GROUP 1

(PLATE TECTONICS)
Our planet Earth is in a constant state of motion, from the ever changing weather patterns, to the
movements of hustling busy streets. However, if we take a closer look just below the surface, we
can also find that thi6ns are always moving below our feet as well. And it’s called PLATE
TECTONICS, and it’s how the Earth’s continents were formed and reformed and reformed.

PLATE TECTONICS

• Is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s
subterranean movements.
• The word “tectonic” refers to the structure of the Earth and the process happening on it.

Our planet Earth is made out of layers. There are two types of layers, which are the
“compositional layer” and the “mechanical layer”. Compositional layer contains crust, mantle,
inner and outer core. Compositional layer refers to the material and elements that made up Earth.
On the other hand, Mechanical layer shows how the inside of the Earth behaves. It consist of:
Lithosphere- the outer most layer of the Earth which contains the entire crust and the
topmost layer of the mantle.
Asthenosphere – contains the same material as the top layer of the mantle, but the
pressure and the heat are increased. It’s not exactly a liquid but it does move like heated
rock.
Mesosphere – at this level the pressure is really starting to build which restricts the
molecules ability to move does making it very very rigid.
Lastly pass the mesosphere is the Liquid Outer Core.

Alfred Wegener
Alfred Wegener is the “Father of Plate Tectonic Theory”.
In the early 19 hundreds, he noticed that the coastlines of several continents look like they fit
together similar to puzzle pieces. He believed that 200 million years ago all of the continents were
joined together in one large continent that he called “PANGEA”.
PANGEA- a greek word meaning “All the Earth”.
Over the course of million years, Pangea broke apart into the continents we know today, a process
he called “Continental Drift”.
Although his theory explained quiet a bit about the origin of the Earth, scientist at the time
weren’t exactly impressed and initially dismissed his ideas. Then fast forward to today, Wegener’s
concepts are the basis of the modern day plate tectonic theory.

So what is the Plate Tectonic Theory?

Plate Tectonic Theory states that the Earth’s outer mechanical layer, the lithosphere, is divided
into large continent sized plates that are constantly moving (1-2 inches per year).
It moves 1-2 inches per year which is very slow, that’s why it was so hard for the scientists, a
hundred years ago, to wrap their heads around that idea.

What made the scientists change their mind?

A few national discoveries in the 20th century made Wegener’s theories seem more possible.
These are the discoveries of Dikes, location of earthquake epicenter and volcanoes, and fossil
evidences.
Dikes

• form when magma rises in an existing fracture or creates a new crack by forcing
its way out through existing rock, and then solidifies.
• In the 1950’s and 60’s, scientist discovered heated magma rising up through cracks
in the oceanic crust called Dikes, which is how new rock or new land is created.
• This realization that our planet is always reforming and reshaping itself from
beneath lent credibility to Wegener’s theory.

Location of Earthquake epicenter and Volcanoes

• Not long after, scientist started plotting the location of earthquakes and volcanoes
around the world and observed that the location of those events followed a similar
pattern to the outline of the plates Wegener proposed.
Fossils

• Fossils of tropical animals and plant species have been found in Africa and other
places in Earth that are less than tropical. One plausible explanation was that
Africa was once part of a larger continent that was home to these tropical plants
and animals.
So in light of all this evidences, the scientific community started believing on Alfred Wegener’s
idea. This led to the development of our Modern Plate Tectonic Theory.
So in simple words, Plate Tectonic Theory means that "the Earth is constantly reshaping because
the plates are continuously moving”.
7 Major Tectonic Plates: 7 Minor Tectonic Plates:
1. Pacific 1. Juan de Fuca
2. African 2. Cocos
3. Eurasian 3. Nazca
4. Australian 4. Caribbean
5. North America 5. Arabian
6. South America 6. Indian
7. Antarctic 7. Philippine

How do tectonic plates float?

It all comes down to other term "Isostasy"
Isostasy is the rising or settling of a portion of the Earth's lithosphere that occurs when weight is
removed or added in order to maintain equilibrium between buoyancy forces that push the
lithosphere upward, and gravity forces that pull the lithosphere downward.
As tectonic plates are located above the mantle (specifically the asthenosphere) which is
composed of semi-fluid state. It's is proven to be more denser, thus making the plate tectonic
float.
Why do tectonic plates move?
Tectonic plates move due to mantle convection, subduction and slab pull.
Mantle Convection
Mantle Convection is a process where heat from the Earth's core causes convection currents in
the semi-fluid mantle. These currents move magma in a circular motion, which drags tectonic
plates along with them.
Subduction
Subduction occurs at convergent plate boundaries where one tectonic plate is forced beneath
another. This typically happens when an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate or another
oceanic plate. The denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle, forming a deep trench and
triggering volcanic activity at the surface. Subduction is driven by the difference in density
between the two plates, with the denser oceanic plate sinking beneath the less dense continental
plate.

Slab Pull
Slab pull – As oceanic plates move away from mid-ocean ridges, they eventually collide with
continental plates or other oceanic plates at subduction zones. Oceanic plates are denser than
continental plates, so when they converge, the denser oceanic plate sinks beneath the less dense
continental plate. This process generates a pulling force on the rest of the plate, pulling it into the
subduction zone.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Plate boundaries are the edges where two plates meet. Most geologic activities, including
volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building, take place at plate boundaries.

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

At divergent plate boundaries (also known as constructive plate boundaries), the plates are
moving away from each other. This occurs as the convection current of the mantle pushes the
plates apart, generating a gap in between, causing magma to fill the gap and producing a new
crust. Most are located at ocean ridges and generate low magnitude earthquakes. Divergent
boundaries between continental plates often form rift valleys.

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

Convergent/destructive plate boundaries are where plates are moving toward each other.
When an oceanic crust and a continental crust meet, the denser oceanic crust is pushed below
the continental crust (also known as subduction). The plates slide on top of each other, and this
process can lead to earthquakes and volcanic activity as the friction between the two plates
increases and is released. The oceanic crust underneath is destroyed in the process. When an
oceanic crust meets with another oceanic crust, subduction also occurs. Island arcs and oceanic
trenches are often created. When continental plates collide, it can also cause either one or both
of the plates to buckle up, consequently forming mountain ranges.
The three types of convergent plate boundaries are continental-continental, continental-oceanic,
and oceanic-oceanic.
Continental-Continental
Continental-continental convergent boundaries pit large slabs of crust against each other.
This results in very little subduction, as most of the rock is too light to be carried very far
down into the dense mantle. Instead, the continental crust at these convergent
boundaries gets folded, faulted, and thickened, forming great mountain chains of uplifted
rock.
Continental-Oceanic
When oceanic and continental plates collide, the oceanic plate undergoes subduction and
volcanic arcs arise on land. These volcanoes release lava with chemical traces of the
continental crust they rise through.
Oceanic plates are denser than continental plates, which means they have a higher
subduction potential. They are constantly being pulled into the mantle, where they are
melted and recycled into new magma. The oldest oceanic plates are also the coldest, as
they have moved away from heat sources such as divergent boundaries and hot spots.
This makes them denser and more likely to subduct.
Oceanic-Oceanic

When two oceanic plates collide, the denser plate sinks below the lighter plate and
eventually forms dark, heavy, basaltic volcanic islands.
When oceanic plates are subducted, they often bend, resulting in the formation of oceanic
trenches. These often run parallel to volcanic arcs and extend deep beneath the
surrounding terrain.
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
The regions where plates are sliding past each other in the horizontal direction are called the
conservative plate boundaries or transform plate boundaries. Due to the irregularity of the
surface of the plates caused by rocks, the friction and pressure build-up, and the plates eventually
slide past each other, causing frequent earthquakes. The rocks from the plates are pulverized and
often create fault valleys or undersea canyons.
What are the impacts of tectonic plate movement?
Even though plates move very slowly, their motion, called plate tectonics, has a huge impact on
our planet. Plate tectonics form the oceans, continents, and mountains. It also helps us
understand why and where events like earthquakes occur and volcanoes erupt.
The movement of tectonic plates relative to each other leads to tectonic processes, which are
interactions between tectonic plates that impact the structure of the Earth’s crust. Tectonic
processes can lead to tectonic hazards. They are responsible for the majority of earthquakes,
volcanic activity and tsunamis. Tectonic hazards are then considered natural disasters when they
cause significant damage to societies or communities (such as loss of life, injuries and damage to
infrastructure), and they can no longer cope using their own resources.
The movement of tectonic plates has profound impacts on the Earth's surface, shaping
landscapes, driving geological processes, and influencing the distribution of natural resources.
Here are some of the key impacts:
1. Earthquakes

2. Volcanic activity and tsunamis

3. Mountain building
4. Oceanic Features
5. Continental Drift and Landmass Arrangement
6. Resources Distribution
Overall, the movement of tectonic plates is a fundamental driver of geological processes, with
far-reaching impacts on the Earth's surface, climate, and ecosystems.