

i. Shifting cultivation
ii. Pastoral nomadism
iii. Making ridges along slopes
The above practices encourage great run off and large scale erosion.
2. Deforestation , this is the clearing of forests for
iv. Timber
v. Building
vi. Establishment of land for farming and settlements
vii. Extraction of certain minerals like iron ore, bauxite, copper, uranium etc
 The above practices encourage great run off and large scale erosion leading to
little water infiltrating the soil hence result into drought condition.
3. Misuse of insecticides
These affect useful insects such as honey bees, praying mantises, so creating a gap in
the ecosystem, such chemicals include DDT, Dieldrin etc.
4. Pollution : humans may pollute water, air as well as land

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WATER POLLUTION
 This is the process of making water unsafe for human consumption and hazardous
for aquatic life.
 Man can pollute water through the following ways:
i.Farming:
 Fertilizer and pesticides are washed through the soil by heavy rains and make
their way to rivers, lakes and seas.
 Phosphates and nitrates encourage the growth of algae and other water plants
which use up oxygen and leave insufficient for fish to live.
ii. Domestic sewage :
 Untreated waste may pollute water intended for drinking purpose.
 These may also reduce oxygen and plant life.
iii. Industry :
 these do dump its waste into water e.g. Makata industrial area dumps waste in Mudi
river (Blantyre)
 The water becomes unsafe for plants and animal life and for domestic
consumption.
iv. Oil tankers:
 These are big vehicles that carry oil and they illegally wash their tanks at sea which
in turn cause considerable environment.
 Accidents may also cause the same damage eg. Japan‟s major disaster in 1974 at
mizushima
v. Erosion of soil
 Bare land which could be cause by human activities may lead to serious soil erosion,
this cause silting of rivers and lakes hence making water unsafe for domestic
purposes.
AIR POLLUTION
 This is the direct or indirect process by which air is affected in such a way that it is
made potentially or actually unhealthy, unsafe, impure or hazardous to the
welfare of organisms which live in it.
 Pollution usually occurs as a result of the presence of too much of some substance,
or excessive occurrence of a process or action, in an appropriate place at an
suitable time, such as oil spillage, sewage outfall, or industrial effluent in a river,
lake or sea, e.g. mercury in the sea.
 Air may be polluted by burning fuels like coal, oil and natural gas, these increase
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, chlorine, fluorine, carbon and methane. As these
gases are increased heat is not send back into the atmosphere therefore a
warming effect to the earth is created known as GLOBAL WARMING. This effect is
known as GREEN HOUSE EFFECT.
 The gases which are responsible for global warming are called greenhouse gases.
 Results of global warming/greenhouse effect
i. Altering of ecological balance as ecosystem change.
ii. Shifting of rainfall patterns resulting in unusually heavy rains and floods, or
serious droughts.
iii. Rising of sea levels as icebergs melt leading to loss, of low-lying regions and
increased soil erosion along the coastal areas.
iv. Spreading of tropical diseases to the temperate regions
v. Hot areas becoming hotter thus spreading deserts.

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 Disruption of food chain – if any organism in the food chain is disrupted a lot of
damage may result e.g. in an ecosystem where there are mice, snakes and maize.
The crop is safe from mice because snakes catch them. The removal of snakes
means multiplication of mice and more damage to mice
 Acid rains – car exhausts and fumes from industries may release nitrogen oxide and
nitrogen dioxide to the atmosphere. When they dissolve in rain water they form
solution of nitrous and nitric acids and these are components of acid rains and
such rains
i. Erodes statues and building
ii. Lower PH levels in the soil and water leading to death of
aquatic animals and forests as well as damage to soil fertility.
CONTROL OF POLLUTION
i. Legislation and enforcement of laws that protect environment
ii. Conservation of the environment
iii. Proper waste disposal
iv. Use of clean energy such as hydroelectricity or solar energy.
v. Civic education
DESERTIFICATION
 This is the process that creates desert conditions by down grading the land
surface.
 It is a steady process that turns good and fertile land into a barren one e.g. from
forestry into grassland and then into barren and unproductive shrubs.
 Desertification has been created by human through misuse of lands
 Levels of desertification include
a) Slight desertification:
 These occur where desert already exist e.g. Sahara
 land cover is not affected by human activities
b) Moderate desertification:
 There is great change in plant cover.
c) Severe desertification
 This is where top soil is eroded and shrubs replace productive grassland.
d) Very severe.
 This is where the land is totally destroyed by deep gullies and the desertification
process is irreversible.
 Effects of desertification include the following
i. Soil degradation
ii. Poor crop yields
iii. Flooding
iv. Climate change
v. Soil erosion.
vi. Depletion of water resources
Desertification can be controlled through the following ways;
i.A forestation- this is the process of planting of land, not formerly covered, with trees to
make a forest for commercial or other purposes.
ii.Re-afforestation – This is the planting of trees on land previously forested by from which
the trees have been removed by natural causes by cutting, burning or other means.
iii.Proper land husbandry- These include all processes that promote conservation of land
e.g. practicing crop rotation and making ridges across the slope.

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iv.Civic education campaigns- this is where people with knowledge on caring of trees
and vegetation tell their colleagues on importance of vegetation conservation
v.Controlling rapid population growth- if the population is high it means high demand
for forestry resources and land for cultivation and settlement.
vi.Provision of alternative sources of energy- these alternative sources of energy
include; solar, hydroelectricity, energy from wind, biogas, thermal energy,
geothermal energy and nuclear energy
ENDANGERING WILD AND AQUATIC SPECIES
 Wild and aquatic species may be endangered by the following processes
i. Pollution ii. Over fishing iii. Poaching iv. Deforestation
iv. Drainage of marshes and swamps (land reclamation)
IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT
i. Ethical reasons: this is where animals and plants have the right to live on earth.
ii. Scientific research: People need to find out more about environment and different
organisms.
iii. Aesthetic reasons: This is where environment is preserved in order for people to
appreciate the natural beauty and enjoyment
iv.Preservation of genetic diversity: This is where different species are preserved for
reprocreation.
v. Sources of food, medicine and income
vi. Other reasons:
 Environmental balance
 Recreation
 Preserving the quality of life
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Wild and aquatic life may be conserved through the following methods:
i. Establishment of conservation area such as forest reserves, national parks and
game reserves.
ii. Protection of endangered species e.g. elephants, rhinoceros.
iii. Relocating games where there are facing extinction or overpopulation.
iv. Civic education on conservation.
WETLANDS
c) This is the land which is covered occasionally, periodically or permanently by
shallow fresh or salt water e.g., marsh, swamps and bogs.
d) Importance of wetlands include:
i. They are producers of life because they provide feeding, spawning, nursery for
fish.
ii. They act as carbon sinks as such they prevent global warming.
iii. They are habitats for birds, endangered and threaten plant and fish species.
iv. They absorb and filter pollutants that would degrade rivers and lakes and thus
providing clean water

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MAP SHOWING WETLANDS IN MALAWI

Sample Questions
1. a. Define „wetlands‟
b .Give any two importance wetlands
2.Explain any three ways how environment can be managed.
3. Mention any two endangered animal species in Malawi
4.a . Define desertification
b. Explain any three ways how desertification can be controlled.

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MAP READING AND INTERPRETATIONS
Objectives
i. Reduce the map
ii. Enlarge a map
iii. Identify ways of showing relief on the map
iv. Describe land forms displayed by contour pattern
v. Define the term „Cross- section‟ and draw a cross section between two points
vi. Describe different drainage patterns on the map
vii. Identify riverine features on the map
viii. Calculate area of a given irregular shape on the map.
ix. Calculate bearing of given points
x. Calculate gradient between two given points Locate different point using grid
references
xi. Explain economic activities carried out in a given area.
xii. Identify different settlements pattern and account for their existence.

 A map is the representation of earth surface or part of it on the paper usually

drawn to scale.
 Maps are drawn for different reasons such as for map interpretation skill e.g.
Topographic maps.
 Maps can be drawn on a large scale or on a smaller scale. All these have their
advantage and disadvantages
NATIONAL GRID REFERENCE AND LOCATUTUDE AND LATITUDE
 National grid is the network of evenly spaced vertical and horizontal lines drawn
on map in order to help in identifying where places are on the map.
 The lines make perfect squares and each line is numbered.
 The vertical lines are numbered eastwards across the map hence Easting
 Horizontal lines are numbered northwards ie the increase towards north hence
Northing
 Each square may be identified by the lines which enclose its south-west corner
forming a letter L as shown below
A. FOUR FIGURE

Figure1

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 The grid reference for square A have been formed by line 19 and 81 forming
letter L ( 1981) while letter C have been formed by letter 21 an 78 forming letter L
(2178)
Activity (Using figure 1)
i. Identify the six figure grid reference for square B

B. SIX FIGURE GRID REFERENCE

 The first three digits are the easting while the second three are for the nothings
 Figure below illustrate how we can come up with six figure grid
reference.

Figure 2
 The six figure grid reference for point A is 194805 while for point B is 800783
Activity (use figure 2)
Identify the six figure grid reference for point Z
 Note
i. Grid reference consists of either four figures or six figures
ii. In six Figure the first three represents the easting while the other three represent
the northing.
iii. The easting is always given first
iv.The third and sixth figures are obtain by estimating number of tenths
v.When the point is exactly on the line, write the figure 0 for the third as illustrated
with location of point B
LARGE SCALE MAP
 This refers to a big piece of paper showing a smaller surface area.
 These maps show a small area and accurate details of land surface (I show
accurate details of land surface)
 They are called large scale maps because they have the large scale and details
of the land surface are clear and easy to see.
 The ration of the large scale map is smaller , for example 1: 25,000 or 1: 10,000

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SMALL SCALE MAP
 This refers to a small piece of paper showing large surface area
 The actual land surface distance on a small scale map is greatly reduced
 They cover large surface area like map of the world in the Atlas
 The ratio of a smaller scale map is larger, for example 1:100,000 or 1: 50,000

MAP ENLARGEMENT (REDUCING MAP)

 This where you are give a smaller map and you need to enlarge them
 The following are the steps to be followed (e.g. enlarge the map twice its original
size)
 Step1. Measure the distance between grid for map using a ruler or a piece of
paper, if you use a ruler make sure that you convert the measurements correctly
using the given scale .If the size of the block was of the original map from one
grid to the next grid was 2centimetre then the size new block of the new map
would be 1 centimetres from one grid to the next line.
 Step 2. Draw new grids for the map by making each block twice as it was before
thus 1cm instead of 2 centimetres or ½centimetre instead of 1 centimetre.
 Below is the original map with its scale the enlarged map

MAP OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY NGABU

Figure 3. Scale: 1:25,000

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figure 4.
 New scale would be 1:25, 000 multiplied by 2 (1/25,000÷2) which would give us
1:50,000.
 Step 3. If you have been asked to put some details you can put them on the
new map. BUT don‟t forget the each map is supposed to have a title.

MAP REDUCTION
 Maps are reduced using scales
 Steps involved in reducing maps (e.g. reduce map half its origin)
1. Draw a new grid for the map by making the size of each block half as it was
before thus 1 cm instead of 2 cm or ½ instead of 1 as illustrated below;

Figure 5.

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 Scale : 1 : 25,000

 The new map will be as shown below:

figure 6
 Copy the deatails in the map or as per instruction

 Scale : 1: 25,000 (1/50000÷2) which will give us a scale of 1:50,000.

CALCULATION OF AREA IRREGULAR FIGURE SUCH AS FOREST/ESTATE

Steps to be followed
1. Measure the sizes of each square as length and width
2. Convert the size using the scale or measure using the paper the sizes of the
square and compare it with the size on the linear scale
3. Then Calculate the area of each square for example
Sizes of a square 2cm by 2cm
Given scale 1:50,000
Actual size of each square:
If 1cm represents 50,000cm (½km)
Therefore 2cm = more
½x2km
= 1 km by 1 km
Area of each square
= 1 km x 1 km
= 1 sq km
4 . Count the total number of squares which are fully covered the multiply the
number of squares obtained by the area of each square ( Assuming that a
forest have 15 full squares which are covered the area would be 1km x15
=15km2
5.Count all the remaining suares covered by tha forest which are not fully
covered as halves then convert the halves to full by didiving by 2 (Assuming
upon counting number of half squares = 17 the you divide by to as 17÷2=8.5.
The multiply by 1km as 1kmx 8.5 =8.5km2
6.Add the area for the first area obtained on full square and those on half
squares as 15km2 + 8.5km2 =23.5km2

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Activity
Using The map extract shown beolw Calculate the area of

Scale : 1:50000
Figure 7.
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE OF FEATURES SUCH AS ROAD/RIVER
Materials needed
i.String/thread
ii.Ruler/ piece of paper
Step 1. Follow the river all its meanders using a string or tread from the point asked to
starrt and end.
2. Take a string or thread and stretch is on either a ruler and measure its size or
stretch it on a paper and mark the point from start to end as shown below
 String before stretched on the paper

figure 8
 Length of the string on the paper

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figure 9
 Take the paper to the linear scale as shown below
F

Figure 10
 Upon measuring the fist part is 4km the you also take the remaining
part from 0 as shown below

Figure 11.
 The remaining part can be taken from 0 to 1000 and yowhat you are
going to get are metres
 For istance the size of the string is 4 + 2 +.2km = 6.2km
OR
 Stretch the string on the ruler and come up with length in
centimetres for instance 15cm
 After that use the given scale e.g 1:50,000 to convert 15 cm to
kilimetres as shown below

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 If 1cm represents ½Km
Therefore 15 cm = more
=(½x 15)km
= 7.5 km.

BEARING ( finding the way with a map)

 The bearing of a point or object refers to direction from the observer
COMPAS DIRECTION

figure 12.

 The four main direction on the compas are north, south, east and west.
Shortened as N.S.E and W. These are known as cardinal points
 Between these cardinal points are four mid- way points- north-east, south-east,
south- west and north-west as shown on the figure above.
 Between these eight points are four mid-way points- north-north-east, east-
north-east etc.
 Maps should be drawn wirth north at the top but where this is not the case, arrow
pointing north drawn in the margin of the map as shown below

figure 13

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 From the figure above line marked N points north and the other lines point south,
east and west while P, Q, R and O represents points on the ground.
 If you are standing at O and look towards P you would be looking north. So we
can say that P is north of O,while O is south of P
 Compass direction method of showing the direction is not very reliable
 The easiest way to find out direction is to use magnetic compass
 A compas is an instrument which indicates direction. It has a needle inside it
which is a magnet and which is always points north.
Activity (Using figure 13)
 What is the direction of O from R and Q from O
 On the compas direction insert point Y to the NW of pointO.
BEARING
 Bearing refers to angular distance measured in degree from north turning in the
clockwise direction
 Where greater accuracy of direction is required, the direction ie expressed as
angle measured clockwise
 To be able to work out this the following materials should be available
i. Protractor
ii. Ruler
iii. Sharp pointed pencil.
 There two ways of calculating bearing is through the use of
i. Forward bearing (FB)
ii. Backward bearing (BB)
A . FORWARD BEARING
Step to be followed
1. Identify the two points in question ( e.g. Calculate the bearing of point P from Q)
2. Using a ruler an a sharp pencil draw a straight line joining the two points(P and
Q) as shown below;

figure 14.

3. Go back to the question to know the point of observation ie where it is written

from in this case from Q and draw a cross as shown above.
4. Place a protractor where you have drawn your cross and measure the amount
of turn clockwise from north as shown by the arrow above ie forward bearing.

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B. BACKWARD BEARING ( ie. P from Q)
Steps to be followed
1. Follow step 1,2 and 3 as of FB
2. Measure the amount of turn in anti-clockwise direction as shown below

figure 15
3. Subtract the amount of turn you have obtained from 360º e.g 360º - 30º = 330º
REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF ON THE MAP
 Relief refers to surface form in the landscape, such form include plains,
valleys, mountain ridges hills and drainage features such as lakes, rivers and
basins.

 These feature are represented using different features such as

1. CONTOURS
 These are lines that join places which lie at the same height above the
sea level.

 These lines are marked in different units and the difference from one
contour to another is called contour interval/vertical interval as for the
map below contour interval is 100.

 Where the contours are very close together they show the steepness of
the land surface.

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Figure. 16
2. LAYER TINTING
 These are various shades of colour that are used to show different
heights

 Examples are : yellow to brown colour for higher ground and dark
green for low lands

3. HILL SHADING
 These are different shades that are used to show steepness of the
slope and are shown by the depth of the shadow

 They do not show actual height.

 It is difficult to show direction slope without the help drainage.

4. HACHURES

 They are short lines, which indicate the direction of slope or direction
water would run.

 Where the slope is steep hachure‟s are heavily drawn and closer
together

 Where the slopes are gentle hachures are relatively light and far apart.

 large contours

 The disadvantage is that they may obscure (not show clearly) other
details and do not give real indication of height of relief ( For this
reasons they are not much used in modern maps but are useful when
drawing sketch maps)

5. SPOT HEIGHTS

 These points on the map the heights of which have been measured
by surveyor who made the map.

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 This method of showing the height is used on many maps, including
the 1:50000 maps

 The height is represented by a dot with the altitude written beside it

as

 245

6. TRIGONOMETRICAL POINTS

 These are shown in the same way as spot height except that the dot
is enclosed within a circle or triangle as

 320 0r

 650

 These are generally found on hill summits from which surveyors can
obtain a good view for mapping the surrounding countryside.

7. DRAWING A CROSS SECTION

 Cross-section shows the profile or side-view of the relief drawn along

a line on the map.

 The following are the steps to be followed

I. Identify the points in question (e.g. Draw a cross section between point

X and Y).

II. Join the two points using a straight line as shown below

figure 17

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III. Take a clean piece of paper and place it on the line drawn and mark where the
line has been crossed by contours and marks each contour as shown below

Figure 18.

IV. Prepare a graph scale which will represent the vertical interval between
contours i.e. look at the interval between your contours e.g 50 metres
or 100 metres. Draw he horizontal lines that are parallel to each other,
and with equal width between them.

Figure 19

V. Place your marked piece of paper at each point according to height and
mark each point
VI. Join all the points using a sharp pencil where there is same height can

either be a river so the curve should as or mountain

as

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VII. The connectected point will be as shown below

Figure 20

VIII. After joining all the points you might be asked to the river or road as
shown below

Figure 21.
Activity
1. Are the two places visible from each other? Justify your answer.
2. Draw a cross section between point A and B on figure 17. On it
insert a river.

VISIBILITY AND GRADIENTS

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 Visibility refers to when you are looking at two geographical points on the map,
you are trying to find out whether the two chosen places are visible or not from
one another.

Figure 22

 If the Land between the two points be higher than both points i.e. if a hill rises in
between, the two points are not inter-visible

DRAINAGE PATTERN
 There are a number of drainage pattern but the commonly found are s
follows
1. TRELLIS DRAINAGE PATTERN
 This is shown by tributaries joining the main river at a right angle forming a
rectangular shape as shown below

figure 23
2. DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PATTERN

 This is shown by tributaries joining the main stream or each other at an acute
angle as shown below

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figure 24.
 Its shape is like branches of trees
3. RADIAL DRAINAGE PATTERN
 This drainage pattern has its source from a dome or mountain and rivers flow
in all directions
 Rivers starts from the highest point to the lowest point as shown below

Figure 25
 This drainage pattern looks like spokes in a bicycle wheel.

Page 100 of 178

Page 101 of 178
Map of Mponda. Use it to answer questions below

Activity
1. a. Find the six figure grid reference for Trig on Chiutsa mountain
b. Identify the feature found on 523041
c.Identify the human feature found on 504019

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2. Measure the length of S58 road on the map. Correct your answer to the nearest
kilometer.
3. Calculate the bearing of trig on Chiutsa from Kasanga.
4. Mention any two likely diseases to affect people of this area. Justify your answer.
5. Calculate the area of covered by Lake Malawi on the map. Correct your answer
to the nearest kilometer.
6. Identify two settlements pattern shown on the map. Account for their existence.
7. Name the geographical feature labeled A.
8. What is the contour interval on the map.

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PART B: HUMAN AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

AGRICULTURE GEOGRAPHY

WORLD AGRICULTURE
Objectives
i. Describe farming as a system.
ii. Explain the factors that influence agriculture
iii. Distinguish subsistence farming from commercial farming.
iv. Describe the characteristics of intensive farming.
v. Identify advantages and disadvantages of intensive farming.

WORLD AGRICULTURE
 This refers to all farming activities carried out on the earth surface.
 Farming is the system of activities which involves growing of crop and raising of
animals for man‟s consumption.
 Why is farming a system?
 Because there are inputs into the farm, process which take place on the
farm and out puts from the farm.

AGRICULTURE AS A SYSTEM
1- How can farming be described as a system?
 When factors of production such as topography, climate, soil, ownership,
Culture capital, market, mechanisation and chemical fertilizer are considered
and processes are followed in order to come up with out put, farming can be
considered as a system ( input –→ process → output processes)

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE AGRICULTURE

1. PHYSICAL FACTORS:
a. Climate
 This refers to average weather conditions throughout the season over a
fairly wide or very extensive area of the earth‟s surface and considered
over many years. These weather conditions include amount and season
of rainfall, temperature.

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How does it affect agriculture?
i. Different areas receive different amount of rainfall and experience
different types of season which also affect the type of crops to be grown
in a geographical area. Some crops grow well in those areas that
experience heavy rainfall e.g. Tea.
ii. Different areas experience different temperatures and some crops require
high temperatures while others low temperatures.
b. Relief/topography: this means the physical shape of the surface of the earth, its
mountains and valleys, plains and plateaus, the physical landscape.
How does it affect agriculture?
iii. The flatter the land, the greater and more efficient for farming.
iv. The steeper the land the decline the output.
c. Soils : this is where crops are grown and animals get their feed
How does it affect agriculture?
o The deeper and richer the soil, the more intensive the farming and the
higher the output.
o Most crops favours the soils which are well drained
2. HUMAN FACTORS
a. Ownership and Land inheritance
 If land owned by the farmers, there will be no problem in deciding what to
do with the land unlike when it is privately owned by individuals or
government
 The kind of farm ownership mostly influences the kind of farming to take
place. Where farm are mostly owned by foreigners like in Mulanje
tenancy farming is mostly practiced
 Where individuals own farms, inheritance issues end up stopping extensive
for intensive farming mainly where population is high as the plots are
divided into smaller portions once children become independent
 In USSR (Russia) and Canada, landlord system is mostly used which lead to
exploitation of farmers
b. Capital
 Capital assists in the starting of agriculture for buying equipment e.g.
lands, fertilizer, tractors, seeds, labour e.g. but without enough capital
agriculture cannot be successful.
 Capital determines the following
i. what kind of crop should be grown in an area
ii. use of machinery and other farm investments ( like buildings)
iii.purchasing of human economic inputs etc
c. Mechanisation
 Mechanisation increases production because large areas of land are
grown with crop however is only applicable to rich people and only for
people with large farms this cause challenge to small scale farmers
d. Culture
 Some cultures have negative impact on agriculture because they my not
allow the growing of certain crops as well as the keeping of certain
animals to preserve their culture.
e. Market

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 Availability of market has an influence on agriculture. Farmers are
encouraged to produce commodities whose market is available
otherwise lack of market hinder high agricultural production.
f. Government policies
 This can take several forms like
i. Subsidies and grants which positively help to boost agricultural productivity.
Malawi, for example, practice subsidy programme in fertilizer which has lead
to food security. In Britain, grants are preferred mainly in form of tractors
ii. Setting of minimum prices on agricultural products eg in Tobacco and Cotton
iii. Giving quotas to limit production so that prices remain high

AGRICULTURE SYSTEMS

 Main systems of agriculture that are practiced by people world wide

i. Intensive subsistence farming
ii. Extensive subsistence farming
iii. Intensive commercial farming
iv. Extensive commercial farming
v. Nomadic farming
vi. Shifting cultivation
WORLD AGRICULTURE SYSTEMS

SUBSISTENCE FARMING AND COMMERCIAL FARMING

 Subsistence farming is the growing of crops or raising animals for food only while
commercial farming is the growing of crops and rearing of animals for sale

COMMERCIAL FARMING
 This refers to the growing and raising of animals for sale.
i. Intensive rice farming
ii. Extensive farming e.g. Cattle ranching in Argentina & Wheat farming in Canada
and USA
SUBSISTENCE FARMING
i. Mixed farming e.g. Wheat & cattle on the small farm
ii. Intensive rice farming

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iii. Extensive wheat farming
iv. Shifting cultivation
v. Nomadic pastoralism
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTENSIVE FARMING
i. Capital and labour applied to relatively small-sized farms
ii. Yield per unit area is high
iii. Small plot of land is with great intensive care to support the fast growing
population
iv. Animal farming e.g. cattle is developed
v. It is best practiced in Monsoon Asia
vi. Use animal and plant manure.
vii. Irrigation is used in time of dry weather.
viii. Double cropping is practiced during one year.
ADVANTAGES OF INTENSIVE FARMING
i. High yield per hectare may be achieved
ii. Several harvests per year are possible
iii. Land can be used continuously without losing fertility
DISADVANTAGES OF INTENSIVE FARMING
i. Labour input is very high
ii. Farmers feel reluctant to integrate the land holdings into large farms which could
be economically feasible for fear of losing their plots of land
iii. Under utilization of animals
iv. Land holdings are fragmented

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DIARY FARMING IN DENMARK
Objectives
i. Explain factors favouring dairy farming in Denmark
ii. Identify breeds of dairy cattle in Denmark
iii. Identify crops grown for dairy farming
iv. Relate farming activities to cycle of seasons
v. Describe main products of dairy farming in Denmark
vi. Explain how dairy farms are managed
vii. Explain the importance of cooperatives in dairy farming.
viii. Locate on the world map other dairy farming areas
Locate on the map of Denmark the four main Islands and the main land.

FACTORS THAT FAVOUR DAIRY FARMING IN DENMARK

1. Favourable cool temperature which encourages the growth of polder crops and
natural pasture. Most dairy breeds favour cool temperature
2. Nutrious green and natural pasture that is available is favourable for dairy Breeds.
3. There is ready market of the products because almost everyone in Europe use milk.
4.Well developed transport network promotes dairy farming because milk is
perishable and needs efficient transport to avoid loses of milk due to delay in
transporting the product
5. There is high technology that makes the processing of the products easy.
OTHER ACTIVITIES DONE AT THE FARM
i. Growing cereal crops such as wheat, barley
ii. Growing pastures i.e. grass
iii. Growing root crops i.e. sugar beet
iv. Poultry and pig farming
CHARACTERISTICS OF DAIRY FARMING
i. The farms are small
ii. Dairy farming is capital intensive
iii. Farming methods used are intensive in nature

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iv. The main source of income is milk
v. Milk products are processed right at the farm

GIVE EXAMPLES OF BREEDS REARED AT DAIRY FARM IN DENMARK

i. Milking short horn
ii. Guernsey
iii. Friesian
iv. Brown Swiss
v. Jersey
vi. Alderney
ACTIVITIES THAT ARE DONE AT A TYPICAL DAIRY FARM IN DENMARK
i. Nov-and January there is poor cool weather and the animals are stall fed this
period
ii. Feb- April ploughing and sowing of seeds are done
iii. May- July weeding in the fields
iv. August is the period for harvesting cereals while in September root crops are
harvested
v. In October ploughing and sowing of some seeds is also done
COOPERATIVES
 These are organisations made up of a number of dairy farmers who pull their
resources together and sell their products in groups.
FUNCTIONS OF COOPERATIVES IN DENMARK AMONG DAIRY FARMERS.
i. They assist farmers in marketing their products because they collect, grade, store
farm products and sell them.
ii. They help farmers in purchasing because they buy farm inputs in large quantities
at lower price.
iii. Helps farmers by giving them loans so they serve as financing agencies.
iv. Assist in processing because they have facilities for processing which farmers
could not own and as such farmers make profits
v. Cooperatives provide advice and Research on dairy farming and this helps
farmers to be guided on new technologies discovered and the problems facing
the dairy farming so that farmers are well informed and improve their efficiency.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOLK HIGH SCHOOL AND THE DAIRY FARMING IN
DENMARK
i. The school provided lessons in agriculture to men while women learn home
economics
ii. Men learn at least agriculture techniques which provide good foundation of
cooperatives
iii. Women who learn home economics are provided necessary knowledge in the
management of resources in the houses.
PRODUCTS FROM DAIRY FARMING
 Milk, Butter, Cheese, Condensed and sweetened milk, powdered milk, Skimmed
milk, Yoghurt.
IMPORTANCE OF DAIRY FARMING TO THE ECONOMY OF DENMARK
i. It assist in the employment sector because many people are employed who
could otherwise be un employed.
ii. Assists in the foreign earnings Denmark exports her butter and cheese to
Germany, UK, and other countries

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DAIRY FARMING IN MALAWI
FACTORS THAT HINDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRY INDUSTRY IN MALAWI.
i. Un even distribution of rainfall makes the pasture to be of poor quality and
quantity which does not support dairy farming
ii. High quality breeds do not stand the hot temperature of the tropical region very
well as a result most of the animals that people raise are indigenous hence
produce low milk.
iii. Most animals are attacked by diseases in the tropical region i.e. tsetse flies
iv. Most people in Malawi just like many tropical region keep animals traditionally
and only for subsistence and do not aim at high production of milk products
v. Low capital slows the development of dairy industry because exotic breeds are
expensive.
vi. Poor communication, transport net work hinder dairy industry because milk is
vii. perishable product that need efficient transport to prevent loses due to delay in
transport
viii. Lack of technology for the processing of milk into different dairy products
ix. Most people in the tropics do not use dairy products which my restrict production
of more products.
STRATEGIES THAT CAN BE PUT IN PLACE TO BOOST THE DAIRY INDUSTRY IN
MALAWI.
i. Establishment of cooperatives that will assist farmers in research, financing
farmers
ii. through loans, marketing the products and others
iii. Establishing farms that will introduce irrigation on pasture lands so that un-even
iv. distribution of rainfall will not affect the quality and quantity of pasture
v. Introduction of cross breeds of cattle that will stand the hot climate of the
tropical region
vi. Improvement in the infrastructure like roads that will facilitate quick
transportation of dairy products.
vii. Intensification of research of the pastures and diseases of animals.
THE DAIRY INDUSTRY IN DENMARK FROM THAT OF MALAWI
DENMARK MALAWI
1. Improved exotic pasture 1. Local pastures
2. animals most kept for commercial 2.Animals kept for subsistence
purpose
3. High technology used 3- No-or little technology used
4. Less prevalence of diseases 4- Animals highly attacked by diseases
5. Operates through cooperatives 5. Operates by individual farmers
6. Good transport network 6. Poor transport network
7. Schools for dairy farmers are 7. No Special school for dairy farmers
established

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POLDER CULTIVATION IN NETHERLANDS
Objectives
i. Locate polder areas on the map of the Netherlands
ii. Estimate area occupied by polder as percentage
iii. Describe the origin and process of Land reclamation
iv. Define land reclamation
v. Describe the nature of landscape of polders
vi. Assess problems associated with land reclamation
vii. Account for the growth of specific crops on newly reclaimed land
viii. Describe types of farming practices in the polder.
MAP OF NETHERLANDS TO SHOW POLDER LANDS.

SOURCE Phiri FRG

POLDER
 This is the land that has been reclaimed from the sea
LAND RECLAIMATION
 It is the process of draining the water from the water bodies or marshes to turn it
into land for settlement or land for farming
REASONS THAT HAVE PROMPTED FOR LAND RECLAMATION IN NETHERLANDS

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1. Netherlands is the most highly populated country in Europe
2. The good fraction of the area of Netherlands is covered by water and also people
live below the sea level.
3. Most parts of the land have infertile soils except Holland which hold 60% of the total
population.
PROCESS OF LAND RECLAMATION
i. Firstly the dykes are constructed along the coast of rivers or across it using
clay but concrete is used to construct dyke along the sea coast or across. As
shown below

ii. The second step is pumping the water from the desired area using diesel
pumps, electric engines or wind mills.
iii. The third step is planting the reeds that help in drying the water because
pumping does not drain all the water and the absorb the salts as shown
below

iv. Clearing the area after a few years to make the land ready for cultivation or
settlement. As shown below

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WAYS IN WHICH POLDERISED LAND IS USED.
a- It is used for settlements
b- It is used for three types of farming i.e. arable farming where wheat, barley, oats, rye
and pastures are grown.
i. Horticulture in which bulbs and vegetables are grown
ii. Dairy farming as it is done in Denmark
iii. Mixed farming
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH LAND RECLAMATION
i. The soil has high salinity. This problem is solved through application of lime which
makes the soil alkaline before plants grow.
ii. There is high probability of flooding to those low lying areas
iii. Pumping of water and construction of dykes is very expensive
iv. The reclaimed land takes long time before using it as draining of water takes long
time.
v. Land subsidence in the reclaimed land is a common problem
vi. Maintenance of dykes is very expensive
POTENTIAL AREAS FOR LAND RECLAMATION IN MALAWI

i. Lake Chirwa
ii. Vwaza marsh
iii. Ndindi marsh
iv. Bana swamp
v. Elephant marsh
REASONS WHY LAND RECLAMATION IS NOT DONE IN MALAWI
i. Land reclamation is expensive that Malawi as a poor country cannot sustain it.
ii. Malawi has many land that all what is needed is capacity building to use the
available land to its productivity
iii. Land reclamation would disturb the wetlands there by affecting the habitats of
birds and other wildlife
iv. Some of the potential areas for land reclamation like Lake Chirwa have a lot of
fish on which many Malawians rely on for protein.

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v. The reclaimed land would have a lot of salinity which would need another
project of lime application to neutralise the salts
vi. Some areas that are potential areas like Vwaza, Elephant and Ndindi marshes
have animals that provide tourism and vegetation is also conserved in such
areas.

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EXTENSIVE CROP FARMING
Objectives
i. Locate areas where extensive farming is practiced.
ii. Relate areas where extensive farming is practiced to population density.
iii. Describe the characteristics of extensive farming.
iv. State activities associated with extensive farming
v. Examine problems associated with extensive farming
vi. Locate the prairies on map of North America
vii. Identify main wheat producing areas in prairies
viii. Explain favorable conditions for wheat growing
ix. Describe the contrasting land use on prairies

CANADIAN PRAIRIES
PRARIRIE (latin pratum a meadow; French prairie, a tract of meadow land.
 This refers to an extensive area of aun brocken grassland, generally without trees
occuring in midlatitudea in North America.
 It is considered as
I. Steppes in Europe
II. The pampas of South America
III. The veld of Southern Africa.

MAP SHOWING WHEAT GROWING AREAS IN CANADA

THE FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR WHEAT GROWING

i. It needs rainfall of between 305 and 405mm
ii. It does well with frost free period of 100 days
iii. It needs temperature of about 18 degrees Celsius.
iv. Heavy loam soils called chernozem of the steppes
v. Well drained undulating topography that enables mechanisation.
FARM ACTIVITIES ON WHEAT FARM THAT IS COMMERCIALLY MANNED.
i. In April – May there is sowing of wheat and growing of potatoes
ii. In June – July there is weeding and spraying of chemicals in the wheat field.

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iii. In August- harvesting wheat is done by combine harvesters and transported it to
elevators (storage) houses by railways
iv. In September harvesting of potatoes is done
v. In October the fields re ploughed and lime or fertilizer is applied
vi. In November-March There is no work done in the wheat field because of Most
farmers take their wheat after threshing to the country elevators
vii. The wheat is dried and cleaned by the country elevators
viii. The wheat is also graded and weighed.
ix. Wheat for export is transported by trucks and railways to terminals.
x. High ships are loaded with the wheat from terminals ready for export.
HOW THE WHEAT IS EXPORTED TO EUROPE IS AND THE FAR EAST- FROM CANADA.
i. The wheat to Europe is exported through the ports of Winnipeg, Port Arthur and
Port William on Lake Superior and the great Lakes.
ii. The wheat reaches Europe through Halifax, Montreal and St. Johns Ports.
iii. The wheat to the Far East is exported through west wards route to pacific ports of
Vancouver, Churchill and Seattle to Japan, Korea and Indonesia.
PRODUCTS THAT ARE FROM WHEAT FARMING
i. Bread flour
ii. Semolina (for making spaghetti, Macron and vermicelli)
iii. Cakes, biscuits, breakfast cereals, pie crust and ice cream corn.
iv. Live stock feeds i.e. bran
v. Distillation of alcohol
vi. Preparation of glue and adhesives
vii. Straws for paper making
viii. Gluten flour for diabetic patients
ix. Cow beddings in sheds.
IMPORTANCE OF EXTENSIVE WHEAT FARMING IN CANADA.
i. Wheat is the major commodity for export as such it helps in the earning of foreign
currency.
ii. Wheat farming has influenced the construction of railways and elevators hence
help in the development of the country.
iii. Wheat farming has created a lot of job opportunities to people who are involved
in different activities at different levels.
PROBLEMS FACED BY EXTENSIVE WHEAT FARMING
i. Wheat farming is often hit by fluctuation of price on International markets.
ii. Crops are affected by natural disasters of drought, hail, winds and frost.
iii. Closing of the exporting routes because of freezing conditions is another
challenge.
iv. Wheat is attacked by pests like grasshoppers and some diseases.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. a.i. Describe any three reasons for wheat cultivation on the Canadian prairies.
ii. Mention ant two differences between winter wheat and spring wheat.
b.i. Give two reasons why most of the wheat is sown between April and May?
ii. Mention three towns on St Lawrence sea way which handles wheat export.
iii. Explain ant two problems associated with extensive farming.
c. Give any three importance of wheat to Canada.
2. Draw map of Canadian prairies. On it insert the following
i. Rail way line
ii. At least three provinces.

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CATTLE RANCHING IN ARGENTINA
Objectives
i. Locate Argentina on map of South America
ii. Describe an estancia
iii. Describe conditions favourable for ranching in Argentina
iv. Outline activities that took place on a ranch
v. Describe types of animals kept on the ranch
vi. Explain the importance of cattle ranching in Argentina‟s economy
vii. Discuss problems associated with ranching in Argentina.
viii. Compare the beef industry in Malawi with cattle ranching in Argentina
Locate Argentina on South America Map

WHAT IS AN ESTANCIA?
 This is a cattle Estate in the pampas temperate grass lands in Argentina but small
estate is chacras
IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RANCHING AND PASTORAL NOMADISM.
RANCHING PASTORAL NOMADISM
i. Vegetation cover is continuous i. Vegetative cover is seasonal
ii. There is little or no migration of ii. There is continuous migration of
animals animals
iii. The cattle farms are scientifically iii. Animals are traditionally kept
manned without scientific management
iv. Animals are raised for sale iv. Animals are raised for
subsistence & prestige
v. There is low stocking ratio v. very high in stocking ratio
vi. Development oriented vi. No development conscious
CHARACTERISTICS OF RANCHING
i. In most cases only one type of animals is kept in large numbers

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ii. It is practiced in marginal areas where desertification is not commercially worth
while.
iii. Ranching is done at large scale
iv. Depends on natural vegetation for pasture
v. Animals are kept either through open grazing system where animals are always
looked after by herdsmen or through paddock system in which animals are
fenced.
FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR CATTLE RANCHING IN ARGENTINA
i. There is low population density that gives room for the establishment of large
farms in grasslands.
ii. Pasture grows throughout the year because temperature does not fall below
freezing point
iii. There is efficient railway net works for transporting the animals to frigorificos
centres
iv. Access to internal and international market for meat products.
OPERATIONS CARRIED OUT FROM THE PERIOD ANIMALS ARE BORN TO WHEN THE
PRODUCTS ARE EXPORTED OR USED LOCALLY
i. The young ones are weaned when they are born in order to fatten them.
ii. After 6 months the animals are rounded up to frigorificos centres while already
iii. branded with hot iron for easy identification
iv. Animals are weighed cleaned, shocked and killed
v. The skins, hooves, heads and wofoes are removed
vi. The carcases are chilled, frozen or corned
vii. The chilled meat is exported to shorter distances while the frozen meat is
exported internationally to places like W. Germany, Arab States, U.S.A., Canada,
France, Spain and Israel.
viii. The corned meat (salted) is used locally
ix. Corning of meat is done at Saldero ( meat factory)
x. Beef is exported through the ports of Rosario and Buenos Aires.
PRODUCTS THAT ARE MADE FROM CATTLE RANCHING
- Ox -Leather - Fertilizer
- Bovril - Glue - Fat

PROBLEMS THAT AREA FACED BY CATTLE RANCHING IN ARGENTINA

i. The pampas grasslands area sometimes affected by pampero winds which affects
animals as well as pastures.
ii. Argentina experiences un reliable rainfall quite often that sometimes results into
pasture problems in the pampas grasslands.

PROBLEMS THAT AFFECT CATTLE RANCHING IN MALAWI.

i. Lack of enough grazing land like the pampas grasslands of Argentina
ii. Lack of technology for the processing of the products
iii. The Malawi Zebu produces little amount of beef
iv. Market for the beef is limited as many people are poor that they cannot afford to
buy beef.

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IRRIGATION FARMING
Objectives
i. Define the term „irrigation‟
ii. Explain the factors which encourage irrigation
iii. Describe the main irrigation methods
iv. State the factors which make irrigation farming intensive
v. Explain the problems associated with irrigation
vi. Locate and name Negev desert on Map of Israel
vii. Explain the importance of irrigation in Israel
viii. State the condition favourable for sugar cultivation at Nchalo.
ix. Describe the processing of sugar
x. State the problems faced by Nchalo Sugar Estate.
xi. State the importance of sugar industry in Malawi.

IRRIGATION
 This is the supplying of water on the land to enable crops to grow to reduce the
length of period in which lack of Moisture retards plant growth.
 This is the provision of supply of water from river, lake or underground source to
enable an area to be cultivated.
AREAS WHERE IRRIGATION IS CARRIED OUT
i. Nile Valley – Egypt
ii. Murray basin – Australia
iii. Indus Valley – India
iv. Negev desert -Israel
v. Gezira in Sudan
vi. Nchalo in Malawi.
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR IRRIGATION
i. Seasonal water shortage due to drought, as southern California
ii. Un reliable rainfall amounts as the Sahel countries
iii. More reliable water supplies
iv. Flatness of the land that will not allow water to flow away (back).
v. Impervious clay soils to prevent percolation of water.
vi. Scarcity of land and high population density which will encourage double
cropping in one year Dry areas
vii. Regions with low or un reliable rainfall.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
1. TRADITIONAL METHODS
 Examples are
I. BASIN (ANNUAL) IRRIGATION METHODS
i. This method depends on the flooding of the river, once the river does not
flood it is not possible to carry it.
ii. Farmers level the flood plains then make mud walls (banks) in small fields.
iii. When rain water come ,flood water is allowed to flood the basin –like
fields hence basin irrigation
iv. The silt which is suspended in the flooded water finally settles down and
makes the soil fertile.
v. When water has been seeped through the soil, crops are grown.

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vi. This system has been practiced in Egypt(Nile Valley) and Lower Ganges.
Advantages
i. It is cheap in the sense that it does not involeve machines to pump water rather
it relies on the flooding of the river.
ii. Soil is enriched by silt which makes it more suitable for the growth of crops.

II. SHADULF IRRIGATION METHOD

i. The system consists of a tappering poles
rested on a beam supported by two
upright poles.
ii. The thick end of the pole is
weighed and a bowel-shaped leather
bucket is hung from the thin end.
iii. The bucket is dipped into water by
hand and lifted up by weight at the
end of the pole as shown in the picture
FIG.IA

Advantage
i. It is cheap for it uses locally available materials such as poles. Weight(
stone/load)
Disadvantage
i. It not possible for a very big land
III. SAKIA IRRIGATION METHOD
i. This method is similar to shadulf but it uses an ox or donkey and system of pulleys
to draw water for irrigation from the source.
2. MODERN METHODS
I. PERENNIAL IRRIGATION METHODS/CANAL IRRIGATION
i. Water is supplied to the cultivated areas throughout the year.
ii. This involves construction of a huge dam across a river
iii. Reservoirs are created to store water
iv. Water flows down the reservoir into canal and from there to the fields through
channels.
v. Modern perennial irrigation method involves the construction of major
engineering
II. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
i. Applying of water above the ground
surface in the form of spray resembling
rainfall through the nozzle with a pump.
ii. Engine pumps are used to pump water
iii. Pipes with spinning nozzles are connected to
the pipes as shown below
iv. Water comes out from sprinkler and reaches
the ground like rainfall.
v. The method is common in Iraq, Nile Valley and Israel.

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Disadvantages
i. Some area cannot be covered if not proper located for sprinklers will only follow
circular shape.
ii. It is expensive because it involves use of pipe which is at high risk to theft.

III. FURROW IRRIGATION

i. The method involves digging of
small ditches or furrows which are
spread close together to allow
lateral penetration between the
water run as shown below
ii. The method requires very flat
land for easy flow of water.

Advantage
i. It is less expensive for water just flow through furrows
Disadvantage
i. If not properly managed it promotes waterlogged.

IV. OVERHEAD IRRIGATION/BOOM IRRIGATION

i. Water comes out inform of rain
from pipes above the crops as shown
in FIG.ID

V. DRIP IRRIGATION METHOD

i. This method utilises plastic pipes in
which small holes have been made:
These pipes ara laid over the ground
and and water drips onto the plants in
much less wasteful manner.
ii. There is less evaporation

WHY IS IRRIGATION FARMING INTENSIVE?

i. Yield fluctuation from year to year is reduced.
ii. Continuous cultivation becomes possible
iii. In most cases the land holdings are small.
iv. Double or treble harvests may be realised

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v. Higher yield per hectare of given crop.
vi. Some capital is needed.
ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION
i. It enables crops to be grown in areas where because of rainfall, this could not be
done.
ii. It enables a wide range of crops to be grown including those requiring constant
water supply mainly perennial.
iii. It increases yield considerably because double or treble cropping is possible.
iv. In case of basin irrigation land becomes more fertile because of silt brought by
annual flooding.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH IRRIGATION FARMING.
i. Perennial irrigation has resulted in over cropping which has serious problems of
soil exhaustion.
ii. Loss of soil fertility caused by leaching
iii. Spread of water borne diseases because most of the water supplied to crops is
taken from stagnant sources e.g. dams and tanks e.g. malaria, bilharzia
iv. In case of sprinklers and over head irrigation high energy costs are needed ti
pump water.
v. It causes dam siltation hence lowering the level of water in the dam.
vi. Salinity which encourages formation of hard pans

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IRRIGATION IN ISRAEL
 The country of Israel covers 20,440sq kilometres and half of this is a desert while a
440sq kilometre is water.
 Israel is divided into three main regions
i. The Mediterranean Coastal Plains: This area is flat and the soils are fertile
ii. The Hilly Country: This region is highly eroded. It is bounded by Galilee in the north,
Judea in the centre and Jordan valley to the East.
iii. Negev desert in the South: This area is very hot and dry with no rainfall from May to
October. It is this area where irrigation is needed in order to grow crops.
 The desert area is close to the Dead Sea but the water for irrigation is not taken from
this sea because the water is salty.

SOURCES OF WATER FOR IRRIGATION IN ISRAEL.

 The water for irrigation is obtained from
i. Lake Tiberius (Sea of Galilee), or Lake Kineret.
ii. Yarkon river

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HOW WATER FOR IRRIGATION IS TRANPORTED
i. Water grids of canals and pipes are constructed to transfer water from the
northern part to the Negev desert in the southern part.
ii. Along the desert area the water is mainly taken through pipe lines because it is
very hot and evaporation is very high such that without pipelines much of the
water will be evaporated.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
i. Sprinkler irrigation but it is wasteful.
ii. Drip or trickle irrigation-This saves water hence widely used.
EXAMPLES OF CROPS GROWN UNDER IRRIGATION
i. Tomatoes, sunflower, sugar beet, citrus fruits, apples, cotton, pears and spring
potatoes.
ii. Despite the water taken from the rivers and the lake, water for irrigation in Israel is still
not enough as such the government has embarked on an ambitious project of
water desalination. Desalination plants have been constructed at Haifa and Eilat.
WHAT IS DESALINATION?
 Water desalination is the process of removing the salts from the water through the
use of electricity.
 There are different methods that are used to desalinate the water.
1. VACUUM FREEZING
 In this process sea water is cooled and then introduced into a freezing chamber
where the water forms a thin mixture of liquid water and ice particles. The mixture is
separated and ice particles are finally washed to remove the brine (salt).The ice
particles are melted down to give fresh water. This method is cheaper than other
methods.
2. EVAPORATION METHOD
 The water is heated up to the boiling point. When it changes into gas (water
vapour), the vapour is cooled and fresh water is collected leaving behind salts in the
evaporating chamber.
 This method is slightly expensive as it uses more electricity. This method is used at
Eilat.
3. ELECTROLYSIS
o This method removes the salts from the water through electroplating process as the
electricity passes through the salty water. (Check with Physics to know this process
more)
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATE WITH IRRIGATION IN ISRAEL
1. Insufficient source of water
2. Hostile Arabs who would not like to sea Israel use Jordan River
3. It is very costly to pump water from lake Tiberius 210m below sea level
4. Evaporation rate is very high in the Negev region
5. Desalinating the water is very expensive.

NCHALO SUGAR IRRIGATION SCHEME

 It is located in Chikhwawa District to the western bank of Shire River.

GENENARAL NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR SUGAR CANE GROWING
1. Temperature of 21-27 degrees Celsius throughout the year

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2. A sunny dry season close to harvesting period to promote concentration of sugar
in the cane.
3. Rainfall of about 1270 mm (rain fed) but too much rain dilutes the sugar and
leads to poor quality.
4. Water-retentive deep fertile soils
5. A flat topography to facilitate mechanisation and proper usage of irrigated
water
6. A large supply of labour during harvesting time
MAP OF MALAWI SHOWING WHERE SUGARCANE IS GROWN

FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR THE GROWING OF SUGAR CANE AT NCHALO

1. Temperature of 20-32 degrees Celsius
2. Rainfall below 800mm per annum .this low rain fall encourages the use of canal
and sprinkler irrigation to supply rain water.

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3. Flat topography
4. Have calcimorphic soils (gray to dark brown alluvial soils) and Hydromorphic soils
(strongly developed course structured clay soils).
5. Abundant labour force
HARVESTING OF SUGAR CANE
Before harvesting the cane field is set on fire in order to
i. Burn off the dead foliage
ii. For easy harvesting
iii. Get rid of pests and dangerous animals.
The canes are cut with long knives and carried by tractors to the factory
PROCESSING OF SUGAR CANE INTO SUGAR
i. The canes are cut into pieces in a factory and crushed by the rollers to extract
the juice.
ii. The juice is then boiled and lime is added to prevent fermentation
iii. The Syrup is partly evaporated and the rest is crystallised into raw (brown sugar)
.This process leaves behind molasses as by –product.
iv. In order to come up with white sugar, the syrup if filtered to remove the solid
impurities and then run into Char or bone charcoal packed cylinder.
v. The function of the char is to absorb the brown colour.
vi. The sugar is then evaporated and condensed into white sugar .This process
leaves behind the by-product known as golden syrup which is used to smear on
the bread
OTHER PRODUCT FROM SUGAR PROCCESSING
1. Golden syrup: used on bread
2. Biogases: used as fuel for mills
3. Cattle fodder
4. Fibre board and synthetic textile industries
5. Molasses: Used for
i. Making rum and treacle
ii. Making industrial alcohol
iii. Mixing with silage to improve the palatability
MARKETING OF SUGAR FROM NCHALO SCHEME
i. It is marketed locally
ii. It is exported to other SADC countries e.g. Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania,
Angola, S. Africa, DRC, Swaziland, Congo, Lesotho, Seychelles, Mauritius and to
Europe.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NCHALO SCHEME
1. It provides employment to the neighbouring villagers and other experienced
people like engineers.
2. Source of foreign currency through export.
3. Source of income to small holder farmers.

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PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
Objectives
i. Define the term „plantation agriculture‟
ii. Explain characteristics of plantation agriculture
iii. Explain advantages and disadvantages of plantation agriculture.
iv. Give examples of crops grown under plantation agriculture.
v. Explain factor that favour Cocoa growing in Ghana
vi. Mention areas where Cocoa is grown in Ghana.
vii. Explain economic importance of cocoa in Ghana.
viii. Discuss how cocoa is processed into final products.

 This is the growing of a single stand of crops on a large piece of land

commercially.
 Plantation agriculture in most cases is practised with perennial crops that take a
long time to give proceeds after establishment but also takes a long time
harvesting the same crop e.g. coffee, and tea.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
i. Estate farming, but sometimes small holder farming is also possible.
ii. Foreign ownership but local labour
iii. Scientific management in order to achieve required standards.
iv. Heavy capital out ray.
ADVANTAGES OF PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
1. Farmers can choose the best seeds from the nursery
2. Weeding is easy because crops are planted in rows.
3. Crops provide waste materials which decompose into good manure for the
crops.
4. Crops shade the trees and at the same time act as wind break.
5. Plantations provide employment for local workers.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Setting a plantation is very expensive because it needs heavy capital out ray
2. Little produce in the first years of establishment hence little money.
3. Many plantation crops such as oil palms, sugar cane need to be processed soon
after harvesting and any delay will lead to great loss.
4. It is vulnerable to price fluctuation
5. Disease out break is very fast in a plantation and could wipe out the entire
plantation.
6. Poor conditions in a plantation find it difficult to attract enough labours to work in
the farms.
7. Plantation workers need to learn different types of skills for working in a
plantation.
8. Rapid deterioration of tropical soils difficulties of clearing and maintenance.

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COCOA GROWING IN GHANA

 Cocoa is one of the plantation crops. Apart from Ghana, cocoa is grown in
Brazil, Nigeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Mexico and Columbia.
FACTORS WHICH FAVOUR THE GROWING OF COCOA
i. Well drained porous soil rich in potash.
ii. Hot climate with temperature over 24 degrees Celsius.
iii. Heavy rainfall of 2000mm-3500mm per annum without long drought.
iv. Availability trees to provide wind break.
COCOA GROWING AREAS IN GHANA
i. Agogo iii. Awaso v. Sunyani
ii. Kumasi iv. Bibiani
COCOA CULTIVATION AT AGOGO
i. The forests are cleared with some trees left to act as wind break.
ii. Small holder farmers use primitive tools for farming.
iii. The plants are planted and the fields are weeded.
iv. The plants take some time before they start bearing pods (about 5 years).

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PROCESSING OF COCOA
i. The pods are harvested with knives then pods are split open with knives.
ii. The beans are separated from the pulp.
iii. The beans are then fermented for a week.
iv. After fermenting, the beans are dried for a week and packed in bas after drying
ready to the market.
 Cocoa is transported to Agogo where there are intermediate buyers using
bicycles and ox-carts.
 From Ago go, cocoa is transported by railway or lorry to ports Tema and Sekondi.
Cocoa is shipped to overseas where there are chocolate making factories.
Processing of the cocoa continues in the importing country.
PROCESSING OF COCOA AT COMPANIES
i. The beans are cleaned and roasted.
ii. The husks are removed after roasting in order to produce cocoa nibs.
iii. The nibs are then ground into powder with machines where the fatty cocoa
butter is removed.
iv. The powder is finely ground and mixed with mild to make cocoa drink. For
making chocolate, the powder is ground to great fineness. Sugar, nuts and
flavouring ingredients are added to improve the taste and appearance.
FLOW DIAGRAM OF CHOCOLATE MAKING

COCOA BEANS COCOA BEANS

CLEANED CRUSHED AND
COCOA BEANS
HULLS ARE
ROASTED
REMOVED

BEANS FAT REMOVED

COCOA PASTE DRIED CRUSHED TO FROM PASTE
POWDER PASTE

COCOA POWDER
MIXED WITH
COCOA BUTTER+ CHOCOLATE USED FOR
SUGAR+MILK IS MADE COSMETICS

OTHER CROPS GROWN AT A COCOA FARM

i. Yams
ii. Groundnuts

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iii. Beans
PRODUCTS FROM COCOA FARMING
i. Chocolate
ii. Cocoa butter lotion (Cosmetics)
iii. Cocoa butter powder
iv. Drugs
FACTORS THAT HAVE LED TO THE DECLINE OF COCOA GROWING IN GHANA
i. Falling of prices at international markets discourages farmers.
ii. Lack of labour as young people migrate to towns leaving old people to work in
farms.
iii. Smuggling of cocoa to neighboring countries where cocoa prices are better.
iv. Viral disease called swollen shoots continues to reduce harvest.
v. Uncontrolled bushfires
vi. Diminishing of trees that prevent wind from destroying the crops.
vii. Lack of good roads in the borders.
viii. Credit is difficult to obtain.
ix. Mechanisation is absent.
IMPORTANCE OF COCOA INDUSTRY IN GHANA
i. Source of employment since 500,000 people are employed.
ii. Source of foreign exchange since 65% of Ghana‟s economy comes from cocoa
export.
MARKETING OF COCOA
i. Local farmers sell their cocoa to the United Farmers Council which is a state cocoa
marketing board responsible for the export of cocoa.
ii. At the overseas, cocoa is exported to Great Britain, USA, Germany, France, Sweden,
Netherlands, CIA and Italy.

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TEA GROWING IN MALAWI
Objectives
i. Explain the origin of Tea in Malawi
ii. Discuss factors that favour tea growing in Malawi
iii. Mention areas where tea is grown in Malawi
iv. Explain processes involved in tea processing
v. Explain factors that led to tea farming at Makwasa.
vi. Give reasons why trees are grown around the tea plantation.
vii. Explain economic importance of tea production in Malawi
viii. Explain roles played by small holder tea authority.
 Tea was introduced to Malawi in 1878 by British missionaries.
 Currently tea is grown in Mulanje, Thyolo and Nkhata Bay.

CONDITIONS FAVOURING
TEA GROWING
i. Heavy
rainfall of about 1600-2000mm per annum
ii. Moderate temperatures of 18-20 degrees Celsius with little or no chance of frost.
iii. Well drained loam soils which are acidic on gentle slopes.
iv. Large labour force especially during picking period
ACTIVITIES THAT ARE DONE DURING THE TEA GROWING PROCESS
i. Germinating, Pruning, Plucking,
ii. Processing i.e. Withering, Rolling, Fermenting, Firing, Sorting, Grading, Packing,
blending.
FLOW DIAGRAM OF TEA PROCESSING

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1. WITHERING:
 Warm air is brown on the green leaves to reduce the moisture content.
2. ROLLING:
 The leaves are crushed into small pieces by machines (rollers)
3. FERMENTING:
 Fermenting is the breaking down of chemical parts of a substance to change
it into another product. It takes 3-31/2 hours. In tea processing this is the
important process because it determines the quality of the tea.
The tea is kept at humid temperature of 24 degrees Celsius to ensure a clear
colour with sweet smell
4. FIRING:
 Hot air is passed over the fermented tea to dry it a little more after
fermentation.
5. SORTING:
 Tea is sorted into different sizes and quality by machines.
6. GRADING:
 This is the ranking of the product by quality or value using machines or tea
experts.
7. PACKING:
 This process puts tea in wooden boxes or chests ready for export.
8. BLENDING:
 This ids the mixing of different grades of a product together and it helps to
determine the final price of the product..
GROWING OF TEA AT MAKWASA ESTATE
i. Tea growers take cuttings from the best tea trees
ii. They germinate these cuttings in wet sand.
iii. They later transplant the sprouts (cuttings) into the nursery beds.
iv. After1-2 years these plants are ready to be transplanted in the open field.
v. They are planted 60cm apart in rows which are 150 cm.
vi. After four years the plants are pruned ( cutting off the tops of plants)
vii. The tea trees form a hedge which allows the leaves to be plucked easily.
SHADE TREES ARE PLANTED AMONG THE HEDGES FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS
i. Adequate shade helps tea leaves to grow and prevent withering (drying up of
leaves)
ii. The shade trees planted are usually leguminous that put nitrogen back into the
soil
iii. leaves falling from the trees conserve moisture in the ground and once
decomposed they provide food for the plants.
i. The trees also provide shade for the pickers.
SMALL HOLDER TEA AUTHORITY
 To encourage the growing of tea by small farmers who could not afford to grow
tea on a large scale, the government of Malawi in 1967 introduced the Small
holder Tea Authority
 This was established in Mulanje, Thyolo and Nkhata Bay region because of the
following reasons
i. These were already tea growing districts.
ii. Tea does not need a lot of land for high yield therefore a small holder does not
need a lot of land to grow tea.

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iii. Tea can offer additional income to small holder farmers in addition to the
income they receive from selling bananas pineapples which is the main cash
crop in these districts.
iv. A lot of people working on tea estates know how tea is grown and cared for.
o The tea authority is responsible for the distribution of tea plants to the small holder
farmers on long term basis
o From 1967 the number of small holder farmers has increased steadily and the
production of tea has also been increasing.

TEA PRODUCTION
YEAR AMOUNT
1974 23.2
1975 26.2
1976 28.2
1977 31.6
1980 34.5

TEA PRODUCTION

YEAR, YEAR,
1980 1974

1
2
3
YEAR, YEAR, 4
1977 1975 5

YEAR,
1976
 From the pie chart and table above the increase in tea export yearly is due to
the following factors
i. Establishment of Mimosa Tea Research station who research improves the quality
and the yield of tea
ii. The establishment of the small holder tea authority which helps and encourages the
small holder farmers to grow more tea
PROBLEMS OF TEA GROWING
1. Fluctuation of prices on international markets.
2. High competition with other countries that produce tea
3. Luck of government subsidy to improve the amount of tea grown by small holder
farmers.

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FISHING INDUSTRY

Objectives
i. Explain favourable conditions for fishing

ii. On the world map locate and name major fishing grounds

iii. Define „pelagic fish‟

iv. Explain any four fishing methods and the types of fish caught

v. Explain economic importance of fishing industry to Malawi economy.

vi. Mention other industries that have developed due to Fishing Industry.

vii. Discus methods of processing fish

WORLDFISHING
 Fishing is defined as all aspects of man‟s pursuit of all the marine animals in the
seas and the inland waters.
FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR FISHING
1. Presence of continental shelves or shallow waters that allow penetration of sunlight to
stimulate `growth of abundant planktons.
2. Cool climate with temperature lower than 20 Degrees Celsius.
3. Indented coastal lines for natural harbours.
4. Meeting of warm and cold ocean currents which encourage precipitation of mineral
such as nitrates hence the growth of planktons.
5. Moderate or large population because fishing requires more labour.
6. Scarcity of cultivated land in the coastal lands which may force the people to resort
to fishing in order to survive
MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS OF THE WORLD

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MAJOR FISHING GROUNDS ARE CONFINED IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE BECAUSE:
1. It is land hemisphere with large population.
2. Great length of indented coastlines for harbours.
1. NORTH EAST ATLANTIC
 This is influenced by the North Atlantic Drift warm current. The most popular area
is Doggar Bank where fishing is mostly done in spring season using high
mechanisation.
FISHING IS DONE USING THE FOLLOWING METHODS:
Method Fish Caught
i. Tawling iv. Demersal
ii. Haul Seine-netting v. Deep herring Water Fish
iii. Drift netting vi. Herring
IMPORTANT FISH CAUGHT
 Mackerel, cod, herring, haddock, plaice, halibut, sole, hake and skate.
 The North East Atlantic is the greatest fish exporting region of the world. The
important areas in the area are Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland, UK, France,
Germany and Portugal.
2. North West Atlantic
Fishing is centered on the sand banks off the coast of New Found land. This area
has a problem of overfishing.
FISH CAUGHT INCLUDE:
 Cod, herring, haddock, sardines, mackerel, halibut, hake, flounder.
Methods of Catching Fish in North West Atlantic include:
(a) Trawl netting
(b) Drift netting
(c) Haul Seine netting

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 Fishing in this area is very important because it provides employment to many
people more especially New Foundland. Fish from this area are exported to A.
Africa, Southern Europe, North Africa, USA and Canada.
FISHING IN NORTH WEST ATLANTIC IS MOSTLY INFLUENCED BY
(a) Vast N.W Atlantic continental shelf with abundant planktons.
(b) Meeting of North Atlantic Drift and Labrador ocean currents encourage
growth of planktons.
(c) Lack of natural resources on the land and harsh climate force people to
concentrate on fishing hence overfishing.
(d) Coastal indented coast with good natural harbours.
(e) Cool temperature climate.
(f) Availability of market
3. NORTH EAST PACIFIC
 This ground runs from Alaska to California.
 Common fish caught include; Salmon, Hake, Halibut, Cod, Herring, tuna,
sardines, Alaska Pollack and menhaden.
Methods of catching fish
i. Trawl-netting
ii. Drift-netting or purse seine nets
4. NORTH WEST PACIFIC
 This extends from Bering Sea to East China Sea. This is the world‟s greatest fishing
region. Japan is the leading fishing nation in the region.
Important types of fish caught are
 Cod, halibut and salmon, sardines, tuna, herring and mackerel (mullet, gallup
and carp – in China.
5. SOUTH AFRICA
 In this region, fishing is important over the Agulhas Bank. Important fish caught
include cape hake, S. African Pilchad, Cape anchory.
METHODS OF FISHING
i. Trawling
ii. Drift netting
IMPORTANT FISHING PORTS
i. Cape Town iii. Durban v. Port Elizabeth
ii. Port Nolloth iv. Saldana Bay
 Fish from here are exported while canned. Fish meal and fish oil are also
produced here
5. PERU
 This is due to the upwelling cold water of the Humbott current and narrow
continental shelf.
 Most of fish caught here are used for fertilizer making examples of fish caught
include anchovies by drift-netting.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY
 Countries that are closer to the fishing grounds have advanced in fishing grounds
have advanced in fishing industry.
 They are involved in fishing industry of other products. Therefore, where
commercial fishing is concerned, other industries have also been started e.g
(a) Fertilizer making
(b) Fish meal and fish oil production

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(c) Soap and margarine manufacturing factory.
(d) Perfume making etc
(e) Glue making

MAIN TYPES OF FISH CAUGHT INCLUDE

(a) PELAGIC FISH
 There are found near the surface of the water. Examples of fish include Herring,
Mackerel, tuna, and pilchard, Sardines, Anchovies and Menhaden.
(b) DEMERSAL FISH
 These are found very deep almost near the sea bed of the continental shelf.
 Examples of demersal fish are: Sole, Cod, Haddock, Halibut, and garoup, Plaice,
Hake and Skate.
(c) ANADROMOUS FISH
 These are the fish that spend part of their life in fresh water rivers and lakes while
young and in saltwater of the sea when they are old. They go back to the fresh
water for spawning.
 Fish Examples: Salmons
MAIN FISHING METHODS
 The method of fishing is determined by whether the fish are pelagic or demersal,
whether fishing is for commercial or subsistence. The following are the different
fishing methods:
(a) DRIFT NETTING
 This is put vertically in the sea and it is fitted with floats on the upper edge and
weights below. This method is efficient in catching pelagic fish e.g. herring. It is
drifted by an engine boat called drifter.
(b) TRAWLING METHODS
 The trawl net is a bag shaped net whose mouth is kept open head beams.
 The net is dragged along the sea bottom.
 This method is efficient for catching demersal fish e. cod. The problem with this
method is that it only need smooth sea bed because irregular surfaces may tear
the net. Another problem is it needs large amount of labour.
(c) HAUL SEINE NETTING
 This resembles trawl netting only that this one is drifted by two small boats. This
also is used for catching demersal fish.
(d) PURSE SEINE NETTING
 This is similar to drift nets but instead of hanging in the water, the nets are pulled
by their ends to surround a school (group) of fish. The net is sometimes stretched
between two boats. This is used for catching pelagic fish.
(e) LINE METHOD
 These are of two types:
i. Hand lines – These have a single baited hook. This is not economically reliable
as it is too slow.
ii. Long lines – These may have 500 – 5 000 hooks attached. A few metres apart
to a single main line which is several kilometers long.
The hooks are drawn are drawn up by a steam boat. This method is used for
catching demersal fish.
IMPORTANCE OF FISHING INDUSTRY
1. Provide raw materials to other important products e.g. fertilizer, margarine,

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perfume, glue etc.
2. Promote foreign earning to those countries that export fish and fish products.
3. Source of employment.
4. Source of vitamins.
5. Influence the establishment of other manufacturing industries.
PROBLEMS FACED BY FISHING INDUSTRY
-Overfishing
-Indiscriminate fishing of the immature fish.
-Pollution of water by chemical plants and factories.
-Ignorance of fish management
SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS FACED
(a) Controlling types of fishing nets here only those nets with recommended mesh
will be allowed. All nets with small holes will be confiscated and destroyed.
(b) Prohibiting fishing during the breeding season. In Malawi, lakes are closed to
fishing in November and December to give fish enough time to breed.
(c) Restocking of overfished waters by transferring small fish from areas well
populated with fish or by introducing new species. Forbid indiscriminate fishing
by checking the size of fish brought into port by punishing the offenders.
(d).International agreements on fisheries research on which understanding on the
available species, habits, habitats, food and movement of fish will be made.
OTHER RESOURCES FROM THE SEA
(a) Prawns
(b) Shells
(c) Salt (desalinated)
(d) Sand and gravel
(e) Oil
(f) Natural gas, metals i.e. tin, iron, gold, seaweed which is used for making ice
cream, malted milk, pudding, mayonnaise, salad dressing, jellies. Other minerals
i.e. sodium chloride, magnesium, potassium etc
FISHING IN MALAWI

 Malawi is a landlocked country. It does not have sea ports. Despite this, Malawi
catches more fish than Mozambique because she has short supply of meat such
that fish remains the main source of proteins.
Fishing Grounds in Malawi
(a) Lake Malawi
(b) Other lakes: L. Chilwa, L. Chiuta, L. Kazuni, L. Malombe
(c) Rivers i.e. Shire, Domasi, Bua, Rusa e.t.c
(d) Dams
(e) Wetlands e.g. Elephant Marsh

Types of Fish Caught in Malawi

(a) Chambo
(b) Kambuzi
(c) Kampango
(d) Matemba
(e) Utaka
(f) Mlamba

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(g) Micheni
(h) Bakayawo
(i) Mphutha
(j) Mbaba
(k) Ntchira
(l) Bombe etc

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Methods of Catching Fish in Malawi
(a) Traditional Methods: This uses arrows, spears, stones and fish traps.
(b) Modern Methods: Mostly used for commercial purposes and these are
 Seine Netting
 Travel Netting
 Drift Netting
(c) Hooks and Lines
NOTE: Commercially the fish finders, radar and position finder equipment are used to
track the fish both night and day.
Processing and Preservation of Fish
There are two main methods of processing and preserving fish
(a) Traditional Method
(b) Modern Method
Traditional Method
(a) Sun Drying
The sun are caught then washed and spread on rocks for quick drying on the drying
platform.
(b) Smoking
 Smoke is the main agent that preserves fish. Small and medium fish are preserved
using smoke. The fish are gutted (dissected) washd and spread over a platform
and below there is fire i.e chambo, mlamba
(c) Salting
 Salt is applied to the fish to remove the water and denature the growth of
bacteria that spoil the fish.

(d) Para Boiling Method

 Fish are boiled and then later dried i.e usipa. Mostly the traditional methods of
drying fish are used in less developing countries like Malawi because:
 There is lack of modern facilities.
 Low technological level
 Fishing is done at a small scale.
 Lack of enough capital for modern facilities.
Modern Methods
 In the modern method, deep freezers are generally used. Once fish are caught
are washed and graded and stored in to be sold locally.
 They are sometimes frozen in blast plants for exports outside the country.
MALDECO Fisheries is responsible for this in Malawi.
NOTE: In Malawi, canning, tinning are not done.

PROBLEMS OF FISHING IN MALAWI

1. Use of poor fishing methods i.e.
Nets with small mesh
Use of poisonous herbs
2. Pollution
 In Malawi, some fish species have died from the effluents from Dwangwa Ethanol
Company. In other seas pollution is done through the oil spillages from broken
tankers
3. Over Fishing

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4. In controlled fishing period i.e without observing closed season.
5. Inability of following quota.
6. Failure of stakeholders to enforce the law on controlled fishing.
7. Preservation problems due to lack of enough modern facilities for preservation.
8. Transport problems
 There are poor transport networks which affect fish distribution.
SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS IN MALAWI
(a) Controlling types of fishing nets where by all nets with small mesh should be
confiscated and destroyed.
(b) Prohibiting fishing during the breeding season i.e. November to December in
Malawi.
(c) Mandating the Traditional Authority (society) to deal with the culprits during the
closed season.
(d) Introducing quota to commercial fishermen and agencies in order to check
overfishing.
(e) Establishment of research centre and training institutions i.e Mpwepwe, Kachulu,
Salima and Monkey-Bay.

DUTIES OF RESEARCH CENTERS

a. Providing training in better fishing methods.
b. Experiments on breeding fish breeds.
c. Introduction of fish farms which involves rearing of fish in fresh water ponds. This is
called Aquaculture. Fish farms in Malawi are in:
Domasi in Zomba
Kasinthula in Chikwawa
FISH FARMS ARE ESTABLISHED TO:
i. Reserve stocks of fish.
ii. Stock local as well as exotic breeds of fish.
 The attempts that have been made to solve problems facing the fishing industry
in Malawi fishing is a Robber Industry because man can not replace the fish
once caught.

INDUSTRIES
Objectives

i. Define the term „industry‟

ii. Explain types of industry

iii. Explain factors that favour location of an industry.

iv. Give any major industrial areas of the world.

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People, Materials,
Information, Production and Marketing Activities ,
Finance Research and Development

Feedback of
Information and Products, Services,
Results Wastes

TYPES OF INDUSTRIES
1. Primary Industries
 This is concerned with the exploitation of natural resources and raw materials
e.g. fishing, mining, crop cultivation
2. Secondary Industry
 This is concerned with the conversion of raw materials into new manufactured
products .e.g. soap making, oil making, beer brewing, cement making.
3. Tertiary Industry
 This is concerned with the distribution of products from the secondary industry.
This does not involve manufacturing anything .e.g. teaching, transporting goods,
policing, banking, Hotels, hair dressing salon, post office,
Quaternary Industry
 This is involved with the collect provision of information and expert valuation. This
is a service industry. e.g .banking-uses computerized service, money card,
western union money transfer. Health sector-scanning services, x-rays.
Communication-Electronic, email, internet, fax, ladder.
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL AREAS OF THE WORLD
1. Western Europe
 This is the greatest world industrial area and the first to develop. It has developed
because of the following factors;
i. High level of technological advancement in engineering, chemicals, textiles and
electronics

ii. Abundance of coal, nuclear and HEP.

iii. The region has high population which provide readily available for the products.

iv. They have the ability to produce their own raw materials, e.g. iron, steel and
coal.

2. North America.
Factors
i. This region has rich mineral resources

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ii. There are a lot of markets

iii. There is cheap transport for the raw materials. E,g. the Great lakes

3. Japan
Factors
i. Has large market in main land Asia.

ii. This has developed HEP resources

iii. Has large port s for the importation of raw materials

4. Other areas include: South Africa, Argentina, South Korea and Brazil.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOCATION OF AN INDUSTRY

1. RAW MATERIALS

i. Industries can only be located closer to where raw materials are produced in
order to make profits.
ii. Materials that are light to transport and do not get bad easily can be
transported to an industry than heavy and perishable materials which may
need short transport distance and go bad easily respectively.
2. TRANSPORT

i. Industries can economically be located along areas with good transport net
work.
3. SOURCE OF POWER

i. Most industries need enough power supply there fore it is advisable to locate the
industry close to the power supply.
4. AVAILABILITY OF MARKET

i. Market is a pull factor for the establishment of an industry. Places with high
population are highly industrialized because the large population provides large
market.

5. POLITICAL FACTORS

 Favourable political climate influences the establishment of industries while

hostile political condition discourages investors.
CEMENT INDUSTRY IN MALAWI.
i. Cement Industry is located in Blantyre for the following reasons
ii. There is availability of large market
iii. There are storage facilities (ware houses)
iv. Blantyre is more accessible than Changalume

Importance of cement industry in Malawi

i. Source of employment to Malawians
ii. Source of revenue to the government through taxes.

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iii. It reduces import rate of cement and acts as a back borne of construction
sector.

HOW CEMENT IS MANUFACTURED

i. Limestone is mined at Changalume-(now Balaka) with a lot of impurities.
ii. The limestone is broken up and crushed.
iii. The crushed substances are mixed with water and thrown into kiln and heated to
1500 degrees Celsius to evaporate the water. The result is called CLINKER.
iv. The clinker is transported to Blantyre where Cement is produced.
FLOW DIAGRAM OF CEMENT MAKING

IMPACT OF CEMENT MAKING TO THE ENVIRONMENT

i. It uses land which could otherwise be used for agriculture
ii. It causes air pollution
iii. It causes deforestation and disturbs ecological balance
SOLUTIONS TO SOME OF THE PROBLEMS
 Refilling the pits

 Planting vegetation on the refilled areas.

MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRY IN USA AND JAPAN

 Motor vehicle industries have developed because it requires iron and steel which
are readily available. Iron and steel are found in the following areas;
Pittsburg: main centers are Young town and Pittsburg
The Great Lakes Region: Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Gary and Chicago.
Atlantic Coast: Sparrows point and Bethlehem.
 Motor vehicle industry in USA dropped between 1919-1919 because this was the
period when United States experienced great economic Recession. Due to this
the following resulted;
i. Many companies were closed from 108 to 44.

ii. Great unemployment as many workers were laid off.

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iii. Shrinkage of economic activities

 During the Second World War there was also a drop in manufacturing of motor
vehicles because production switched to manufacturing of war materials. See
the figure below.

FACTORS THAT FAVOURED DETROIT AS A CAR LEADING PRODUCER IN USA

i. Historical factor because hennery Fold lived there
ii. Availability of raw materials such as tyres, paint, spring and others.
iii. Flat land because first cars had little power and brakes.
iv. Nearness to Ohio-Indiana Coal Field, Appalachians.
v. Skilled labour force from Europe

PRESENT FACTORS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING

i. Nearness to iron and steel industry
ii. Market provided by the eastern industrial and populated eastern North America.
Cheap transport provided by the Great lakes.
iii. Availability of abundant power supply.

REASONS FOR SCATTERING REGIONAL ASSEMBLY PLANTS IN PARTS OF USA

i. It is expensive to transport assembled cars than car parts.
ii. To serve scattered markets
iii. To exploit less militant labour than the ones in Michigan.
iv. To take advantage of cheap land in those scattered places.
v. Each factory has out put size and assembly lines do increase production

PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES FACING THE CAR INDUSTRY

1. Great competition with other car making industries outside USA.

2. Other companies make smaller and economical cars that those from USA which
consume a lot of fuel.

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IMPORTANCE OF MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRY IN USA.
i. Increased job opportunities
ii. Expanded housing location and alternatives
iii. Expanded opportunities for leisure time
iv. Has provided convenient, comfortable and cheap personal transport over both
long and short distances.

EFFECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRIES.

1. They have increased emission of gases into the atmosphere and has caused air
pollution greatly.

2. Noise pollution

3. Increased the injuries and death toll through car accidents

4. Decline in public transport.

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TOURISM INDUSTRY

Objectives

i. Define „tourism‟

ii. Explain factors that led to development of tourism

iii. Explain different types of tourism

iv. Discuss impact of tourism to a country.

v. Identify problems faced by tourism industry.

vi. Explain problems faced by tourism industry in Malawi.

 This is defined as the total sum of economic activities generated in a national
economy through travel or visits of people.
 A tourist is a person who spends at least one night away from home on vacation.
Growth of Tourism
 At first, tourism was not as developed as in these recent days. During the 19 th –
20th century, more people began to spend their time in the sea shores.
 Modern tourism has grown due to the industrial revolution.
DEVELOPMENTS AS A RESULT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
(a) Improved transport networks.
(b) Invention and proliferation motorbikes
(c) Birth of air transport which is comfortable and fast.
(d) Increased income – the wages of workers have been growing steadily overtime
and also increases the spending power of which leads to more people to spend
for tourism.
(e) Improved working conditions which allowed the reduction of working hours due
to the introduction of machinery such that there was more time for tourism.
(f) Introduction of paid holidays.
(g) Changes in life styles where necessity rather than a luxury.
(h) Politically many govt. have allocated more money in tourism because it
appears as an invisible export.
(i) Socially, there has been the birth of education where individuals have acquired
interest of visiting some areas.
FACTORS THAT PROMOTE TOURISM IN AFRICA
(a) PHYSICAL FACTORS
 Pleasant climate that attract temperate people.
 Impressive scenery, lakes, mountains, forests e.t.c
(b) CULTURAL FACTORS
 Places of historical interest e.g. churches, mosques, places, pyramids.
(c) ECONOMIC FACTORS
 Accessibility to good transport network.
 Availability of social facilities e.g. good accommodation facilities, catering
facilities, presence of tourist guides.
IMPACT OF TOURISM

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 Tourism is an important economic activity in the country that brings economic,
physical and cultural impact for good and bad effects.
i. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TOURISM
(a) Source of employment.
(b) Most people are employed in hotel or transport sector.
(c) Boosts other economic activities e.g agriculture. Some farmers are
encouraged to grow some crops for tourists feed.
(d) Manufacturing of blankets
(e) Making of curios and hats
(f) Invisible export as countries obtains foreign currencies when visitors pay for
accommodation.
ii. Economic Problems Caused by Tourism
(a) Inflation of prices of commodities.
(b) Some foreign investors may also drain the benefits from tourism industry e.g.
protea.
iii. Physical Impact of Tourism
 The tourism industry assists in boosting of infrastructure e.g roads, hotels are
constructed close to tourist resorts.
 The negative physical impact is that tourism:
i. May encourage pollution
ii. Areas which do not have adequate facilities along the lake shore areas, the low
sewage may be pumped into the seas and oceans.
iii. Air pollution due to excessive use of automobiles and industrial chemicals during
the food manufacturing for tourists.
iv. Social Impact of Tourism
a. It hard to measure the social benefits of tourism because they are abstract.
However the lives of people in some families improve as some family members
work for the industry associated with tourism.
b. The negative impact of tourism is rise in crime and violence.
v. Cultural Impact of Tourism
a. Brings about a mutual understanding of different cultures.
b. Boosts up bilateral relations.
The negative cultural impacts of tourism include:
i. The interaction may erode the native cultural norms.
ii. Spread of diseases e.g HIV/AIDS, bird flue e.t.c
iii. Unfavorable political developments.
 Tourism is well developed in Europe, North America and Canada because of the
following reasons:
i. Most tourists come from these regions
ii. There is concentration of historical and cultural resources in these region

TOURISM IN MALAWI
Factors for Tourism Development in Malawi
i. Physical environment has contributed to tourism development due to the
presence of features of great scenic beauty e.g. Lake Malawi, Zomba Plateau,
Nyika Plateau, and Mulanje Mountain.
ii. Good climate - The country has warm, sunshine weather that attract people
from the European world.

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iii. Hospitality of Malawian to foreigners also attracts visitors.
iv. Improvements in transport especially air transport i.e. it may take three days to
travel from America to Malawi or a day from U.K

Tourist Attraction
They are physical as well as cultural
i. Lake Malawi attracts people from the rest of the world because of its fresh
waters.
ii. Natural parks e.g. Nyika, Kasungu attract the tourists because of great diversity
of wild life and the scene are very attractive.
iii. Highlands i.e. Zomba, Mulanje attract tourist from far and beyond.
iv. Local crafts e.g beads, curios of wood, clay and stones.
Cultural and Historical Sites that Attract Tourists Include:
i. PIM in Chiradzulu – state people
ii. Blantyre Mission
iii. Great mystery i.e. Mwala wa mtunzi, Mwala wa mphini.
Importance of Tourism in Malawi
i. Source of employment.
ii. Source of foreign exchange i.e. in 1999 Malawi realised 7 million US dollars from
tourism.
iii. Stimulation of tertiary industry e.g. hotels, air transport as well as road transport.
iv. Infrastructural development e.g. roads that lead to resorts are often taken care
of from time to time.
v. Promotes small scale industries such as the development of arts and craft (mats,
baskets and carvings).
vi. Promotes international understanding and public relations.
PROBLEMS FACING TOURISM INDUSTRY IN MALAWI
i. Insufficient tourist accommodation
ii. Relatively high costs of visiting Malawi. The distance from Europe and America is
prohibitive.
iii. In addition, the regional fares including ground costs are higher than in many
parts of the world.
iv. Hotel rates are very high as compared to rates in this region of Africa.
v. Inadequate air transportation services both to and within Malawi.
vi. Lack of enough entertainment facilities.
vii. Theft by some tourist guides.
TYPES AND FORMS OF TOURISM
(a) Common Interest Tourism
 A group travel by people with cultural interests.
(b) Domestic Tourism
 Travel by indigenous population of a country.
(c) Health Tourism
 They travel by medical or non –medical personnel health resorts and
establishments.
(d) Incentive Tourism
 This is travel rewarded by commissions.
(e) Mass Tourism
 This refers to tourism in which large numbers of tourists take part.

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(f) Eco Tourism
 This is the form of tourism which seeks to avoid adverse and enhance positive
impact. This form of tourism promotes environmental conservation and sustains
the ecology. In other areas, ecotourism is known by the following names:
i. Green Tourism
ii. Soft Tourism
iii. Responsible Tourism
iv. Appropriate Tourism
v. Alternative Tourism

 When people interact (indigenous and tourists) there is mixing of two different
cultures. The result of interaction between people of different cultures is known
as assimilation. Another term for assimilation is acculturation or accommodation.
The tendency of imitating the behavior of other and assimilate it as one‟ own is
called demonstration effect.

Take note of the following:

a. Infrastructural overload
b. Environmental Audit
c. Tourism is a catalyst to development
d. Tourism can be a level for social change

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POPULATION
Objectives
i. Define population
ii. Describe the World population distribution
iii. Describe the population structure
iv. Compare the population structure of a country in Southern Africa with that of
developed country.
v. Describe the implications of various population structures on development
vi. Explain causes of rapid population growth
vii. Assess the effects of rapid population growth on development
viii. Suggest strategies for controlling population growth
ix. Analyse some world population policies.

 Population is the total number of specified group of people in the country or

region.
 Population of an area can be composed of
i. Sex i.e. male and female
ii. Age groups i.e. 0-5, 6-10, 11-15 e.t.c
iii. Races i.e. Europeans, Africans, Asians or Indians
iv. Ethnic groups i.e. Chewa, Tonga, Lomwe e.t.c

POPULATION CHANGE
 Population change have been presented by a model known as Demographic
Transitional Model which states that both population‟s mortality and fertility will
decline from high to low levels as a result of social and economic development.

Stage1: High stationery (England and Wales in 1750)

i. Both birth rate and death rate are high due to high demand for children and
death rate due to poor medication.

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ii. Population fluctuates
Stage2: Early Expanding
i. Birth rate stays high due to high survival ratio was low
ii. Death rate falls due to improvements in sanitation ,foods and medication.
iii. Life expectancy increases.
iv. Population grows quickly
Stage3: Late Expanding
i. Birth rate falls due improved survival ration
ii. Death rate stays at low level
iii. Population growth rate rapid at first, then slow
Stage4. Low Stationery
i. Birth rate and death rate low
ii. Population stable or grows slowly.
Stage 5: Low declining
i. Low birth rate along with an ageing population leads to a declining population.
BIRTH RATE refers to number of births per 1000 of the population
DEATH RATE refers to number of deaths per 1000 of the population.
LIFE EXPECTANCY refers to average number of years a person is expected to live in a
country.
WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
 Population is not evenly distributed at different places in the world. Initially the
world is divided into three divisions basing of the population distribution.

(A) Highly or Densely Populated

1. Monsoon Asia: China, Japan, India, Bangladesh, Java, Sri-lanka. Burma, Thailands
 These areas are densely populated because of favourable agricultural
conditions, fertile development,
2. European Peninsula: U.K, France, Holland, Italy, Germany, Spain.

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 The factors for high population are:
i. Favourable climate for farming
ii. Development of trade
iii. Rich mineral base of industrialization.
3. Eastern U.S.A, Canada: Shores of the Great Lakes regions, St Lawrence Seaway and
Hob erg region.
The reasons in these areas are:
i. Industries
ii. Trade
4. In Africa: Egypt, Nigeria, the Great lakes Region, South Africa.
The factors include:
i. Agriculture
ii. Industrial Development
iii. Religion
iv. Good water supply
v. Contact with early traders
(B) MODERATE DENSITY AREA
i. South Eastern Australia
ii. South Eastern South America.
iii. Some regions of U.S.A and Canada e.g. California
(C) SPARSELY POPULATED AREAS
(i) Tundra Region
i. Northern Canada
ii. N. Asia
iii. Greenland
 The reason is hostile cold climate, short crop growing period, poor soil, difficult in
transport.
(ii)Hot Desert Areas
i. Sahara
ii. Namibia (Karahari)
iii. Gobi
iv. Fur
v. No contact with outside world because of hostile climate.
(iii) The Tropical Rainforests
i. Amazon Basin
ii. Dangerous animals
iii. Congo basin
The factors for this here are:
i. Poor soils
ii. They are inaccessible
iii. They are prone to diseases
(iv) High Altitude Area
i. Andes, Rockies, Himalaya
Reasons include:
ii. They are very cold and steep
iii. Soils are very thin
iv. There is poor communication
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN MALAWI

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PATTERNS
A. High Density Areas: Blantyre, Mulanje, Mzuzu, Phalombe, Lilongwe, Karonga,
Chiradzulu, along the shores of L. Malawi
B. Moderate Density Areas: Kasungu, Zomba, Mchinji, Dedza, Salima
C. Low Density Areas: Plateau area, Marsh areas, forested areas, hilly areas
escarpment areas.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PATTERN OF POPULATION
A. World Distribution of Population is affected by:
a. Geographical Factors
 Climate:
i. Different place experience different climatic conditions as such those
areas with moderate temperature tend to be densely populated than
those area with extreme temperatures.
ii. Different places experience different amount of rainfall which favours
growth of crops as such people are highly populated in areas with high
rain fall for farming
 Relief and soils.
i. Different places have different shapes others are mountainous while
others are flat hence affecting population distribution, flat areas are
densely populated since there is vast land for settlements.
ii. Different places have different types of soils which favour growth of
different crops, fertile soils attract a lot of people for farming hence
densely populated.
(b) Economic Factors
i. Trade: This refers to the art of buying and selling of things. People are
attracted to places where trade is conducted hence densely
populated e.g. Blantyre, Lilingwe, Mzuzu
ii. Industries: these attract a lot of people for employment as such those
areas with more indudstries are densely populated than other ares e.g.
Blantyre
iii. Mining: Extraction of minerals involves a lot of people towork and a lot
of industrtries are also attracted due to mining making the areas to be
densely populated e.g. Karonga because of kayerekera

( c ) . Social Political Factors

i. Stability – in countries where there are wars people are not stable.
ii. Deliberate government policies
B. In Malawi Population is affected by:
(a) Relief
(b) Climate
(c) Economic development i.e. trade, industries, transport, facilities, social-
cultural centers, fishing
(d) Soil fertility
(e) Job opportunity
(f) Availability of social amenities and essential natural resources.
POPULATION GROWTH
i. This is the increase or decrease in the number of the total population of a
country. In different countries of the world, the population growth rate differs. In

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other countries more especially developed countries like Sweden, UK, Germany;
the population growth rate is low while in the developing countries like
Mozambique, Lesotho and Malawi, the growth rate is very high.
ii. The population initially grows when birth rate exceeds the number of death rate
or when the birth rate is constant but the death rate is increasing. Birth rate is the
total number of births per year per 1000 people.
iii. Another way in which population of a country increase is through permanent
international migration.
iv. Since population growth between developed and developing countries differ,
their population structures are also different.
v. Population structure is how the population of a country is spread basing on age
groups.
vi. In developing countries like Malawi, the population growth rate is high such that
there are more people in the lower age groups. There are more people
(children) at the base of the population pyramid.
vii. There are also more females than males but more males are bone than females.
More males also die than females. More males migrate to urban areas to work
than females.

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SHAPE OF THE POPULATION PYRAMID FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (MALAWI)

Reasons for these shape more children because:

(a) Low education levels of women.
(b) Low employment opportunities for women as a result they tend to
concentrate on their traditional child-bearing activities.
(c) High mortality rates which force couples to continue bearing children in
hope those others may survive.
(d) Lack of family planning services.
(e) Children are regarded as a source of labour.
(f) Lack of old age and other security systems force couples to have more
children as security in their old age.
 In the structure for developed countries, there is a narrow base meaning that the
birth rate is low as shown below

 The reasons for this trend could be:

i. High cost of living
ii. Government policies

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iii. Cultural values
iv. High technological level
v. Female emancipation
vi. Better economic status
vii. High levels of education among women
viii. Availability of family planning services.
GENERAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT BIRTH RATE
a. Urbanisation
i. Generally people who live in town are faced with high costs of living in terms of
food, accommodation and transport.
ii. It is assumed that due to this many couples are influenced to have smaller
families.
b. Economic Status
i. The income of the family has a bearing on its size. Less income families tend to
have more children because children are regarded as a source of labour.
Children are seen as insurance for old age person.
c. Education Literacy
i. This affects the age at marriage. The longer one stays in school (females) the
bigger their age at marriage. As individuals are schooling most of their child
bearing period is spent at school as such they may not bear as many children as
they would do when otherwise.
ii. Education makes people more receptive to ideas than otherwise.
iii. Education may cultivate certain values, attitudes and aspiration.
d. Religion/Culture
i. Certain religious or cultural settings encourage large families e.g. Hindu. They
have their culture where males inherit the father‟s worth such that if the family
has only daughters, they still try for a boy. In Islam, polygamy is advocated where
a man is allowed to marry not more than 4 wives. The Roman Catholics do not
advocate the use of contraceptives in family planning.
e. Status of Women
i. In societies where women take part in many social-economic activities and not
spend much time in the home, dislike large families. They adopt family planning
methods.
f. Availability of Health Facilities
ii. Better health facilities cut down mortality rate and later reduce birth rate.
IMPLICATION OF VARIOUS POPULATION STRUCTURE ON DEVELOPMENT
Effects of Rapid Population on Development
A. The population structure with wider base (more children) may have the following
implication on development:
 Levels of Living Standards will be Low
(i) Less attention to cultural values.
(ii) There will be less job opportunities.
(iii) Education levels will be low
i. Economic and Social Choices May Not be Expanded:
(i) There will be high dependency ratio
(ii) People may not be free from forces of ignorance and human
misery.
ii. No increased Distribution of Basic Life Sustaining Goods

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(i) Poor and inadequate food
(ii) Poor accommodation
(iii) Inadequate health services
B. Development is the process which involves changes in structures, attitudes and
institutions as well as acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality
and eradication of poverty. This is possible when the population growth
(structure) is like that of developed countries where there are low birth rates.
Under this circumstance development ought to:
i. Raise levels of living by providing higher incomes, more jobs, better
education and more attention to cultural values.
ii. Expand the range of economic and social choices to individuals by
freeing them from dependence on others
iii. Increase the distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter,
health and security to people
STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING RAPID POPULATION GROWTH
(a) Establishing family planning programs to provide health and contraceptive
services.
(b) Manipulating economic incentives and disincentives to have children by:
i. Imposing minimum age child labour laws.
ii. Reducing or eliminating maternity leaves and benefits.
iii. Establishing old age social security provision e.g pension
iv. Raising school fees to eliminate heavy public subsidies for secondary and
tertiary education.
v. Subsidising smaller families through direct money payments. Taiwan and
India have done this already.
(c) Persuading the people to have smaller families through mass communication
media (TV, Newspaper, radio, adult education.
(d) Forcing people to have smaller families through legislation and penalties. In
India where men having three or more children undergo sterilization or face
severe fines and prison sentences. In Britain, it is an offence or dismissed to get
married under 18 years old.
(E) Relocating population away from rapidly growing areas by eliminating the
imbalance in economic and social opportunities between regions within a
country
POSSIBLE STRATEGIES
i. Eliminating maternity leave and benefit.
ii. Raising school fees in tertiary education.
iii. Persuading people to have smaller families.
INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT
i. High levels of living standards.
ii. Increase in the economic levels among women
iii. Even distribution of social amities
iv. Availability of portable water
POPULATION POLICIES
INDIA
 India is the second highly populated country. To reduce population
growth, India has the following population policy:
i. Family planning campaigns

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ii. Where contraceptive methods fail, stelirisation is used
iii. Gifts and money are given to people who volunteer to be sterile of dismissing
those who do not volunteer to sterilize.
TAIWAN
i. Family planning campaigns
ii. Subsidising smaller families through direct money payments.
GREAT BRITAIN
i. Family planning campaigns
ii. Limiting marriageable age for girls. It is an offence for a girl to marry under 18
years.
iii. Provision of old age social security
EGYPT
i. Has government backed up family planning schemes throughout the
country although religious establishment encourage early marriage and
do not advocate the use of contraceptives.
CHINA
i. Has the largest population in the world where almost one in every four
people you meet is a Chinese. To reduce such a population, high growth rate
the following is done:
ii. Wide spread and active family planning campaigns
iii. Encouraging late marriages. Legally 2-3 children are allowed.
iv. Contraceptives, sterilization and abortion are used in rural areas.
NIGERIA
i. Has a population of 120 million, highest in Africa. To curb rapid
population growth there are country-wide and government-backed up family
planning campaigns which provide contraceptives and encourage smaller
families.
MALAWI
 Family planning programs
 Late marriage advocacy
 Women empowerment
 Girl child education, NGO involvement in civic education campaign
 Use of electric and print media for mass communication
 The population graph above is showing a J curve growth pattern.
 Population growth was slow between 1700-1850 because of
(i) High death rates
(ii) Poor health facilities
(iii) Poor living standard
(iv) Poor maternal care
Between 1950 – 2000 there is population boom as exponential growth.

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SETTLEMENTS
Objectives
i. Define settlement
ii. Identify types of settlememt patterns
iii. Describe factors influencing settlements
iv. Examine functions of settlements
v. Explain meaning of the term‟urbanisation‟
vi. Describe factors responsible for urbanisation
vii. Account for growth of Blantyre, Lilongwe, Mzuzu
viii. Examine the functional zones of an urban area.
ix. Assess effects of urbanisation
x. Suggest the possible solutions to the problems associated with urbanisation
A SETTLEMENT is a place where people live and have built homes or a grouping of
people, their activities, building structures and transport links that function as an entity.
TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS
 There are two types of settlements which differ in their functions:
i. Rural settlement
ii. Urban settlement

 Rural settlements are unifunctional and are concerned with primary activities
such as agriculture.
 Urban settlements multifunctional and concerned with secondary activities such
as manufacturing and tertiary activities
SETTLEMENT
There are three main types of settlement patterns
i. Linear
ii. Clustered/Nucleated
iii. Dispersed/Random
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SETTLEMENT PATTERN
(a) Human Factors
i. Location of employment opportunities: in areas where job opportunities
are available attract a lot of people
ii. Growth or loss of population
iii. Availability of leisure facilities: these attract people for entertainment e.g.
stadiums, Halls
iv. Planning policy and control: planners can decide what type of settlement
pattern to be in an area.
(b) Level of Technology
i. It affects population mobility
ii. Differing source of employment
iii. Transport network
iv. Type of building
(c) Historical Influences
i. Attraction and constants of earlier settlements
ii. Route network as well as current network
(d) Physical Environment
Effects of terrain, drainage, water supply, accessibility, soil fertility.
Relief

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 Plain areas tend to have nucleated settlement than high areas which have
no arable land.
Water Points
 Have nucleated settlements than dry areas which have scattered
settlements.
Soil Condition
 Fertile soils encourage nucleated settlement while unproductive soil
scattered settlements.
FUNCTIONS OF SETTLEMENTS
Settlements have many functions ranging from social, economic to physical
a. Agricultural Links
Rural settlements provide agricultural products to the urban areas of fruits, maize,
vegetables on the other hand towns act as the markets
b. Industrial Purposes
The urban based factories process the raw materials from the rural areas while the rural
areas use the products from the urban areas.
c. Trade Linkage
The rural areas provide customers for the town retail shops on the other hand the urban
areas provide specialized facilities to the rural areas e.g health, banking, tertiary
education e.t.c.
d. Social Linkage
Rural people travel into town to enjoy some entertainment and other cultural facilities
while the urban dwellers travel to rural settlements to enjoy the scenery or seeing folks.
e. Community Linkage
Rural people may travel to town for work vice versa.

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URBANISATION
 This is the process by which an ever-increasing percentage of the total
population of a country is accommodated in urban rather than rural
settlements. There is a difference between urbanization, urban growth and
urban expansion.
 Urban growth is the increase in the number of urban dwellers. This can take
place without urbanization taking place.
 Urban expansion is the physical or area growth as urban population
increases. This is also called physical urbanization.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR URBANISATION
 Rural-Urban migration
 High rate of natural increase in urban areas through births.
REASONS WHY PEOPLE MIGRATE TO URBAN SETTLEMENTS
a. SOCIAL FACTORS
To break away from traditional constraints of social set-up such as land shortages
and issues of witch craft.
b. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS: High rural population growth rates force people to try their
luck in urban areas
PHYSICAL FACTORS: Climate and meteorological disasters such as droughts, floods
force people to abandon their homes and move to the urban.
ECONOMIC FACTORS: This is the main factor where people would like to find
employment in the urban area.
CULTURAL FACTORS: People are attracted with the city life e.g. education, bright lights,
entertainment e.t.c.
 Initially the following factors may be the pull factors in the urban setting
attracting people from the rural areas.
i. Industrialisation
ii. Market potential
iii. Increased education
iv. Perception
v. Increased service activity transport improvement.
vi. Social and cultural attraction.

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FACTORS THAT HAVE LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE CITIES IN MALAWI
BLANTYRE
i. It is a base for missionary expansion.
ii. Presence of teas estates in Mulanje and Thyolo
iii. Industries and commerce
iv. Accessible due to good transport networks e.g. road, rail and air
v. It is an administrative centre.
vi. It is an education centre e.g. Polytechnic and College of Medicine
LILONGWE
i. It is a capital city - many administrative functions are done here
ii. Has rich agricultural land
iii. It is most accessible hence a route focus
iv. Some industries which were in Blantyre have been opened in Lilongwe
v. Industry and commerce
REASONS FOR SHIFTING THE CAPITAL FROM ZOMBA TO LILONGWE
i. Lilongwe is the central point of Malawi
ii. Lilongwe is more connected to other areas than Zomba
iii. Many agricultural works take place there hence more products for industrial
works.
iv. Lilongwe is an administrative centre.
Mzuzu
i. Mzuzu is a commercial as well as industrial city.
ii. Mzuzu is an administrative centre for both government as well as private sectors.
iii. Establishment of Tung estates in the Vipya area.

CITY 1977 1987 GROWTH RATE

Blantyre 229, 000 333, 120 3.8%

Lilongwe 102, 000 223, 318 8.1%
Mzuzu 16, 108 44,217 10.6%

PROBLEMS CREATED BY RURAL URBAN-MIGRATION

 Urban-migration creates problems in both the rural and urban areas.
 Problems in the rural will be rural depopulation which results into:
i. Economic stagnation
ii. Decrease in food production
iii. Insecurity
iv. Abandoned and neglected houses
v. Many elderly but less young people
vi. Poor services
vii. Unmaintained roads and schools.
 In the urban areas the problems created will be as follows:
i. Housing shortages
ii. Loss of agricultural land as physical urbanization progresses
iii. Congestion
iv. Pollution
v. Squatting
vi. Crime increase

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vii. Drug and alcohol abuse
viii. High rate of prostitution
ix. Environmental despoliation
EFFECTS OF URBANISATION
There is positive and negative effects urbanization
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF URBANISATION
i. Provide plenty employment opportunities
ii. There is high order social and cultural amenities
iii. Better and easy transport networks.
iv. High standard of living
v. Lessen pressure on resources in the rural areas
vi. Reduces environmental degradation in the rural areas as more people rush to
the urban area.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF URBANISATION
i. Effective administration becomes difficult traffic congestion which becomes out
of control
ii. Worsening on slum conditions
iii. Reduction in the quality of urban life because of pollution and environmental
despoliation
PROBLEMS CREATED BY URBANISATION
a. Centralisation
b. Congestion
c. Urban decay
d. Urban sprawl
e. Excessive congestion of people in cities
f. Causes regional imbalance of the development and prosperity level
SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBANISATION
i. Providing parking areas
ii. Accelerating traffic flow by providing freeway, one way streets and traffic lights
iii. Discouraging cars from coming to the CDB by introducing parking meters and
imposing fees for entry into the CBD.
iv. Building satellite towns e.g. Matawale, Gulliver e.t.c which reduce overcrowding
and pollution.
v. Demolishing and redevelopments.
vi. Building skyscrapers to create space and reduce over crowdness
vii. Creation of rural growth centers.
viii. Creation of rural growth centers.
ix. Expanding existing commercial and industrial activities and creating new ones to
provide employment.
NOTE
Since these solutions are temporary and may cause urban sprawl (uncontrolled
physical urbanisation) proper policies can be long lasting solution to urbanization
problems.
POLICIES THAT CAN REDUCE RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION AND THE EFFECTS
1. Reduction of imbalance between the economic opportunities in the rural and
urban sectors.
2. While creating jobs for urban unemployed, the rural areas should be improved in
terms of income and employment opportunities.

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3. Encouraging integrated rural development problems.
4. Creating and expanding small-scale labour intensive industries.
5. Modifying direct linkage between education and employment.
6. Elimination of factor price distortions between the rural and urban areas.
TYPES OF CITIES
A city is an urban area with population ranging from 1, 000, 001 – 1, 000, 000. This has
considerable diversified functions.
a. CONURBATION
o This is a large city that has been formed as a result of merging of originality
separated towns or cities e.g. London, Manchester, Chicago, Tokyo
b. MEGALOPOLIS
o This is a city that is bigger than a conurbation formed by merging of
cornubations or large cities (vast urban zone).
c. PRIMATE CITIES
o This is a very large city formed from merging of megalopolicies.
o A single primate city can dominate the whole country e.g. Buenos Aires,
Kinshasa, Lagos.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENTS
RURAL URBAN

 They are conservative  Highly and closely packed

buildings
 They are conservative  Highly and closely packed
buildings
 Rigidity  A lot of human mobility
 Slow in things  Non agricultural functions
 They are calm  A lot of individualism
 Life is less stressful  Numerous and diverse groups of
people
 Quieter settlements  Share some social and
economic facilities yet lacking
strong social contact
 Introversions  Complex class structure
 Homogenous way of life  Heterogeneous ways of life
 Wide variation of human health
GREEN BUILT
This is a stretch of land round a town of city where building is not allowed
REASONS FOR THE PRESENCE OF GREEN BELTS
i. To restrict new buildings in an area around the town or city.
ii. To prevent urban sprawl.
iii. To protect agriculture land around the city from being belt with houses.
iv. To prevent squatter around the city which usually have poor conditions. Squatter
do not pay rents and does not contribute to development.
SITE
o This is an actual piece of land on which a settlement is built
SITUATION

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o This is the relationship of a settlement with its immediate environment.
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE DISPERSED SETTLEMENT AND NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT
a. RELIEF
o Hilly areas have scattered settlement while plain areas have nucleated
settlement.
b. WATER
o When water is available, everywhere settlements are dispersed but where water
is scarce settlements are nucleated.
c. AGRONOMIC FACTORS
o Private land ownership leads to scattered settlement. Extensive type of
agriculture system influence dispersed settlements.
d. SOCIAL CONDITIONS
o Fertile soils encourage nucleated settlements and unproductive soils scatter the
settlements.
e. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS
o Safety considerations land holding traditions and policies have varying degrees
of influences on settlements.
CITY ZONING

o The city is divided into zones based on the functions:

CBD
i. This is the heart of the city.
ii. High-order functions are founding e.g
(a) Professional services
(b) Retail shops
(c) Administrative services
(d) Entertainment establishments
(e) Financial institutions
(f) Hotels and good restaurants
(g) Concentration of tall buildings which means great intensity of
land use.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CBD
i. Very high accessibility
ii. Absence of residential activities
iii. Absence of manufacturing activities
iv. Internal specialization of activities of hotels, banks, shops, travel agents.
v. High land value
vi. Reduced accessibility during day but depopulated at night
TRANSITIONAL ZONES
i. There are commercial establishments that require large space.
ii. Some hotels
iii. Supermarkets
iv. Public buildings
v. Little residential use
INDUSTRIAL AND LOWER CLASS HOUSING
i. Narrow streets and crowded
ii. High population density
iii. Land value is relatively low
SUBURB ZONE
i. This marks the outskirts of the city
ii. There are wider streets
iii. Housing is better
iv. There is low noise level
v. The land value is high

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TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

Objectives
i. Examine advantages and disadvantages of different types of transport
ii. Identify major transport routes.
iii. Examine Railway network in Africa.
iv. Describe the importance of regional trade groupings in Africa.

o Transport refers to the act of carrying materials or person from one geographical
area to another.
o Communication refers to means by which people make contact with, exchange
information or ideas with, or trade with, others.
o The increase in trade, manufacturing and travel to foreign land has posed a
great need for better, affordable and fast need of transport. Before technology
man depended on animals such as the yaks, reindeers camels and huskies
among others for transport. These days many people no longer relay on animals
as their main means of transport. There are three main categories of transport
used by people basing on their convenience. Each of them has advantages
and disadvantages.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE TYPE OF TRANSPORT TO BE USED
i. The items to be transport: some items needs to be handled with care because of
their delicacy e.g. Eggs.
ii. The cost of transporting the Items: how much is needed to transport the items
considering profit.
iii. The speed at which the items are to be transported e. g perishable goods such
as fruits need to be transported rapidly where bulky goods such as coal can be
transported by the cheapest means of transport.
LAND TRANSPORT
This is categorized into
1. ROAD TRANSPORT
o This is perceived as the main means of transport in many countries. Lorries trucks
busses and other small cars carrying different amount of good pass along these
roads.
o Roads exist in different sizes and are also known by different names in different
countries
i. High ways in USA and Malawi

ii. Motor ways in UK

iii. Autstrada in Italy

iv. Autobahn in Germany

ADVANTAGES
i. They are more convenient because they form direct links between producers
and consumers
ii. Roads can be constructed almost every where on earth.
iii. It is good for shorter distances.
iv. It is relatively faster as compared to water transport

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DISADVANTAGES
i. They are expensive to construct and maintain.
ii. Maintenance cost is also expensive
iii. They cause a lot deforestation and destruction of valuable farming lands
iv. They lead to relocation of people especially when the road passes through
people‟s settlements.
2. RAILWAY TRANSPORT
o This is quite significant in industrial regions and areas where great production of
agriculture commodities is done.
ADVANTAGES
i. They carry large and bulk amount of goods
ii. They are convenient for longer distances
iii. Fares for transporting the goods are lower as compared to the other means of
transport.
iv. They are fairly adaptable to the terrain of the area.
DISADVANTAGES
i. Difficult to reach the destination and needs another means of transport to reach
the destination
ii. The overhead costs for establishing railways are very high
iii. Railways in most cases pass through the remote areas as such not preferred by
many people
iv. It is slower means of transport
v. Sometimes it has traveling schedules.

3. WATER TRANSPORT
They are in two categories:
i. In land water transport
ii. Ocean Transport.
A.INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
This uses rivers, lakes, dams and canals.
THIS means of transport is mostly used by densely populated regions of Europe and
north America for transporting their raw materials e.g. Coal, iron ore, rubber timber;
finished products e.g. machinery.
In USA the Great lakes joined by the Welland and Soo canals and the St Lawrence Sea
way constitute the most important water way worldwide.
ADVANTAGES
i. They are very cheap than any other means of transport
ii. They use natural water which means that there is no need of constructing
artificial routes.
iii. They transport large amount of goods at once over long distances
iv. It is ideal for fragile goods.
DISADVANTAGES
i. Natural courses of rivers are not flexible hence cannot be altered.

ii. The river floors have no uniform depth which needs improvement through dams
and locks.

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iii. Some rivers like the Zaire and Amazon flow through dense impassable forests
which are sparsely populated.

iv. Water falls and rapids present in some rivers obstruct the smooth navigation of
rivers

v. Some inland routes are seasonal such as the Lena, Ob and Yenisei rivers in Russia
because during a certain period of the year they become frozen as such ships
cannot operate.

vi. Some rivers experience a lot of siltation due to alluvial and sand bars deposition
during the rain season especially in areas where deforestation is very high.

vii. Dredging of silts to maintain uniform depth is also expensive.

viii. Some rivers are so winding that their commercial navigation is much reduced
because they lengthen the distance and the journey becomes much slowed.

ix. Seasonal fluctuation in the volume of water levels due to changes of rainfall
amount received from one year to another affects the navigability of the rivers.

B. OCEAN TRANSPORT
o This provide link between one continent to another.
o Different vessels operate along the oceans for various purposes.
1. PASSENGER LINER: carries passengers, express mail and high valued freight
2. CARGO LINER: This combines passengers with freight. They contain refrigerated
containers for keeping perishable fruits and meet.
3. PACKETS: These are used for crossing narrow straits or seas. They are also called ferry
boats
4. INDEPENDENT CARGO BOATS:These include all kinds of tramps that carry goods of
between 2000-10 000 tones. These do not have specific time schedules of travel.
5. INDUSTRIAL CARRIERS: These include oil tankers, colliers (take coal), banana and grain
carriers. Note that oil tankers are the larges t ships afloat.
6. CONTAINERIZATION. This is the latest development. There are special ships designed
to carry containers.
THE ADVANTAGES OF CONTAINERIZATION
i. Breakage and theft are minimized

ii. Minimises labour costs because goods can be palletized or parked in cartons

iii. Handling of goods is easier

iv. Transfer of goods to land transport by rail or road transport is easier.

LIMITATIONS OF CONTAINERISATION
1. Specially designed Lorries, train or ships
2. Specially designed crane equipment and port storage goods.
7. COASTAL SHIPPING VESSELS.
i. These carry more bulky goods which are not sent by rail.

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ii. They compete with the inland roads and railways for carriage of the local
products.
iii. They move irregularly hence have little passenger traffic.
WORLD SEA ROUTES
Factors that influence Ocean Sea Routes
 Supply and Demand: There must be goods to be carried and a market for them

 Availability of ocean terminals

 Absence of physical barriers such as ice burgs and strong winds

 Nature of cargos

There are six main water routes

1. The North Atlantic Route

This is the busiest and most important sea route.It joins Europe and North America which
are the world‟s most industrialized continents .These areas are highly developed and
people have high living standards.major sea ports lie within this route such as
London,Southampton,humburg,Liverpool, Glassgow,Rotterdam,Boston, Montreal,
Philadephia, Quebec Goods carried along this route include

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Wheat, cotton, paper, wood pulp, iron, timber, copper, steel and transport equipment
from America.
2. THE PANAMA CANAL ROUTE-INDIAN CENTRAL AMERICAN ROUTE.
i. This route started as a result of completion of the Panama Canal which forms a
gate way to the Pacific Ocean. It eliminates the long and hazardous voyage
round the stormy Cape Horn.Goods carried along this route are
ii. From the Far East and pacific States: oil, gold, copper, tin, nitrates, sugar, coffee,
timber, wheat dairy products, wood and meat.
iii. From Europe and atlantic states are: machinery, mining equipment, cars, drugs,
textile , nes print, and chemicals.
3. THE TRANS –PACIFIC ROUTE
 Trade across the vast North Pacific Ocean goes by several routes at Honolulu for
refueling and servicing. This route joins Vancouver and Yokohama in Japan and
reduces the distance by half. The ocean terminals that serve this route include;
Vancouver, Seattle, San Francisco, Los-Angeles on American side. Goods
passing through this route are wheat, wood, paper and pulp, timber, fish, and
dairy products
 From the eastern continent (Asia) Manufactured goods e.g. textiles, electrical
equipment, rubber, palm oil, teak, tea and tin.
4. The Cape of Good Hope Route
 This route became more operational when the Suez Canal was closed in
between 1965 -1975due to the Arab-Israel conflicts. How ever it is the oldest
route sailed and named by Vasco d agama.
 Many shipping companies do not use it because it is very long hence not
economical. It links western part of Africa, eastern part of South America with
Asian Sub continent-India.
 Goods transported through this route include: meat, oil, copper, diamonds, and
manufactured goods from the west. Cotton, oil, fruits, coffee, tea, tin,
groundnuts, tobacco, diamond and manganese fro the eastern world.
5. The South Atlantic Route
 This connects regions of sparse population and more limited economic
development
 There is also little trade on the east-west route between Rio de Janeiro and Cape
Town because South America and South Africa produce the similar type of
products and resources.
 A fair volume of traffic also passes between the eastern South American
countries, North America and Europe.
 Goods passing through this routes include; wheat, meat, wool, flax, and other
products from Argentina. Coffee and cocoa from Brazil.
6. The Suez Canal Route
 This route links the Far East with Europe and it became operational with the
opening of the SuezCanal.
 Goods carried through this route; from Europe to Asia they include:
manufactured goods, textile,chemicals paper, machinery, fertilizers.
 From the Far East to Europe: petroleum, cotton, tea, coffee, sugar, meat, fruits,
hides, rubber andcars.

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How Locks Operate to Raise or Lower Ship from Low Altitude to High Altitude or from
Higher Altitude to Lower Altitude along the St Lawrence Sea Way

LOCK OPERATION
a. Locks help to raise the ship when it coming from area of low altitude to areas of
higher altitude. They also help to lower ships as they move from higher altitude to
areas of lower altitude.
b. Locks are common along the St. Lawrence Sea Way. For example, Port Montreal
is at 7m above the sea level while Duluth port in Lake Superior is 183m above the
sea level.
c. In 1 the ship approaches lock D and the gate sluices open so that the water
level between A and D beyond becomes the same, the ship passes through.
d. In 2 lock D is now closed and A is opened. The ship rises as the water level rises
between A and D.
e. In 3 the ship is passing through lock A as the sluices are opened and the water
level between D and A beyond becomes the same.
f. In the same way when the ship goes to the opposite direction from A to D ,A
starts to open .The ship passes as the water level lowers so the ship lowers down
as it passes through to D while D remains closed. Lock D opens when the ship
approaches it so that the water level between A and D beyond is the same and
the ship passes through D and sails on.

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CANALS
 There are many canals all over the world but the commonly used are the
panama canal and the Suez canal.
 Panama Canal connects the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean.
 It was opened in 1914.It is 80 kilometres long and has got locks
 The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. It is 160 kms
long. Suez Canal has an advantage over Panama Canal because it has no
locks.
AIR TRANSPORT
This mode of transport carries people and goods of high value.
ADVANTAGES OF AIR TRANSPORT
i. It is very fast and reduces transit time

ii. It uses direct routes which are easily followed.

iii. It is relatively independent of physical barriers such as mountains because

earoplanes fly over them.

DISADVANTAGES OF AIR TRANSPORT

i. It has limited carrying capacity

ii. Freedom of the air space is not automatic as permission has always to be
obtained in order to fly over each country.(political factors)

iii. The increase of air transport and increase in the sizes of planes many air terminals
are not adequately equipped.

iv. Air transport is much expensive than any other means of transport.

v. It is always dependent on good communication and good weather conditions in

the atmosphere.

NOTE: USA commands 50% of the world‟s total air traffic while Europe becomes second
with 20%.
RAILWAY DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA
Railway construction is affected by a number of factors
i. Relief of the region in which the railway passes.

ii. The productivity of the region to be served by the railway.

iii. The availability to be used by the trains

iv. The degree of economic development of the region in which the rail way is
operating.

v. The frequency of thunderstorms, sandstorms, and landslides in the region served

by the railway.

 The factors above affect distribution of railways such that in some areas there
are more railways while in other areas there are few or none.
1. NORTH AFRICA

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 This region has lowest railway distribution because it is un productive and
there are a lot of sand bars which cover the railways available.
 There is less demand of rail transport because settlements are forced away to
the coastal region from the Sahara Desert.
2. NORTH EAST AFRICA

i. There are almost no railways in this region because of the following reasons
ii. High plateau with deep valleys in between Ethiopian Highlands with their
escarpment and deep river valleys.
iii. Less population density hence less movement of people and goods
iv. The soil is sand hence construction of railways becomes a problem.
3. CENTRAL AFRICA

Construction of railways in this region is problematic because of;

i. Hot equatorial climate and frequent thunderstorms

ii. Low level of economic development

iii. Presence of mountains to the eastern part e.g. Kilimanjaro, Elgon and
Ruwenzori.

4. SOUTHERN ATRICA

i. This region has the highest concentration of railway lines because of the
following factors
ii. More economic activities take place there e.g. tea, tobacco production in
Malawi, mining in Zambia and Zimbabwe and manufacturing in South Africa.
iii. South Africa has the highest concentration of railways.
EXAMPLES OF RAILWAYS IN AFRICA
1. TANZARA RAILWAY LINE.

i.
From kapiri Mposhi in Zambia to dares-Salaam in Tanzania.
ii.
It was opened to help Zambians export copper and import
manufactured goods.
iii. This rail way carries people cement, minerals and fuel.
2. THE TRANS CAMEROON RAILWAY LINE.

i. Designed to link north of Cameroon, Chad and Central African Republic.

ii. The goods transport through this rail are cattle, cocoa, coffee, cotton and
ground nuts
3. THE NACALA RAILWAY LINE

This links Malawi and Mozambique.

o
It runs from Nkaya to Nayuchi in Malawi and Nayuchi to Nacala in
o
Mozambique.
Malawi‟s imports and exports are carried through this railway line.
4. The south African Railway

5. The Lobito Beira Railway line

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6. Njamena-massawa Railway

7. Zimbabwe Railway line

8. Uganda Railway line which joins Lake Victoria.

TRADE
 Trade is the buying and selling of commodities between two countries which
is done through import and export.
 Trade is done because no country can provide all that is required to increase
national worthy. To achieve trade requirements, regional economic
groupings of countries are formed .These trade groupings encourage free
trade.
 Countries compete in specialized areas in which they have comperative
advantages.
 Free trade is established to abolish tariffs between countries within a grouping
in order to increase trade volumes.
EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC GROUPINGS

COMESA Malawi,Zambia,Zimbabwe,Tanzania,Angola,S.Africa
SADC Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Angola, S.Africa , DRC, Swaziland,
Congo, Lesotho, Seychelles, Mauritius
ECOWAS Chad ,Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Sierra-Leone, Mali, Ivory Coast
LAFTA Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay,
Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela.
EAC Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda.
CACEU Cameroon, Central African republic, Congo, Gabon
CFTA Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad, Togo, Antigua, Honduras,
Dominican Republic, Grenada, Montserrat, St.Lucia, St.Vincent
AG Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Columba
EU 25 European States
CACM Costa Rica, Elsalvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua

ABREVIATIONS
AG : Andean Group (1969)
CFTA: Caribbean Free Trade Area (1968) and 1973 as Caribbean community.
CACEU: Central African Customs and Economic Union (1964)
EAC: East African Community
ECOWAS: Economic Community of West African States (1975)
LAFTA: Latin American Freed trade Area
SADC: Southern African development Community (1980) –head quarter in
Gaberone in Botswana
AIMS OF SADC
i. To achieve peace and security
ii. To achieve economic growth and common political values.
iii. To encourage employment opportunities among member states.
AIMS /FUNCTIONS OF COMESA
i. To form a free trade area

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ii. T o formulate economic property through regional grouping.
iii. To improve transport and communication between member states.
THE ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
i. This provides a big domestic market.
ii. Encourages a rational division of labour among countries.
iii. Coordinates industrial planning.
IMPORTANCE
i. Expansion of commercial interchange
ii. There is full use of industrial capacity.
iii. Specialization of production increases industrialization and fosters
economic growth

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REFERENCES
1. Barnet,R.B (1979) General Geography in Diagrams. London: Long man
2. Nagle,G et al (1997) Advanced Geography through diagrams. Oxford:
OxfordUniversity Press
3. Ramsey W.L et al (1989) Modern Earth Science. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston,inc.
4. Faniran,A and Ojo,O (1980) Man’s Physical Environment. London
Heinemann.
5. Lyons.J (1976) Intermediate Certificate: A Physical Geography. Dublin:
Folens & Co.
6. Lwanda.M.L. (1999). A Guide to Understanding MSCE Physical Geography
through Questions and Model Answers. Zomba: Chanco Publications
7. MCDE .Geography Set

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