SYLLABUS BASED

MSCE PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY

SUMMARY NOTES
By: Chipoza Henry M.

1
FORWARD

The syllabus based Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE) Physical

Geography summary notes has been designed in relation to the standards of the
senior Geography teaching syllabus of Malawi. It has been compiled to be a user
friendly and easy to understand material worth to be used by both the teacher and
students. It is document that will be trusted by the user while preparing for Malawi
National Examination Board Examinations as far as Physical Geography is
concerned. I wish you well as you are going through the book.

Chipoza H.M.

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TOPICS

1. LITHOSPHERE

2. HYDROSPHERE

3. THE SOLAR SYSTEM

4. ATMOSPHERE

5. CLOUDS

6. CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

7. ECOSYTEMS AND ENVIRONMENT

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MANTLE
TOPIC 1:
-
LITHOSPHERE -
2900km thick
Found between the core and
crust
DEFINITION: A solid crust that
- Composed mainly of dense
surrounds the mantle of the earth.
rocks rich in olivine and silicate
Litho means rock or rock. minerals
- Upper part capable of flowing
Lithology is the study of rocks. - Convectional currents present
causing plate movements
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF THE - Separated from the core by the
EARTH imaginary line called the
Gutenberg discontinuity
- Core (Barysphere)
- Mantle (Mesosphere) CRUST
- Crust (Lithosphere)
- 5 to 48km thick
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE - The solid crust that surrounds
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE the mantle of the earth
EARTH - Separation from the mantle by
the Moho discontinuity
CORE
- Consists of a thin loose layer
- The most interior part of the called soil
earth also called the - It extends to a depth of 33 km
Barysphere below the earths surface
- It has the outer and the inner - Projects above the hydrosphere
part to form continents
- It is 3476 km in radius - It has two parts: Upper part
- Made up of Iron(Fe) with some forming continents and its
Nickel(Ni) – hence – called NIFE minerals are Silica and
- The temperature is estimated alumina (SIAL) and lower part
to be about 1927ºC and with denser basaltic rocks
subjected to high pressure. It is forming oceanic floor i.e. Silica
also expected to be in liquid and magnesium (SIMA)
state due to high temperature
- It is the source of gravitational
force (Centripedal force)

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FIGURE 1: LAYERS OF THE EARTH

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY e. Late Cretaceous (65 Million

years ago): India moved
DEFINITION: The moving apart of northwards to join Asia. South
continents due to the movements of America drifted northwards to
the tectonic plates join North America that was
moving westwards. Antarctica
PHYSICAL OCCURENCES WITHIN
moved southwards.
CERTAIN PERIODS, MILLION
f. Quaternary (Less than 1
YEARS AGO Million years ago): The
a. Permian Period (225 Million continents attained their
years ago): A single super present position but still
continent Pangaea surrounded continue to drift apart.
by a single super ocean NOTE: The water of the super
Panthalasa
continent formed the oceans we see
b. Early Triassic (200 Million
today e.g. Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
years ago): The Pangaea broke
Ocean.
apart and the land blocks
separated in a sideways EVIDENCES SUPPORTING THE
direction. THEORY
c. Late Triassic (180 Million
years ago): Two land masses - Magnetism of ancient rocks
formed i.e. Laurasia broke into - Climatic changes
North America, Greenland, - Southern continents fitting in
Madagascar, India, Australia jigsaw
and Antarctica. Gondwanaland - Almost identical rock layers
broke into Africa and South - Folded ranges of Argentina are
America. similar in structure to those of
d. Late Jurassic (135 Million the cape in South Africa
years ago): Land masses - West African rocks similar to
formed from Laurasia and those of Brazil
Gondwanaland gradually
moved apart. W EAKNESSES OF THE THEORY

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- It is not clearly known when
the movement took place
- It does not explain what caused
the drifting process
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
- Fossil plants seen today might
have been drifted away by EXPLANATION
ocean currents or wind and not
the continental drift a. DEFINITION OF THE PLATE
- Polar wandering: The position TECTONIC THEORY
of the magnetic poles seem to - The earth is composed of
have wandered all over the oceans and continents which
earth are carried on six large and
several other small plates
RIFT VALLEY which float on the soft layer
called the Asthenosphere and
When the earth’s crust bends, folding continuously moving due to the
occurs but when it cracks, faulting convectional cells or currents
takes place. operating within the upper part
Faulting may be caused by tension of the mantle.
(moving apart) or compression b. CAUSE OF TECTONIC
(moving closer) ACTIVITY
- Convectional currents that
Tensional forces tend to pull the crust operate within the upper part
apart leading into the formation of of the mantle cause this
faults. tectonic activity
- These currents are responsible
If the block surrounded by the faults for plate spreading or
does not move or rise and the land on divergence and collision or
either side sinks, the outstanding convergence.
block becomes a horst or a block
mountain. c. TYPES OF PLATES
The subsided (central) part sinks and The plates are also called
forms the rift valley when tensional Lithospheric slabs.
forces occur.
- Continental plates: They are
CHARACTERISTICS OF RIFT lighter and they carry
VALLEYS continents e.g. North American
Plate etc
- The sides are very steep
- Oceanic plates: They are
- They are along and deep e.g. denser as they contain heavier
The Great East African valley is basaltic rocks forming oceanic
about 7,200 km long with floors e.g. Pacific plate.
5,600 km within Africa
- Almost flat floors

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FIGURE 2: WORLD DISTRIBUTION
OF PLATES

TYPES (EXAMPLES) OF PLATES Constructive margins: These

AND MOVEMENT are margins of diverging plates
so – called because these are
1. North American Plate - places where new crust is
Westward formed.
2. Eurasian plate - Eastward Conservative margins:
3. Caribbean plate - Westwards Margins that occur where two
4. African plate – NE wards plates move past one another
5. Philippine plate - Eastwards
6. Pacific plate - Westwards e. MAJOR MOVEMENTS OF
7. Nazca plate - Eastwards PLATES
8. South American plate - - Spreading or divergence (Plates
Westward move apart) forming Marine
9. Antarctic plate - ridges/oceanic ridges e.g. Mid
10. Australian plate – NE wards Atlantic ridge
d. PLATE COUNDARIES

Zones of instability and the changes

that place in the margins lead to the
formation of some of the following
features: rift valleys, plate aux, block
mountains, oceanic ridges, oceanic
islands, volcanic and fold mountains.

Destructive margins: Margins

of converging plates and they
are called destructive margins
because this is where the crust
is destroyed.

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- Converging ( Plates move *
towards each other) forming
block mountains, rift valleys
and oceanic islands

- Formation of Oceanic islands

- Shearing (Plates move past

each other) separated by the
fault boundary.
- Earthquakes are very common

RESULTS OF TECTONIC ACTIVITY

- Formation of Oceanic ridges

e.g. Mid Atlantic Ridge. - Formation of Trenches in the
destructive margins called
zones of subduction.

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EARTH MOVEMENTS

a. Lateral movements i.e. side

ways direction
b. Vertical i.e. up and down
movements

These movements exert great forces of

tension and compression though
slowly but produce very impressive
features

FEATURES PRODUCED

- Mountains
- Mountains i.e. fold and block - Plateaus
- Earthquakes - Rift valleys
- Formation of volcanic islands - Plains

RIFT VALLEY FORMATION

When the plates move apart due to

tension force, a hole (Vent) is created
through which magma passes. Later
the magma protrudes above the
surface of the water and finally cools
and solidifies to form a Volcanic
Island.

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MOUNTAIN BUILDING PROCESSES OVERTHRUST FOLD

DEFINITION: The processes that are

involved during mountain formation.

FOLDING: Formed when the crust

bends.

TYPES OF FOLDS

a. SIMPLE FOLD

TYPES OF MOUNTAINS

a. Fold mountains
b. Residual mountains
c. Block mountains or Horst
d. Volcanic mountains
b. OVER FOLD
FOLD MOUNTAIN FORMATION

c. RECAMBENT FOLD

Deposition takes place in a depression

(sea) and later sedimentary rocks are
formed.

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Due to crustal compression the rocks - Generally found on the western
are folded to form Fold Mountains in continental margins and their
3 interiors are badly folded
- They are characterized by
volcanic intrusions.

BLOCK MOUNTAINS

Compression or tensional forces bring

about the formation of block
mountains i.e. the two parallel faults
subsiding with the adjacent blocks
being uplifted as a block mountain.
See figure below:

Fold Mountains formed

CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOCK
MOUNTAINS

a. Faulted side is very steep

b. Usually long especially when
formed along rift valleys
c. The side facing away from the
faulted side is generally less
steeps

EXAMPLES OF BLOCK MOUNTAINS

The plate that dips into the mantle - Vosges
melts to from magma which may
- Hunsruck
come out to form volcanoes on the
- Black forest
earth’s surface.
- Ruwenzori in Africa
CHARACTERISTICS OF FOLD
VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
MOUNTAINS
This is formed from the accumulation
- They are long and high
of viscous lava. The mountain usually
- Associated with volcanoes contains ash, cinder, trapped mud
especially in circum – pacific and volcanic bombs i.e. rock chunks
fold mountain system
- They contain rich minerals The only characteristic is that they
such as tin, copper, gold and steep sided and also called mountains
petroleum of accumulation.

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VOLCANISM

DEFINITION: All the various ways by

which molten rock and gases are
forced into the earths crust and out
on to its surface

FORMATION

- High rock temperatures below

the crust and high pressure
makes them to be in a semi
solid state
- Due to friction of the tectonic
RESIDUAL MOUNTAINS plates makes the rocks to be in
a semi liquid state called
They are Denudation Mountains. magma.
Erosion resistant rocks standup as - As the magma rises through
mountains and the less resistant ones cracks it forms batholiths, sills
are washed away and valleys are and dykes
formed. See below: - When magma reaches the the
surface it loses its gases and its
called Lava

TYPES OF LAVA

a. Acidic Lava (violent) because

they are very viscous and they
accumulate in the vent and in
turn obstruct the flow of the
outpouring lava resulting in
loud explosions that throw out
FAULTING: Formed when the Crust volcanic bombs.
cracks due to tension or compression. b. Basic Lava
EFFECTS OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS OF LAVAS
PROCESSES
A. ACIDIC
- Rise of rivers due to some - Highly viscous with a high
mountains receiving high melting point
rainfall e.g. Indus and Ganges
- They are light colored
(Himalaya) used for HEP
- They have low density
- Exposure of some minerals e.g.
- High percentage of silica
Bauxite, Gold etc
- Flow slowly and seldom travel
- Some mountains are valuable
far before solidifying
timber resources with
- The resultant cone is steep
coniferous soft wood and
sided
foothills of Himalayas with
teak. EFFECTS OF ACIDIC LAVAS
- The mountains formed
negatively affect - Loud explosions
communication and climate. - Formation of a spine or plug
- Steep sided cone

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B. BASIC FIGURE 3: INTERNAL FEATURES
- Very hot about 1000ºC OF THE VOLCANO
- Highly fluid with a speed of 16
– 18 km/hr
- Dark coloured like basalt
- Rich in Iron and Magnesium
but poor in Silica
- They flow quickly and are not
explosive

EFFECTS OF BASIC LAVAS

- Affect extensive areas before

they solidify
- The resultant volcano is greatly
sloping with a wide diameter
and forms flattered shield or EXTRUSIVE
dome.
- Ash
TYPES OF VOLCANO - Gas
- Steam
a. Active: Erupting frequently at - Molten rock material
least when they have erupted - Solid rock particles
within recent time
- Lava
b. Dormant: Have known to erupt
and show signs of possible EFFECTS (ENVIRONMENTAL
eruption in future ASPECTS)
c. Extinct: That have not erupted
at all in historic times but Destructive
retain the features of volcanoes
- Loss of life and property during
FEATURES PRODUCED (INTRUSIVE eruption
AND EXTRUSIVE) - Surfaces of volcanoes remain
barren for a long time
INTRUSIVE - Great deal of damage
- Batholith i.e. a very large mass Constructive
of magma which accumulates
in the crust - Where volcanic ash is present
- Laccolith there is light and the soil
- Dyke i.e. a wall like feature productivity is improved
formed when a mass of magma - Tourism enhancement due
cuts across a bedding plane. scenic features and beauty
- Sill i.e. forming when a sheet of - Sources of crushed rock for
magma lies along a bedding concrete aggregate or rail road
plane ballast or substratum
- Geo thermal power

NOTE: Volcanoes are concentrated in

the Circum Pacific region called the
Pacific Ring of Fire.

e.g. The Mongolian Plateau, Islandic

Plateau, Siberian Plateau,
Drakensberg Plateau, Deccan plateau

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COURSES OF A RIVER - Meanders
- River cliffs
A. UPPER COURSE
It is sometimes called the youth C. LOW ER COURSE
stage of a river. The main It is also called the late
action of the river is ve rtical maturity stage. The main
corrasion. action of the river is deposition.
Lateral corrosion is still
FEATURES PRODUCED
operational.
- Gorges
- Rapids FEATURES PRODUCED
- Waterfalls which are barriers to - Flood plains – formed
navigation but good for Hydro spreading of the river load over
Electric Power. low lying nearby are as
B. MIDDLE COURSE - Levees – raised river banks
It is also called the maturity through accumulation of
stage. The main of the river is deposits
lateral corrasion. - Delta – a fan shaped alluvial
area at the mouth of the river
FEATURES PRODUCED due deposition.

TYPES OF DELTAS

- Estuarine Delta: The river

mouth is drowned submerged
e.g. Seine, Ob, Elbe and Vistula

- Cuspate: The delta is pointed.

An example of this delta is the
mouth of Tiber River.

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descends steeply to the surrounding
lowland. Sometimes it is called a table
land.

CLASSES OF PLATEAUS

- TECTONIC PLATEAUX:
Formed by earth movements
which cause uplift are normally
of great size and fairly uniform
altitude.
- VOLCANIC PLATEAUX:
Formed by the molten lava
spread over the earths surface
- Birds foot: Also called a digtate to form successive sheets of
delta. Made of slit e.g. Omo, basic lava.
Vardar and Mississippi
PLAINS
DEFINITION: An area of low land,
either level or undulating.

TYPES OF PLAINS

- STRUCTURAL: Depressed
areas of the world that make
up some extensive natural
lowlands of the earths surface
e.g. Great Plains of USA.
- DEPOSITIONAL PLAINS:
Formed by the depositional
materials brought by various
- Arcuate: Triangular in shape agents of transportation such
with many distributaries. Some wind, water and ice. e.g. Nile
of the examples are Indus, Delta.
Ganges, Niger, Nile and - EROSIONAL PLAINS (PENE
Menkong deltas. PLAINS): Formed by agents of
erosion sun as rain, rivers,
wind and ice.

CYCLE LAND FORM CHANGE IN

AHUMID REGION

PLATEAUS
DEFINITION: A raised upland with
extensive level surface and usually

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IMPORTANCE OF PLAINS MEASUREMENT: By Seismograph
recording the vibrations of the
- Good places for agriculture earthquake. The amount of energy
because of the alluvial soils released by an earthquake is called
- For settlements the Magnitude. Measured on a Richter
scale from 0 to 9. The higher the
EARTH QUAKES number, the more destructive the
DEFINITION: Sudden movements of earth quake.
the earth or vibrations in the EFFECTS OF EARTH QUAKES
lithosphere.
- Causes land slides
CAUSES
- Raising or lowering coastal
a. Sliding of plates rocks or parts of the sea floor
b. Volcanic eruptions - Can displace lithosphere
c. Converging movements of vertically or horizontally
plates
RELATIONSHIP OF VOLCANIC
OCCURRENCE: ZONES, EARTHQUKE ZONES AND
FOLD MOUNTAINS ZONE.
- The mid ocean ridges
- The ocean deeps and volcanic - Associated with folding and
islands faulting
- The ridges of crustal - Occurring in plate boundaries
compression - Earth movement (horizontal or
vertical)
NATURE: The point of origin in the
lithosphere is called the Focus. The SHIELDS
point directly above the focus on the
DEFINITION: The most stable parts of
earth’s surface is called the Epicenter.
the earth.

FIGURE 4: SHIELDS OF THE WORLD

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EXAMPLES OF SHIELDS - Due pressure which alters the
rocks
1. Laurentian shield - Due to water which dissolves
2. Brazilian shield rock material and other
3. Baltic shield materials thereby changing the
4. African shield composition of the rock.
5. Arabian shield
6. Siberian shield FIGURE 5: THE ROCK CYCLE
7. Deccan shield
8. China shield
9. Australian shield

ROCKS
TYPES

- Sedimentary rocks (Clastic and

non clastic)
- Igneous rocks (Volcanic
(basalt)and plutonic (Granite)
- Metamorphic (Mable from clay,
slate from clay, gneiss from
granite, quartzite from sand KEY
and graphite from coal)
1. Weathering and melting
FORMATION 2. Igneous activity
3. Weathering and deposition
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
4. Pressure and heat
- Mechanically formed (wind
deposited - loess, river CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKS
deposited – clays, gravels,
glacier deposited – moraines, SEDIMENTARY
sands and sea deposited – river
- They are layered or stratified
deposited.)
(clastic rocks)
- Organically formed (from
- They are fossilized (they
animals – chalk and coral, from
contain fossils)
plants – peat, lignite and coal)
- They are non – crystalline
- Chemically formed (rock salt,
(classic rocks)
nitrates, gypsum, borax,
potash and certain lime stones
IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS
- They are crystalline
- Volcanic (Formed upon being - They are non – stratified
solidified on the earth’s surface - They are non – fossilized (Don’t
– lavas, e.g. basalt. contain fossils)
- Plutonic (Formed upon being
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
solidified deep in the earth’s
crust e.g. granite They have characteristics of both
sedimentary and igneous rocks.
METAMORPHIC

- Formed due heat causing the

minerals to recrystallize

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IMPORTANCE OF ROCKS FIGURE 6: THE HYDROLOGICAL
CYCLE
- They contain some valuable
minerals e.g. iron and
aluminum in granite
- Chalk which is used in schools
is made from rocks.
- Mable for playing bawo and
other decorations is made from
rocks.

HYDROSPHERE

DEFINITION: All water of the earth in

rivers, lakes, seas and oceans e.t.c.
Hydro means water taken from the
COMPOSITION: Covering about 70%
formula H20
of the earth’s surface.
FACTORS THAT CAN DISTURB THE
FEATURES OF THE
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
- Global warming
- Ground water
- Deforestation
- Oceans
- Acid rain
- Clouds
- Poor agricultural practices
- Vegetation
- Rivers IMPORTANCE OF THE
- Surface runoff HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
- Animals
- It maintains the availability of
PROCESS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL water used in many ways.
CYCLE
W AYS OF MAINTAINING THE
- Evaporation HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
- Transpiration
- Condensation - Conservation of water
- Infiltration catchment areas
- Percolation - Reducing emission of various
- Respiration elements in solution, e.g.
carbon dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen, surphur e.t.c.
- Weather forecasting

OCEAN CURRENTS

DEFINITION: Large bodies of surface

water that circulate in regular
patterns around the oceans.

TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

- Warm currents and cold

currents

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EXAMPLES California and
Irminger
W ARM COLD
CURRENTS CURRENTS

Brazilian, Peruvian
Kurosiwo, (Humboldit),
North Atlantic Labrador,
Drift, Canaries,
Mozambique, Kamchatka,
East West
Australian Australian,
Benguela,
FIGURE 7 DISTRIBUTION OF WARM AND COLD CURRENTS

13. Kamchatka

1. North Atlantic Drift CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

2. California
3. Peruvian - Temperature (Convection
4. Labrador Currents) – Difference in water
5. East Greenland temperature on the equator
6. Brazilian and at the poles i.e. from
7. Benguela waters moves from an area of
8. Mozambique higher temperatures to areas of
9. West Wind Drift low temperatures.
10. West Australian - Salinity – Waters with more salt
11. East Australian is denser and the lighter
12. Kurosiwo unsalted water flows on the

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surface of the denser high PLANET: A spherical roughly
salinity water. spherical body which revolves round
- Wind (Drifts)– Prevailing winds the sun.
e.g. trade winds move
equatorial waters pole wards ORBIT: An elliptical path taken by a
and westwards and warm planet as it revolve around the sun
eastern coasts of continents
e.t.c. FIGURE 8: PLANETS IN THE SOLAR
- Rotation of the earth Coriolis SYSTEM
force (Geostrophic) of the earth
as it rotates makes freely
moving objects to deflect to the
right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in
the southern hemisphere
(Ferrell’s Law)

DIRECTION OF OCEAN CURRENTS

FACTORS

- Shape of the continents – 1. Mercury

Flowing along the coasts of the 2. Venus
continents 3. Earth
- Wind direction – Flowing in the 4. Mars
direction of the wind 5. Jupiter
- Temperature – Flowing from 6. Saturn
higher temperatures to low 7. Uranus
temperatures. 8. Neptune
- Rotation of the earth – Flowing 9. Pluto
as per the Coriolis force of the
earth. PELIHELION: A situation when the
planets are sometimes nearest to the
EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS sun because of the elliptical shape of
the orbits.
- Climate e.g. North Atlantic Drift
brings mild winters to North APHELION: A situation when the
Western Europe. planets are furthest from the sun
- Fishing (Where warm and cold
currents meet are areas where The earth is furthest from the sun on
fishing usually takes place e.g. 4th July when it is 151, 200, 000km
Kamchatka and Kurosiwo. away from it.
- Shipping (They are sometimes a
It is closest to the sun on 3rd January
barrier to shipping)
when it is 146, 400, 000km from the
THE SOLAR SYSTEM sun.

DEFINITION: The group of celestial or Mercury is the planet closest the sun
heavenly bodies made up of the sun, i.e. 57.6 million km away from it.
planets and the asteroids which Pluto discovered in 1930, is the outer
revolve round it. planet and is 5850 million km from
the sun. Mercury, Venus and earth
are called inner planets.

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THE EARTH used for calculating distances
between places e.g. Beira in
MOVEMENTS Mozambique is 20ºS and therefore it
is 111 x 20 km from the equator.
- Rotation which causes day and
night where the other side is CHARACTERISTICS OF LATITUDES
faces the sun and other side is
in darkness. The line which - They are always parallel to
divides the two sides is called a each other
circle of illumination - Many of them can be drawn on
- Revolution of the earth causing the globe
seasons and varying lengths of - They run from east to west
day and night (at different time - They intersect longitudes at
of the year) right angles
- They are small circles except
RESULTS OF A DECREASE IN the equator which is a great
ROTATION W ITH INCREASE IN circle.
LATITUDE
LONGITUDES
- Centrifugal force: Greater at
the equator i.e. a thing LONGITUDE: Angular distances
weighing 131.4 kg on a non measured in degrees along the
rotating earth weighs 130.9 kg equator east or west of Prime
on the equator Meridian (0º).
- Deflection of objects: More
especially fluids e.g. water and They run from pole to pole. The
air i.e. they deflect to the right earth’s circumference is 40, 084 km.
in the northern hemisphere Therefore 1º of longitude is 111.3 km
and to the left in the southern along the equator.
hemisphere.

LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

LATITUDE: Angular distances of a

point on the earths surface north or
south of the equator measured in
degrees from the centre of the earth.
They are parallel to a line, the
equator, which lies midway between
the poles (Parallels of latitude)

The most important latitudes are as

follows:

- Equator 0º
- The tropic of Cancer 23½ºN
- The tropic of Capricorn 23½ºS CHARACTERISTICS OF
- Arctic Circle 66½ºN LONGITUDES
- The Antarctic Circle 66½ºS
- For suitability and
SEE THE FIGURE BELOW convenience, just like the
latitudes, they are selected at
On average 1ºof latitude equals equal distances apart
111km important because it can be

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- They run in a north – south In crossing the IDL from west to east
direction a day is gained e.g. Tuesday to
- They are halves of great circles Monday. But from east to west a day
- They are spaced farthest apart is lost, e.g. from Monday to Tuesday.
at the equator and converge at
a poles GREAT CIRCLES

They determine local time in relation DEFINITION: This is a circle on the

to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Since earth’s surface whose plane passes
the earth makes a complete rotation through its centre and hence bisects
of 360º in 24 hours, it passes 15º in it into two hemispheres. Any two
one hour or 1º in 4 minutes. opposite meridians together form a
great circle e.g. 30ºE and 150ºW, 5ºW
The earth rotates from west to east, so and 175ºE. The equator (0º) is also a
every 15º eastwards local time is great circle.
advanced (Pushed forward) by 1 hour
and westwards local time is retarded CHARACTERISTICS
(Reduced) by 1 hour.
- A great circle results when a
EXAMPLES plane passes through the
centre of the globe
1. It is 4 pm in London (0º). What - They are the largest possible
is the time in New York (74ºW)? circles that can be drawn on
Mathematically, New York is 4 the surface of the globe.
hours 56 minutes behind - One and only one great circle
London i.e. can pass through any two
74 x 4 hours points on the surface of the
60 globe.
Therefore, time in New York is - Intersecting great circles bisect
11.04 am i.e. 4 pm or 16 hours each other.
minus 4.56 hours.
ATMOSPHERE
2. What is the time Yokohama
(140ºE) Atmos means vapour and atmosphere
Mathematically Yokohama is 9 means a sphere of vapour
hours and 20 minutes ahead of
London i.e. SEASONS
140 x 4 hours
60 DEFINITION: Times of the year when
Therefore, the time in the world experiences different
Yokohama is 1.20 am i.e. 16 + weather patterns.
9.20 =25.20 pm or 1.20 am
SEASONS OF THE W ORLD
When going to east time, is gained
from Greenwich (0º) until he reaches
PERIOD S H Sphere N H Sphere
meridian 180ºE, i.e. 12 hours ahead
of GMT. By going to the west time is
March, Autumn Spring
lost i.e. 12 hours behind the GMT.
April, May
The International Date Line
determines the change of the day. It
June, July, Winter Summer
Zigzags the countries to avoid one
Aug
country having two dates.
Sept, Oct, Spring Autumn

22
Nov
May to July Cool, dry season
Dec, Jan, Summer Winter
Feb August to October Hot, dry season

FIGURE 9: SEASONS OF THE AIR PRESSURE

WORLD
DEFINITION: The force of air at a
place due to the weight of the column
of the said air above that point

FACTORS INFLUENCING AIR

PRESSURE

- Altitude i.e. height of a place

(The higher the altitude the less
the pressure the lower the
altitude the less the more the
pressure.
- Temperature (The higher the
temperature the less the
pressure, the lower the
temperature the higher the
CAUSES OF SEASONS pressure).
- Rotation of the earth
- Revolution of the earth (Deflection of the waters and
winds to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEASONS hemisphere).
- They determine the lengths of TABLE OF ALTITUDE AND
days and nights PRESSURE
- They bring about temperature
changes
ALTITUDE PRESSURE BOILING
TERMS CONNECTED TO SEASONS (m) (cm)
TEM PERATURE
- Equinoxes i.e. equal nights
(21st March and 23rd September OF W ATER (ºC)
when the sun is overhead the
0 76 100
equator.
- Summer Solstice (NHS) and 300 73 99
Winter Solstice (SHS) – 21st
June and 22nd December when 900 68 97
the sun is overhead the Tropic
of Cancer. 1500 63 95

SEASONS IN MALAWI 3000 53 90

PERIOD SEASON

November to April Hot, wet season

23
TERMS IN CONNECTION TO AIR - When the pressure is low, some
PRESSURE of the mercury in the glass
tube goes down registering low
i. BAROMETER: An instrument pressure.
for measuring air pressure
ii. MILLIBARS: Unit of pressure ANEROID BAROMETER
iii. ISOBER: The line joining all
places of the same pressure

HOW AN ANEROID BAROMETER

W ORKS

- It consists of a collapsible
iv. PRESSURE GRADIENT: The metal box, a chain, a pointer
rate at which the and a scale.
atmospheric pressure - When there is high pressure
changes horizontally in a outside the lid is pushed down
direction on the earth’s wards and the chain moves to
surface. the right registering high
pressure on the scale
FIGURE 10: PRESSURE - When there is low pressure the
INSTRUMENTS lid goes up and the chain goes
the left to register low pressure.

W ORLD PRESSURE BELTS AND

W INDS

HOW A MERCURY BAROMETER

W ORKS

- It consists of a mercury
container and a calibrated
glass tube.
- When there is high pressure,
some of the mercury in the
container is pushed up the
tube registering higher PRESSURE AND WIND
readings

24
W IND

DEFINITION: Air in motion.

Wind direction is indicated by a Wind

Vane, a Wind Sock and or a
Weathercock.

Wind speed is measured by an

anemometer. A word taken from a Winds are always named from the
Greek word Anemos, meaning wind. direction they low i.e. west wind is the
one blowing from the west.
A CUP ANEMOMETER
Wind direction is affected by the
rotation of the earth so that it is to the
right in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern
hemisphere.

W IND DIRECTION IN THE

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

An Anemometer has got a calibrated

meter reader with a rotator attached
to it and the metal cups.

When the wind is blowing, the cups

make the rotator to rotate.

Tne readings are taken on the meter

to show wind speed in Km/hr.

Wind blows from high to low pressure

zones but at higher levels it follows
isobars. When the pressure gradient
force balances the Coriolis force
between two pressures the resultant
wind is called the geostrophic wind.

FIGURE 10: WIND INSTRUMENTS

FORMATION OF GEOSTROPHIC
W IND A W IND ROSE

25
A wind vane

A wind vane always points where the

wind is coming from.

PRESSURE MAP

DEFINITION: This is a map which

shows a series of isobars displayed on
it for identification. It can be used to
determine wind direction and speed.

PREVAILING W INDS

DEFINITION: A wind that blows

A Wind Rose is used to record the frequently in a particular area.
direction of prevailing winds of a place
EXAMPLES OF PREVAILING WINDS
over a period of a month.
- TRADES
The squares represent the days of the
. Originate from the sub
month when the wind blew from that
tropical high pressure belts
direction. The days when it was calm
. The pressure belts are found
are indicated on the centre of the
at 30º north or south of the
Wind Rose.
equator
Where there is no anemometer, the . They blow towards the
Beaufort scale is used to measure equatorial low pressure belt,
wind speed called doldrums.

IMPORTANCE OF TRADE
W INDS BELTS
i. For west wards travel in
the days of sailing
vessels.
ii. Steadiness of wind and
clear weather makes a
favorite zone of mariners

- W ESTERLIES
. Winds blow from the sub
A wind sock tropical high pressure belts
pole wards to 60º parallel both
A wind sock cloth goes to the direction north and south of the equator
of the wind. . In winter, in the NHS they
move southwards affecting
meditteranean regions,
bringing winter rain to those
areas
. They blow from the westerly
direction in both hemispheres
hence the name westerlies.
.Unlike trade wind, westerlies
are variable in force and
direction

26
. Almost constant procession of - Fohn (The warm, dry wind
depressions and anticyclones which blows down leeward
moving eastwards, are common slope of northern Alps. It raises
in areas where these winds the temperature from 8ºC to
blow. 11ºC, snow is melted, trees and
. In the SHS they blow with houses become excessively dry,
great force and regularity avalanches may occur.
throughout the year over - Chinook (Snow - eater. It is
oceans and are variably called warm, dry Fohn type of wind
roaring forties or the furious experienced along the eastern
fifties or the screaming sixties side of the Rocky Mountains in
Canada and USA.
IMPORTANCE OF THE
W ESTERLIES LAND AND SEA BREEZES
i. Good for long distance
flying CAUSE: Differences in the heating
ii. For westward flying and the loss of heat of land and sea.
strong head winds
reduce speed and TYPES OF BREEZES
increase fuel
consumption, this i. SEA BREEZE (During the day
necessitates reduced land becomes warmer than
payloads on the planes the sea. So air moves
- POLARS towards the land)
ii. LAND BREEZE (During the
LOCAL WINDS night the land loses heat
faster than the sea and
DEFINITION: Winds that caused by therefore air moves from the
the immediate influences of land to the sea)
surrounding topography of relief.
EFFECTS OF LAND AND SEA
IMPORTANCE OF LOCAL W INDS BREEZES

- Exerting a powerful stress on - The sea breeze has cooling

animals and plants, depending effect on the coastal
on whether they are dry and communities i.e. attraction of
extremely hot or cold. the shore zone as a recreation
- They affect the movement of facility.
pollutants such as pollution - Land breeze is essential for the
fumes far down the resources. sailing of fishermen i.e. they
sail at night and return in the
morning with the sea breeze.

EXAMPLES OF LOCAL W INDS FIGURE 11: LAND AND SEA

BREEZES
- Chiperoni (Mostly affecting the
Shire Highlands. it is warm and
moist wind which originates
from Mozambique.
- Harmattan (A strong north –
easterly wind experienced in
west Africa. it blows direct from
the Sahara Desert and it is very
hot, very dry and dusty.

27
- Dull sky
- Oppressive air
- Strong winds

FIGURE 12: A CROSS SECTION OF

A CYCLONE

OTHER W INDS

- Mountain and valley winds

(Anabatic). They blow from the
valleys upward over rising
mountain slopes.
- Drainage winds (Katabatic).
They blow from higher to lower
regions.
- Descending winds resulting
from strong winds passing over
a mountain range and descend
on the leeward side. e.g
Chinook and Fohn.

CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES

DEFINITION: A region of low

atmospheric pressure.

TYPES
TROPICAL CYCLONE
i. Depression – That of temperate
latitudes DEFINITION: A storm generated by
ii. Tropical cyclone – Much violent low atmosphere pressure in which
and typical of the tropics. isobars are closely spaced and they
Others are typhoons, form a circular shape. Very strong
hurricanes and tornadoes. winds spiral towards the centre.

Depressions and tropical cyclones are GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A

similar in that their winds in the TROPICAL CYCLONE
northern hemisphere circulate in an
anticlockwise direction and in the - Originates over oceans in the
southern hemisphere in a clockwise tropics in summer
direction. - It develops between 5º and 20º
north and south of the equator
- It is smaller than a frontal
depression and is centered
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN around an area of extremely
APPROACH OF A CYCLONE low atmospheric pressure
- Once formed it moves
- A fall in pressure westwards

28
- Its rotation is clockwise in winds begin to reach the
southern hemisphere i.e. Buys hurricane strength, that
Ballots law. is 12 on the beaufort
scale. The area affected
is small 30 – 50 Km in
diameter.
ii. MATURE: As soon as air
pressure stops to drop
this stage is reached.
The area affected
increases considerably
- DEGENERATION: The drying
out of the cyclone as reaches
the land. Air pressure in the
centre rises and the area
affected is reduced making the
system dying out completely.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY
FOR TROPICAL CYCLONE
- Accompanied by heavy rain DEVELOPMENT
and showers which cause great - An abundant source of warm,
deal of damage due to strong moist air of temperature of
winds and floods about 27ºC near to the sea
- The source of energy in a surface.
tropical cyclone is the large - Air must be blowing inwards
amount of latent heat freed as towards the centre and rising
moist tropical air condenses rapidly and nimbocumulus
- Warm, moist air is drawn into clouds must form to give heavy
the low pressure centre from a rains
large area over the oceans - There must be an inward flow
- Air spirals upwards, with great of air in the upper level of the
low pressure in the centre. atmosphere.

LIFE CYCLE OF A TROPICAL ASSOCIATED W EATHER

CYCLONE
- FORMATIVE (Two air masses - As a front of vortex arrives,
meet at inter tropical front. Air gusty winds develop and thick
pressure falls greatly to less clouds appear
than 1000hPa. One air mass is - When the vortex arrives, the
lifted upon the other. The rising winds become violent reaching
air cools and its moisture speeds of over 240km pe r hour
condenses to produce heavy - Calm conditions returns when
rainfall. Condensation frees the “Eye” arrives
latent heat which makes the - The arrival of the rear of the
cyclone to rotate. vortex brings in violent winds.

EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCIES OF
- GROWTH TROPICAL CYCLONES
i. IMMATURE: Air
pressure in the centre
falls below 1000hPa. The

29
- Great winds cause waves of as MAIN ANTICYLONES
much as 30m in the sea
causing destructions in coastal - South Atlantic High
areas - Indian Ocean High
- Reduction of the flow of air to
the low pressure centre. The AIR MASSES
availability of moisture also
decreases due to the fact that DEFINITION: An Air mass in a large
land surface is drier. body of air in which the upward
gradients of temperature and
NAMES OF CYCLONES IN moisture are fairly uniform over a
DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE W ORLD large area.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

CYCLONE NAME
They are classified according to:
Typhoons China sea
i. Latitudinal position on the
Tropical cyclones Indian ocean, globe, which primarily
Madagascar, determines thermal (Heat)
Mauritias properties.
ii. Underlying surface (continents
Hurricanes West Indies, USA or oceans) which determines
the moisture content.
Tornadoes Guinea, Southern
USA AIR MASSES AND PROPERTIES

Willy - Willy Australia

AIR SYM PROPE TE SOUR
ANTICYCLONES BOL RTIES MP CE
MASS ºC
DEFINITION: A region in which the
atmospheric pressure is high at the Contin cA Very -46 Arctic
centre. ental cold ocean
Arctic and dry nearb
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTI y
CYCLONES lands

- The pressure gradient is gentle Contin cAA Very -46 Antar

and winds are light. ental cold ctic
- The normally herald fine Antarc and dry ocean
weather. Skies are clear, the air tic
calm and temperatures are
high in summer but low in Contin cP Cold, -11 Conti
winter. ental dry nents
- In winter great cooling of the polar (winter) (50º-
lower atmosphere may result in 60ºN,
thick fogs S
- Winds blow outwards and not
inwards as in cyclones i.e. Marin mP Cool, 4 Ocean
clockwise in the northern e polar moist s (50-
hemisphere and anticlockwise (winter) 60ºN,
in the southern hemisphere. S

30
TABLE ON FRONTS AND PRESSURE
Contin cT Warm, 24 Conti SYSTEMS
ental dry nents
(20-
35ºC,
N,S

Marin T Warm, 24 Ocean

e moist s (20-
tropic 35ºN,
alm S

Marin mE Warm, 27 Ocean

e very s COLD FRONT CONDITIONS
Equat moist close
orial to the i. The wind changes direction as
equat the front passes a point on
ors the ground the wind always
backs (changing direction to
TYPES OF AIR MASSES the left) in the southern
hemisphere and veers
i. STABLE: When the air mass (Changing direction to the
rises and becomes cooler right) in the northern
than the surrounding air it hemisphere i.e. wind shifts.
tends to sink back to the ii. The decrease in temperature
ground if no longer forcibly marking a sudden end of a
carries upward. Such air is period of warm weather
not likely to produce when a cold air mass
convectional rise, because arrives.
the air resists lifting. iii. There is always a decrease in
ii. UNSTABLE: An air mass in humidity since cold air does
which rising (updraft) tends not contain as much
to increase in intensity as moisture as warm air
time goes on is said to be iv. A fast – moving cold front
unstable. It continues to preceded by warm,
rise as long as its unstable, moist air
temperature is higher than produces cumulonimbus
that of the surrounding air. clouds with associated
thunder, lighting, hail and
Mostly yielding heavy turbulence.
showers and v. An advancing cold front usually
thunderstorms, mostly heralds a decrease in
found in warm, humid atmospheric pressure.
areas such as the equatorial
and tropical oceans and W ARM FRONT CONDITIONS
their bordering lands
throughout the year and the i. A change in wind direction
middle latitude regions accompanies a warm front.
during the summer season. In the southern hemisphere
the wind always backs, but
The line of separation at the earth’s it is more gradual.
surface between cold and warm air ii. There is an increase in
masses is called a front. temperature, but change

31
occurs more slowly than in FIGURE ON POSITION OF THE ITCZ
case of a cold front
iii. The atmospheric pressure
usually drops rapidly before
the onset of the warm front
and then it becomes
gradual.
iv. A marked rise in the dew point
is associated with the
passage of a warm front.
The clouds cover is much
more extensive.

INTER – TROPICAL CONVERGENCE

ZONE (ITCZ)

DIFINITION: The pattern of weather

which is experienced between the two
hemispheres when the sun is
overhead on 21st January

When the sun is overhead by January

in the southern hemisphere, the sun
produces intense heat in Central
Africa and raises the temperature to
between 21ºC to 27ºC while in the
northern hemisphere the
temperatures are low as 10ºC and
16ºC. Low pressure is produced in the
southern hemisphere from November
to April while high pressure develops
in Indian and Atlantic oceans.

ITCZ AND RAIN FALL

OCCLUSIONS
In Africa rainfall is associated with the
DEFINITION: This is when the cold
passage of the ITCZ. From November
front moves in more quickly than the
to April southern Africa receives rain
warm front and eventually overtakes
while the north under the influence of
hot and dry air mass experiences no the warm sector uplifting the air.
rainfall. Gradually rains shift to the The boundary between the uplifted air
north following the apparent
and the cold air is called an occluded
movement of the sun. Between May
front.
and October the north experiences
ran fall while the south is dry.
COLD FRONT OCCLUSION

The air on the leading edge of an

advancing cold front is warmer than
the air behind. The result is that both
the warm air mass behind the warm
front and cooler air mass in front of
the cold front are uplifted above the
advancing cold front.

32
W ARM FRONT OCCLUSION forms Fair
Cirrocu streaks
The air ahead the warm front is cooler mulus across
than air behind the advancing cold the sky
front. As the cold air overtakes the
warm air, the advancing cold air rises White
above the cooler air ahead of the heaped Fair
warm front. or
Cirrostr globular
atus masses,
masses,
forming
ripples
in
Mackere
l sky.

Thin
white
sheet or
veil,
milky
sun
forms a
halo
CLOUDS

DEFINITION: A mass of small water Interme Altocu Wooly, Fine

drops or ice crystals, formed by the diate mulus bumpy,
condensation of the water vapour in (2000 – layered
the atmosphere 6000)m and
looks
CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS like Fine
waves
Altostra in the
They are classified on the basis of two
tus blue sky
major characteristics

i. General form or shape Denser,

(Stratiform or layered types grayish
and cumuliform or heaped with
(Massive globular) waterly
ii. Altitude look

TABLE ON CLASSES OF CLOUDS Low Stratus Grey Dull

clouds and and
(Below thick, light
HEIGH CLOUD APPEA W EAT 2000)m appears drizzle
T S RANCE HER like low
ceiling
Very Cirrus Delicate Fair Nimbos or
High , wispy, tratus highlan Contin
featherl d fog uous
(6000 – y Stratoc rain or
12000) sometim umulus Dark, sleet
m es it dull,

33
clearly Fair CONDITIONS FOR PRECIPITATION
layered
rain - Air must be saturated
cloud - Air must contain small
particles of dust or nucle i
Cumul Rough, Fair around which the droplets from
us bumpy, - Air must be cooled below its
wavy, dew point i.e. the temperature
(but at which a volume of air gets
more saturated.
than
altocum TYPES OF RAIN FALL
ulus)
- Convectional Rainfall formed by
Rounde the process of convection in the
d top, atmosphere.
horizont - Relief or orgraphic rainfall
al base caused by mountains standing
in the path of moisture laden
Great Nimboc Black, Torrent air.
vertical umulus anvil ial, - Frontal or cyclonic rainfall
extent shaped, convect caused by a warm moist air
thunder ional, mass moving upwards over
cloud thunde cooler heavier air.
rous
rain FIGURE 16: TYPES OF RAIN FALL

PRECIPITATION

DEFINITION: The deposit of water

either in liquid or solid from which
reaches the earth from the
atmosphere.

It includes not only rain, but also

sleet, hail and snow.

STATES OF W ATER

- Gaseous state called vapour

- Solid state called ice
- Liquid state called water
ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES (ALR)
FIGURE 15: STATES OF WATER DEFINITION: The drop rate in
temperature as it rises and cooled.

Adiabatic means expansion and lapse

means drop.

TYPES OF LAPSE RATES

a. Environmental lapse rate

(ELR)/Normal lapse rate (NLR):

34
Air temperature drops 0.65ºC than the surrounding air’s
for every 100m it rises. temperature.
b. Dry adiabatic rate (DAR): Air
temperature drops 1ºC for It will stop rising when its
every 100m ascent or rise. temperature is the same as the
c. Wet adiabatic rate (WAR): Air temperature of the surrounding air
temperature drops 0.6º per i.e. unstable atmospheric conditions.
100m ascent.
WEATHER
When combined, they influence
atmospheric conditions of a given day. DEFINITION: The condition of the
atmosphere at a certain time or over a
STABLE ATMOSPHERIC short period as dictated by
CONDITIONS meteorological factors which include
atmospheric pressure.

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING

W EATHER ELEMENTS

- Atmospheric pressure
measured by mercury and
aneroid barometers in mill bars
- Rainfall measured by a Rain
gauge in millimeters
- Temperature measured by a
thermometer which is placed in
a shelter called a Stevenson
When rising air is cooler than the Screen
surrounding air it sinks down i.e. - Winds indicated by a wind vane
representing stable conditions. or weather cock
- Sunshine measured by a
UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERIC sunshine recorder
CONDITIONS - Humidity which is the moisture
in the atmosphere is measured
by a Hygrometer.

IMPORTANCE OF W EATHER

- The direction of winds once

controlled the pattern of
trading route
- Farmers and their crops are
influenced by weather
The rising air has higher temperature - Temperature, humidity and
than the surrounding (environmental) rainfall may promote or
air i.e. the air will continue rising. discourage diseases which may
destroy both animals and crops
At about 600m the rising air - Death rates are high in the
condenses and forms clouds. tropical countries and low in
deserts for germs are not
The air is wet but continues to rise transmitted readily in regions
because its temperature is still higher of high temperatures and low
temperatures

35
- The safety of modern air travel zone (30º - (Mediterranean
is tied to accurate weather 40ºN,S) type), Central
conditions and records from continental
ground stations. (Steppe type),
Eastern margin
CLIMATE (China type)

DEFINITION: The average weather Cool Temperate Western Margin

conditions of a place or region Zone (45º - (British type),
throughout the seasons and over long 65ºN,S) Central
periods of time. continental
(Siberian type),
W ORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS Eastern Margin
(Laurentian type)
DEFINITION: The main areas into
which the earth is divided according Cold zone (65º - Artic polar
to climate. 90ºN,S) (Tundra), Alpine
zone (Mountain
THE MAIN CLIMATIC REGIONS OF ranges),Alpine
THE W ORLD (Mountain)

CRITERIA USED IN CLASSIFYING

TEMPERATE CLIMATIC
THE CLIMATIC REGIONS
BELT REGIONS
(See below table)
Hot zone (0º - Hot, wet
30ºN,S) equatorial,
- Latitude
Tropical monsoon,
- Position of relative continents
Tropical
and oceans
continental
(Sudan type), Hot - Local geographical conditions
desert. - Amount of rainfall
- Temperature ranges
Warm Temperate Western Margin

36
CLIMATIC HIGHEST LOW EST RANGE TOTAL PLACE ALT
REGION TEMP. TEMP. RAIN

Equatorial 25ºC 23ºC 2ºC 1582mm Kananga 670 M

Temperate

Tropical 23ºC 14ºC 8ºC 857mm Lilongwe 915M

Continental
(Sudan
Type)

Warm 24ºC 11ºC 13ºC 762mm Algiers 59M

Temperate
western
climate

The Cool 20ºC -19ºC 39ºC 538mm Winnipeg 240M

Temperate
Continental
(Siberian)

Tropical 33ºC 20ºC 13ºC 227mm Timbuktu 301M

Desert
- It influences the rate of
CLIMATIC ELEMENTS evaporation and condensation,
hence dictates the degree of
- Temperature atmospheric stability
- Precipitation - Since relative humidity
- Pressure depends on temperature of the
- Winds air, it affects the nature and
types of cloud formation and
The above elements are the most precipitation.
important.
SUMMARY OF THE CLIMATIC
FACTORS AFFECTING THE REGIONS ACCORDING TO AMOUNT
CLIMATIC ELEMENTS OF RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE
RANGES
- Latitude
- Altitude A. EQUATORIAL TEMPERATE
- Ocean currents CLIMATE
- Continentality
- Insolation CHARACTERISTICS
- Prevailing winds (Go down) - Convectional rainfall
- Slope throughout the year
- Aspect - North east trades, North east
and south west monsoon
THE IMPORTANCE OF abundant
TEMPERATURE - Annual temperature range is
1ºC and 2ºC
- It influences water vapour - Ever green vegetation with
present in the air and therefore broad leaves, thick canopy,
decides the moisture carrying trees very tall
capacity of the air

37
e.g. mahogany, ebony, FACTORS RETARDING
greenheart, chengal DEVELOPMENT
- Excessive heat and humidity
Amazon basin, Zaire basin, - Prevalence of bacteria and
Guinea Coast, Malay insect pests
Peninsula, Indonesia and - Thickness of vegetation makes
Philippines are main areas clearing and maintenance of
where this climate prevails land difficult
- Rapid deterioration of tropical
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES soil
- Shifting cultivation is practiced. - Difficulties in lumbering and
- Plantation agriculture in some livestock farming (Due to tsetse
areas i.e. Java, Sumatra, West fly, e.g. in Africa)
Africa (Cocoa)

J F M A M J J A S O N D

ºC

25 25 25 25 25 24 23 25 25 25 25 25

mm

138 144 194 190 83 24 13 58 117 173 225 223

- A home of wild animals called
the big game country.
B. TROPICAL CONTINENTAL
(SUDAN TYPE) ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
CHARACTERISTICS
- Hot rainy season from May to - Growth of cotton, sugarcane,
October in the Northern coffee, oil palm, groundnuts
Hemisphere the rest is the cool and even tropical fruits.
dry season, November to April
in the Sothern hemisphere and FACTORS RETARDING
the rest is the cool dry season DEVELOPMENT
- The monthly temperatures
range from 21ºC to 32ºC and - Serious droughts
the range is 11ºC - Leaching is also a problem
- Tall grass with short scattered leading to poor lateritic soils
trees which form a parkland or - Tsetse flies not good for animal
bush veld (Savanna) e.g. rearing
baobab and acacias. Most of
these trees are umbrella
shaped and deciduous

J F M A M J J A S O N D

ºC

22 21 21 19 16 14 15 16 20 22 23 22

mm

38
205 220 154 36 8 0 0 4 5 9 85 131
- Mediterranean evergreen
C. THE W ARM TEMPERATE forests, coniferous trees and
W ESTERN MARGIN shrubs and bushes
(MEDITERRANEAN)
CHARACTERISTICS ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
- A dry warm summer with off –
shore trades hence no rain. The - Fruit farming (Citrus fruits i.e.
air is dry, heat is great and oranges, lemons, limes, citrons,
relative humidity low grape fruit).
- A concentration of rainfall in - Grazing of animals on
winter with on shore westerlies mountain pastures i.e. sheep,
- A bright sunny weather with goats and cattle.
hot, dry summer and wet mild - Transhumance is practiced
winters. Summers are warm - Wine production is also
and bright and winters are so common
mild and cool that many
tourists come at all times of the
year.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

ºC

20 22 25 30 32 33 31 30 30 30 30 20

mm

0 0 0 2 3 25 77 83 37 0 0 0

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
D. THE COOL TEMPERATE - Lumbering is the most activity in
CONTINENTAL (SIBERIAN) this climatic region i.e. sawmilling,
CHARACTERISTICS paper and pulp industry, as fuel
- Bitterly cold winter of long and as an industrial raw material
duration and cool brief summer. - Trapping (Many fur bearing
- Spring and autumn are merely animals are found here e.g.
brief transitional periods beaver, mink, muskrat.
- Temperatures so low in winter that - Hunting is another activity e.g.
heavy snowfall is common. silver fox.
- Precipitation varies from 380 to -
635mm.
- The annual temperature range is
very large i.e. 30ºC.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

ºC

11 11 14 16 20 22 24 24 22 20 15 11

mm

39
115 84 74 40 48 13 8 8 38 75 126 133
- Drought resistant scrub

E. TROPICAL DESERT ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

CHARACTERISTICS - Nomadic hunting and food
- Precipitation in scarce and gathering
unreliable - Mining e.g. gold in Great
- Temperatures are high throughout Australian desert, diamonds and
the year due to clear cloud less copper in the Kalahari.
sky, intense insolation, dry air and -
rapid rate of evaporation.
- There is no cold season in the
deserts.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

ºC

-19 -18 -10 0 13 17 20 17 12 0 -8 -17

mm

25 25 32 36 57 76 75 62 61 37 27 25
W AYS OF DESCRIBING VEGETATION

a. Life form i.e. trees, and shrubs

b. Size i.e. tall, medium or low in
height
c. Coverage i.e. sparsely covered e.g.
in deserts and continuous e.g. in
equatorial forests.
NATURAL VEGETATION d. Their response to annual climatic
cycle e.g. deciduous i.e. losing
DEFINITION: Different types of plants leaves seasonally, semi deciduous
(trees, grass, shrubs etc) growing without i.e. shedding leaves but not
any noticeable or modification by the seasonally a nd evergreen
human race e. Leaf size i.e. broad leaf or needle
leaf
W AYS OF MODIFYING NATURAL f. Leaf texture i.e. thick, thin and
VEGETATION delicate and others may be hard,
thick and leathery and thick and
- Animal rearing spongy
- Agro forestry
- Urbanization TYPES OF VEGETATION
- Fire
1. TROPICAL
CLASSES OF VEGETATION VEGETATION/TROPICAL
RAINFOREST/EQUATORIAL
a. Forest FOREST
b. Savanna (Forest and grass)
c. Grassland LOCATION
d. Desert
In equatorial climate regions

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Palms
Acacias
CHARACTERISTICS Gum trees
Elephant grass
Contains a variety of plants and
animals NAME OF DIFFERENT TROPICAL
The forest has three layers i.e. GRASSLANDS
upper, middle and lower layer
Trees grow very closely a. Campos – In Brazil
Growth is continuous (Flowering, b. Llanos in Guinea Highlands
fruits, shedding leaves) c. Savanna in Africa and Australia
Most trees have broad leaves and
long roots ensuring strong support DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
Evergreen trees VEGETATION IN THE EQUATORIAL
Tall trees forming a canopy CLIMATE AND IN SAVANNA CLIMATE
resulting into little undergrowth
a. Equatorial vegetation is dominated
TREES FOUND by trees while the Savanna is
dominated by grass
a. Mahogany b. Equatorial vegetation has
b. Ebony continuous canopy while the
c. Orchids Savanna does not because in most
d. Rosewood cases it is spiced by grass
e. Iron wood c. Growth, flowering and fruiting etc
f. Green heart of trees is there all the time in
Equatorial while in Savanna it is
All the above trees are hard woods seasonal
d. There are more species in the
ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE OF Equatorial than the Savanna.
TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST e. Trees in Equatorial are evergreen
while in Savanna it is deciduous
a. Used for lumbering e.g. Mahogany
b. Used for Sculpture e.g. Ebony 3. DESERT VEGETATION
c. Used for poles
LOCATION
2. TROPICAL GRASSLAND
Located in tropical desert climate regions.
LOCATION
CHARACTERISTICS
Found in tropical continental (Savanna
Climate) a. They grow long roots that get to
the depth
CHARACTERISTICS b. They have very thick leaves and
stems to store water
i. Tall grass with scattered trees c. Have waxy leaves that prevent
ii. The grass dries up in the dry transpiration and also have tiny
season leaves
iii. The trees are deciduous (Shed d. They produce sleepy seeds (those
their leaves) that lie dormant when it is dry)
iv. They have long roots and germinate when water is
available.
VEGETATION FOUND e. Have scattered vegetation of
drought resistant species
Baobab

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Found in cool Temperate Interior Climate
regions
VEGETATION FOUND
CHARACTERISTICS
- Cacti
- Thorn bushes a. Composed evergreen coniferous
- Date palms b. Have needle – shaped leaves
- Shrubs c. Have umbrella – shaped structure
d. Trees grow at a reasonably slow
4. TEMPERATE VEGETATION rate
e. They have big area or mass of
LOCATION wood than leaves
f. No undergrowth
Found in Mediterranean climate regions
TREES FOUND
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
- Hemlock
 Evergreen trees most of which are - Spruce
not naturally growing - Pine
 Trees have needle shaped leaves - Fir
 There are shrubs, grasses
scattered all over NOTE: These are all soft woods
 Very little natural vegetation
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
HOW VEGETATION W ITHSTAND THE CONIFERUS FORESTS
DRY SUMMER
a. Soft wood is used for making
- Water is stored in their thick barks paper
and leaves b. Soft wood is used for making
- The plants have spreading and furniture
deep roots that easily trap water c. Soft wood is used for making
- Needle shaped leaves ensure less matches
transpiration d. Soft wood is used for making
synthetic fibres such as rayon
SPECIES OF PLANTS FOUND
6. TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
- Cedars
- Conifers LOCATION
- Eucalyptus
- Marquis Found in temperate desert regions
- Chaparral
CHARACTERSITICS
- Malle
- Oaks
Extensive area of grass without
NOTE: One common characteristics trees
feature of Mediterranean plants is that Grass occurs together with herbs
they are all in one way or another The grass becomes short as we
adapted to the summer drought. move towards the temperate areas.

5. CONIFEROUS FOREST EXAMPLES OF TEMPERATE

GRASSLAND
LOCATION
a. Prairies (Canada/USA)
b. Pampas (Argentina)

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c. Steppes (Eurasia) Teak
d. Darling Murray (Australia) Bamboo
e. Veldt (South Africa) Sal
Sandalwood
7. TUNDRA GRASSLAND Acacia
Eucalyptus
LOCATION
All the above are hard woods
Found in Tundra climate
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES TROPICAL MONSOON FOREST
- A variety of grass growth together a. Trees are used for lumbering.g.
with mosses and linches teak
- The grasses are short due to slow b. Used as poles e.g. eucalyptus
growth because of the very cold
climate THE ENVIRONMENT
- The grass is punctuated by very
stunted growth of bushes DEFINITION: Environment refers to
surroundings made up of the biotic
NOTE: Tundra grasslands are only found (living) and non living things.
in the Northern Hemisphere because it
has large land masses than the Southern ECOLOGY: The study of mutual reliance
Hemisphere and interaction among organisms and
their environment.
IMPORTANCE OF GRASSLANDS
ECOSYSTEM: All living organisms and
1. Habitats of a variety of animals the physical, a biotic (non – living)
e.g. in tropical grasslands – environment in which they live and
Antelope, Gazelles, Temperate interact.
grasslands – horses, antelope,
Tundra vegetation – mosquitoes, EXAMPLES OF ENDANGERED W ILD
musk ox, arctic hares, arctic white AND AQUATIC LIFE SPECIES IN
fox, fox MALAWI
2. Offer ideal land for agriculture
3. Other grasslands are turned into a. Chambo fish
National Parks and Game Reserves b. Elephants
4. Beauty of a country c. Nyala (The rare shy)

8. TROPICAL MONSOON FOREST HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT ENDANGER

THE ENVIRONMENT
LOCATION
- Deforestation encouraging greater
In areas having Tropical Monsoon climate run off and large scale erosion
- Poor agricultural practices e.g.
CHARACTERISTICS cultivating along the slope
- Pollution i.e. emission of gases and
- There is smaller number of species industrial disposals.
- Most trees are deciduous - Poor waste disposal
- Tall trees - Disruption of the food chain
- Trees are sparsely spread - Misuse of insecticides
- Undergrowth is denser - Salination
EXAMPLES OF TREES

43
CONSERVATION OF THE MAIN CAUSE OF DESERTIFICATION
ENVIRONMENT
Misuse of land e.g. clearing of land for
- Establishment of conservation farming and settlement
areas such as forest reserves,
national parks, game reserves EFFECTS OF
- Catching and relocating game DESERTIFICATION/PROBLEMS
- Protection of rare and endangered
species - Climate change
- Civic education on conservation - Erosion
- Poor crop yields
W ETLANDS - Soil degradation
- Depletion of water resources
This refers to swamps, marshes and
begs. MEASURES OF CONTROLLING
DESERTIFICATION
EXAMPLES OF W ET LANDS
- A forestation
- Ndindi elephant marsh - Re a forestation
- Lake Chirwa - Proper land husbandry
- Vwaza Marsh - Civic education
- Controlling rapid population
IMPORTANCE OF W ETLANDS growth
- Provision of alternative sources of
a. Beatifying the environment energy.
b. Reproduction of life e.g. fish - Environmental education
c. Stabilising shore lines
d. Habitat for birds, fish and plants TYPES OF POLUTION
e. Locking up Carbon in form of peat
- Air pollution
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THREATENING
- Water pollution
W ETLANDS
- Land pollution
- Encroachment i.e. draining them
CAUSES OF POLLUTION
for cropping
a. AIR POLLUTION
MANAGEMENT OF W ETLANDS
- Removal of vegetative cover
a. By government, civic education on - Emissions
the importance of wetlands - Noise
b. Individuals by avoiding - Water disposal
encroachment b. W ATER POLLUTION
c. Communities by dealing with - Waste discharge
those who encroach - Oil spills
c. LAND POLLUTION
DESERTIFICATION - Waste discharge
- Nuclear testing
DEFINITION: Living the land bare. i.e.
Carrying off the top soil leaving the land EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
barren
AIR

44
- Respiratory problem
- Odour
- Acid rain CLIMATE CHANGE
- Poor visibility
CAUSES
W ATER
a. Deforestation i.e. the wanton
- Loss of aquatic life cutting down of trees due to rapid
- Diarrheal problems population growth
b. Emission of gases (Green house
- Scarcity of safe and portable water
effect)
LAND
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
- Loss of biodiversity
a. Global warming i.e. caused by the
W AYS OF CONTROLLING POLLUTION release of green house gases e.g.
methane, carbon dioxide etc
- Proper waste disposal b. Increasing storms: Due to the
- Using clean energy development of cyclones
c. Changing Ocean Currents: The
- Legislate and enforce laws which
movement of warm and cold
protect the environment
currents is visa versa
d. Shrinking of the Antarctic Ice Cap
FLOODS

DEFINITION: A body of water which SOLUTIONS TO THE CAUSES OF

covers land which is usually not under CLIMATIC CHANGE
water.
a. Civic Education
EFFECTS b. Avoidance of use of machines or
activities that release dangerous
- Destroying property gases
c. A forestation and re a forestation
- Wipe out homes
d. Avoidance of setting bushfires
CAUSES OF FLOODS
GLOBAL WARMING
- Too much rain
- Siltation which makes river DEFINITION: The warming of the
channels shallow and enables atmosphere due to the increase of some
rivers to over – flow their banks gases in the atmosphere.
- Removal of grass and other
vegetation which holds water and CAUSES OF GLOBAL W ARMING
prevent soil erosion
- The burning of the fossil fuels
HOW TO CONTROL FLOODS such as coal, oil and natural gas.
- The destruction of forests
- Planting trees on highlands where - Release of some gases in the
floods start. atmosphere
- Reclaim dry, barren highlands by
planting grass and trees EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
- Building reservoirs along river
banks, some distance from the - Shift rain fall patterns
river. - Raise the sea level as icebergs melt
- Building levees to prevent river - Alter ecological balance
over flow

45
THE END

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