SCI REVIEWER FIRST QTR Compositional layers- crust(oceanic &

(Some points are long ASF because it's continental), mantle(upper and lower), &
conceptually important.) core(outer and inner)
Earth’s layers Mechanical layers- lithosphere(rigid),
Crust- outermost layer, 5-70 km in asthenosphere(elastic), & mesosphere(fluid)
thickness, where life exists Core (Inner and Outer)- Made of Iron and
Oceanic crust- thinnest layer of Earth’s nickel, Outer core is made out of liquid
crust, 7-10 km in thickness, found under (2216 km thick), whilst the inner core is
ocean basins, denser by 2.9g/cm^3, where made of solid(1220 km thick)
geological activity happens, contains Lithosphere- rigid outer layer of the earth,
basalt(sima- silicate & magnesium)(has the uppermost mantle and crust, tectonic
younger rocks-constantly renewed from activities happen in the lithosphere
plate tectonics Asthenosphere-Where convection of
Continental crust- thickest layer of Earth’s molten happens, between 100km and
crust, 25-70 km in thickness, found under 350km from beneath the earth’s
continents, dense 2.7g/cm^3, where surface,weak, partially molten nature of the
geological activity happens, contains asthenosphere causes Earth’s rigid shell to
granite(sial-silicate & aluminum)(has old move, hottest, densest
rocks)
Mantle- thickest layer, 84% of the Earth’s Mapping of the Inner Earth
volume, 68% of Earth’s mass, depth of 2900 - Scientist learn that the composition,
km, semisolid(by convection), molten rocks density and properties of Earth’s layers
to magma, has ferro magnesium silicate because of a wave called “Seismic Waves”
rocks, 900-1000c(normal), 3700c(highest - Seismic waves are detected through a
temp) Seismometer.
Mohorovicic discontinuity- “moho”, Types of Seismic waves
boundary between crust and mantle Surface waves- Travels only in the surface
Seismic monotory/waves- measure of the Earth, Cannot provide info about the
boundaries by seismographs(vibration) Earth’s Interior
The Gutenburg discontinuity- The Body Waves- Composed of Primary and
boundaries of the mantle and core with the Secondary waves.
depth of about 2,800km Primary waves (P-waves)- First to be felt
Lehmann discontinuity- The boundaries on Earth’s surface, travels around 1.5km/s
between inner and outer core at a depth of to 8km/s, passes through solid and liquid
about 5,100km from the surface section of the earth but refracts as they
Upper mantle- more pass through liquid. These waves are
malleable(stretchable), rigid semi-fluid, compressional.
allows movement of tectonic plates Secondary waves (S-waves)- A transverse
Lower mantle- solid, less ductile, wave. Does not travel through liquid. The
contributes to the overall convection & heat, outer core was discovered to be liquid
can be deform because of S waves. S waves travel about
Gutenberg discontinuity- boundary of 60%-70% slower than P-waves.
mantle and core
Continental Drift Theory -Grew only in subpolar regions, but fossils
-Theory that continents were once part of a were widely distributed over Australia,
single landmass that broke apart and have Africa, India, and South America (Which
moved to their present locations. was then later on discovered in Antarctica)
-Can drift apart from one another and have Mesosaurus
done so in the past. -A freshwater reptile
-Wegener suggested that perhaps the -Black shales about 260 million years of
rotation of the earth caused the continents age(Permian) in South Africa and Brazil.
to shift towards and apart from each other. Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus
-Theory lacked explanation on the -Land reptiles
mechanism for how earth drifted, so it got -fossils found in South America, Africa,
rejected. :(((( India, and Antarctica. Noted for its Inability
-Theory was revived by Harry Hess, leading to swim.
to a new version called Theory of Plate Mountain and Rock Correlation
tectonics. (Similarity in geologic units and
Alfred Wegener structures)
-Is a German meteorologist (Geophysicist) -Geologic Structures (mountain ranges)
famous for his Continental Drift Theory. -Ages and rock types on opposite sides of
Declared that Continents were once joined the Atlantic Oceans were identical.
as a single supercontinent called -Wegener concluded that the Appalachian
“PANGAEA”’ mountain range and the Eastern Greenland
PANGAEA mountain range belonged to a single
-Means “all land” mountain range that separated as the
-Alfred Wegener stated that ”Continents fit continents drifted.
together as a pieces of jigsaw puzzle” The Apparent fit of the continents.
-When Pangaea started to break, it became -The continents (ESPECIALLY South
two smaller supercontinents called Laurasia America and Africa) seemed to fit together
and Gondwanaland during the Jurassic like a puzzle.
period. Glacial and Paleoclimate
Laurasia -There is proof that glaciers moved from
-Was the name given to the northern part of Africa, through the Atlantic Ocean, and then
pangaea towards South America
Gondwanaland -Scratches of glaciers left on rocks as they
-Was the name given to the southern part of travel are called Glacial Striations.
pangaea
Wegener’s Evidence Plate Tectonics Theory
Fossil Evidence -It explains the formation, movement, and
-Remains of living things that lived long ago. changes of the outer, rigid layers of Earth.
Same fossils of extinct plants and animals -The word, tectonic, refers to the
of the same age were found on different deformation of the crust as a consequence
continents which are separated by ocean. of plate interaction.
Glossopteris flora (seed fern) -Tectonic plate is also called a lithospheric
-It had large seeds plate. Composed of Continental and
Oceanic lithosphere. Surface of the earth is
divided into 7 major and 8 minor plates. Oceanic to Oceanic Plate Collision
Harry Hess -When two oceanic plates collide, one runs
-American geologist that proposed the over to the other which causes it to sink into
Seafloor Spreading Theory which states a mantle, forming a subduction zone. The
that the movement of the continents were older oceanic crust plate goes underneath
the result of seafloor spreading. New crustal the younger oceanic crust.
materials formed from volcanic materials. -The subducting plate is bent downwards,
-The plates are moving along a “conveyor forming a depression in the seafloor called
belt”. Trenches. The world’s deepest parts of the
Convection Currents ocean are found along trenches.
-Force responsible for driving or moving the Transform plate boundaries
plates. -Two plates slide past each other, causing
-It occurs within the mantle. Hot magma earthquakes as a result of massive energy
Rises and Cool magma sinks. As the crust being released.
of a mid-ocean ridge rifts, the ocean floor -As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not
drifts apart, causing magma to rise from randomly distributed over the globe.
below and forming a new ocean floor. -At the boundaries between plates, friction
Plate boundaries causes them to stick together. When built up
-When one or more tectonic plates meet. energy causes them to break, earthquakes
There are three types of plate boundaries: occur.
Divergent, Convergent, and Transform. Hotspot Volcanoes
Divergent plate boundaries -Hot mantle breaching the surface in the
-Two plates that move apart. Causing middle of a tectonic plate. The plate
spreading of the ridges. tectonics moves over a fixed hotspot,
-As plates move apart, new material is forming a chain of volcanoes. As one island
erupted to fill the gap, this causes magma to becomes extinct, another develops over the
migrate upward and form an entirely new hotspot, the cycle is repeated (Hawaiian
oceanic floor. island chain).
Convergent plate boundaries
-Two plates moving towards each other and Mechanism of Plate Movements
form either a subduction zone or an -Driving force of plate movement is Mantle
orogenic belt. It has three types of collision: convection.
Continent-oceanic collision, Mantle Convection Current
Continent-continent collision, and -Heat in the core towards the mantle
oceanic-oceanic collision. increasing its kinetic energy and causing it
Continental to Oceanic collision to expand and spread out beneath the
-The denser oceanic plate moves under the plates. Convection currents drive the plates
continental plate, this is known as away from each other. Warm mantle
Subduction. Landforms that are being currents drive and carry plates of
produced in this type of collision are usually lithosphere along like a conveyor belt.
volcanoes (Volcanism). Slab pull
Continental to Continental collision -Subducting slab sinks into the hot mantle
-Forms mountain ranges because of a difference in temperature.
Slab Suction and moves at a high speed, destroying
-Two colliding plates, one of which is everything on its path.
subducting underneath the other plate, Volcanoes and Plate Boundaries
whereby convection currents in the upper -MOST volcanoes are formed at the
mantle suck both plates down. boundaries of tectonic plates.
-Volcanoes are formed in subduction zones
Pacific Ring of Fire -Volcanoes can form in Divergent plates
-The Pacific Ring of Fire is susceptible to Life stages of a volcano
and frequented by volcanism-related Active
geologic activities such as volcanic -One that is erupting or has shown signs
eruptions, earthquakes, faulting, and that it may erupt in the near future.
tsunamis. Dormant
-The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes -One that has not erupted for a very long
and sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes, time but may erupt in the future.
around the edges of the Pacific Ocean. Extinct
Deep ocean trenches and high mountain -Dead volcano; not likely to erupt again.
ranges are also part of the Ring of Fire. The Volcanic Landforms
Ring of Fire is home to 75% of the world's Shield Volcanoes
volcanoes and 90% of its earthquakes. -Shield volcanoes are formed by lava flows
Volcanoes with low viscosity. Layers of the lava build
-Is an opening in Earth’s crust that allows up over time. The spread of lava creates the
molten rock from beneath the crust to reach shield shape.
the surface. This molten rock is called Composite Volcanoes
magma when it is beneath the surface and -Also called stratovolcano. It has a relatively
lava when it erupts or flows from a volcano. steeper side, and symmetrical cone shape.
Along with lava, volcanoes also release This type of volcano is formed by alternating
gasses, ash, and rock. layers of viscous, sticky lava and ash.
Lava Flow Cinder Cone Volcanoes
-Are streams of molten rock that pour or -is the simplest and most common type of
ooze from an erupting vent. Lava is erupted volcano. It is smaller than a composite.
during either non-explosive activity or -They are built from particles and blobs of
explosive lava fountains. congealed lava ejected from a single vent.
-The speed of lava flow on ground depends Gas Clouds
on different factors such as: Type of lava -Emitted during eruptions. May contain
erupted and its viscosity, the steepness of poisonous gases such as carbon dioxide,
the ground, and the rate of lava production carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and
at the vent. sulfur dioxide.
Explosions
-Ash, cinders, hot fragments, and bombs Earthquakes
thrown out in explosions. -Refers to the shaking of the earth as a
Pyroclastic Flow result of breaking or shifting of the tectonic
-Composed of a mixture of lava, volcanic plates, which releases seismic energy.
ash, and volcanic gases. It is extremely hot -pushes blocks of rocks to move along the
fault lines
-PhiVolcS recorded 12 destructive Strike-slip fault
earthquakes in the Philippines. -Surfaces slide in parallel but opposite
Seismology directions. When plates get stuck and stop
-Study of earthquakes and seismic waves moving, energy builds up between them.
that move around the earth.
Seismologists
-Scientists who study earthquakes and
seismic waves.
Fault
Oblique Strike-Slip fault
-Fractures on the earth’s crust. Allows the
-combination of strike-slip and dip-slip fault.
blocks/slabs of rocks to move relative to
each other.
Slip
-Relative movement/displacement of two
opposite sides of the fault.
Types of Faults
Dip-slip faults Focus and Epicenter
-The rocks above a fault are called the Focus or hypocenter
hanging wall. -Point within the earth where tectonic plates
-The rocks beneath a fault are called the start to break and where seismic energy is
footwall. first released.
-Has two types: Normal and Reverse Fault Epicenter
-The point directly above the focus. It is
where earthquakes are the strongest.
Tsunami
Normal Fault -Giant waves caused by earthquakes or
-Slips downward with respect to the footwall volcanic eruptions under the sea.
along the angle. Earthquake Hazards
Ground Rupture
-Deformation on the ground that marks the
intersection of the fault.
Ground Shaking
-Disruptive vibration of the ground during an
Reverse Fault earthquake.
-Another type of fault where block of earth’s Liquefaction
crust pushes upward along the dip angle. -Phenomenon wherein sediments,
Thrust Fault especially near bodies of water, behave like
-Type of reverse fault where the dip angle is liquid similar to a quicksand.
45 degrees or less. Landslide
-Down slope movement of rocks, solid and
other debris commonly triggered by strong
shaking.