ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-II

PAPER CODE: BS-111

UNIT-I

1. Definition of Complex Numbers:

A complex number is a number of the form z = a + bi where:

(i ) a (the real part) and b (the imaginary part) are real numbers,
(ii ) i (the imaginary unit) is defined as i2 = −1.

2. Basic Operations on Complex Numbers:

2.1. Addition and Subtraction: If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di, then:

z1 + z2 = ( a + c) + (b + d)i,
z1 − z2 = ( a − c) + (b − d)i.
2.2. Multiplication:
( a + bi )(c + di ) = ( ac − bd) + ( ad + bc)i.
2.3. Division:
a + bi ( a + bi )(c − di )
= .
c + di c2 + d2

3. Algebraic Properties:

3.1. Closure: The sum, difference, product, and quotient (except division by zero) of two
complex numbers is a complex number.
3.2. Commutativity:
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
z1 z2 = z2 z1
3.3. Associativity:
( z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + ( z2 + z3 )
( z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 ( z2 z3 )
3.4. Distributivity:
z1 ( z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
3.5. Identity Elements: Additive identity: 0 + 0i (since z + 0 = z) and multiplicative
identity: 1 + 0i (since z · 1 = z)
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3.6. Inverse Elements: Additive inverse: −( a + bi ) = − a − bi (since z + (−z) = 0) and
multiplicative inverse: If z = a + bi ̸= 0, then its inverse is:
a − bi
z −1 =
a2 + b2

4. Complex Conjugate Numbers:

The complex conjugate z̄ of a complex number z = x + iy is defined by

z̄ = x − iy
It is obtained geometrically by reflecting the point z in the real axis. The complex conjugate
is important because it permits us to switch from complex to real. Indeed, by multiplication,
zz̄ = x2 + y2 . By addition and subtraction, z + z̄ = 2x, z − z̄ = 2iy. We thus obtain for the real
part x and the imaginary part y of the important formulas
1 1
Re z = x = (z + z̄), Im z = y = (z − z̄).
2 2i

4.1. Properties of Conjugate

4.1.1. Addition: (z1 + z2 ) = z1 + z2

4.1.2. Multiplication: (z1 z2 ) = z1 · z2

z1 z1
4.1.3. Division: z2 = z2 ( z2 ̸ = 0)

Example 1: Simplify 1i .
1 −i −i −i
× = 2 = = i.
i −i i −1
2− i
Example 2: Simplify 3+4i .

(2 − i )(3 − 4i ) (6 − 8i − 3i + 4i2 )
=
(3 + 4i)(3 − 4i ) 9 + 16
(6 − 8i − 3i − 4)
=
25
2 − 11i 2 11
= = − i.
25 25 25

5. Geometrical Representation of Complex Number:

The geometric representation of complex numbers is often done using the complex plane, also
known as the Argand plane. A complex number is represented as a point or a vector in this
two-dimensional plane.
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For a complex number z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers, and i is the imaginary unit
(i.e., i2 = −1). Then the real part a is plotted on the horizontal axis (often called the real axis) and
the imaginary part b is plotted on the vertical axis (the imaginary axis).
The point corresponding to the complex number z = a + bi is represented as ( a, b) in this
plane.

5.1. Key features:

5.1.1. Modulus (Magnitude): The modulus of a complex number z = a + bi is the distance

from the origin to the point ( a, b), given by:

p
|z| = a2 + b2

5.1.2. Argument (Angle): The argument of the complex number is the angle θ that the line
joining the point ( a, b) to the origin makes with the positive real axis. It is calculated as:

b
θ = arg(z) = tan−1
a

The argument is usually given in radians.

5.2 Properties of Modulus

5.2.1. Non-Negativity: |z| ≥ 0, and |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0.

5.2.2. Multiplicative Property: |z1 z2 | = |z1 | · |z2 |

z1 | z1 |
5.2.3. Division Property: z2 = | z2 |
, for z2 ̸= 0.

5.2.4. Triangle Inequality: |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

5.2.5. Conjugation Property: |z| = |z̄|, where z̄ = a − bi and z · z = a2 + b2 = |z|2

Example 3:Find the modulus of z = 3 + 4i

√ √ √
Solution: |z| = 32 + 4 2 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5.

Example 4: Find the modulus of z = −5 + 12i.

p √ √
Solution: |z| = (−5)2 + 122 = 25 + 144 = 169 = 13.
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6. Polar Form of Complex Numbers:

A complex number is typically expressed in Cartesian form as:

z = x + iy,

where x, y ∈ R and i is the imaginary unit (i2 = −1). To express z in polar form, we define:
q y
r = |z| = x2 + y2 , θ = arg(z) = tan−1 .
x
Geometrically, |z| is the distance of the point z from the origin. Similarly, |z1 − z2 | is the distance
between |z1 | and |z1 |. θ is called the argument of z and is denoted by arg z. Thus θ = argz and
y
tanθ =
x
Geometrically, θ is the directed angle from the positive x-axis and positive in the counterclock-
wise sense. Using these, we rewrite z as:

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ).

This is called the polar form of a complex number.

√
Example 5: Convert z = 1 + i 3 to polar form.
• Modulus: q √ √
r= 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2
• Argument:
√ !
−1 3 π
θ = tan =
1 3
• Polar Form:
π π
z = 2(cos + i sin )
3 3
or
z = 2eiπ/3

√
Example 6: Convert z = − 3 − i to polar form.
• Modulus: q √ √ √
r= (− 3)2 + (−1)2 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2
• Argument:
−1

−1 −1 1 π
θ = tan √ = tan √ =
− 3 3 6
Since z is in the third quadrant, we add π:
π 7π
θ =π+ =
6 6
4
• Polar Form:
7π 7π
z = 2 cos + i sin
6 6
or
7π
z = 2ei 6

Example 7: Convert z = −4i to polar form.

• Modulus: q √
r= 02 + (−4)2 = 16 = 4
3π
• Argument: Since z is on the negative imaginary axis, θ = − π2 or θ = 2 .
• Polar Form:
3π 3π
z = 4 cos + i sin
2 2
or
3π
z = 4ei 2

6.1. Multiplication and Division in Polar Form:

In polar form, a complex number z is expressed as: z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) = reiθ . where r is the
modulus (absolute value) of z, and θ is the argument (angle) of z.
Multiplication: Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ). and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) be two complex
numbers in polar form. Their product is given by:

z1 z2 = (r1 eiθ1 )(r2 eiθ2 ) = (r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ))(r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ))

Using the property of exponentials:

z 1 z 2 = r 1 r 2 e i ( θ1 + θ2 )

Thus, the modulus of the product is:

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | = r1 r2

and the argument of the product is:

arg(z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 .
π
Example 8: Let z1 = 2e i π4 and z2 = 3ei 6 , then find z1 z2

Solution: step 1. Compute the modulus: |z1 | = 2, |z2 | = 3, so |z1 z2 | = 2 × 3 = 6.

π π π π 3π 2π 5π
step 2. Compute the argument: θ1 = 4, θ2 = 6, so θ1 + θ2 = 4 + 6 = 12 + 12 = 12 .

5π
step 3. Final result: z1 z2 = 6ei 12 .

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Division: For division, consider:
z1 r eiθ1 r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )
= 1 iθ = 1
z2 r2 e 2 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
Using the property of exponentials:
z1 r r
= 1 ei(θ1 −θ2 ) = 1 (cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 ))
z2 r2 r2
Thus, the modulus of the quotient is:
z1 |z | r
= 1 = 1
z2 | z2 | r2
and the argument of the quotient is:

z1
arg = θ1 − θ2 .
z2
π π z1
Example 9: Let z1 = 4ei 3 and z2 = 2ei 6 , then find z2

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Solution: step 1. Compute the modulus: |z1 | = 4, |z2 | = 2, so |z1 /z2 | = 2 = 2.

2π
step 2. Compute the argument: θ1 = π
3, θ2 = π
6, so θ1 − θ2 = π
3 − π
6 = 6 − π
6 = π6 .

z1 π
step 3. Final result: z2 = 2ei 6 .

These formulas simplify the computation of multiplication and division for complex numbers
in polar form.

Euler’s Formula: Euler’s famous identity states:

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
Using this, we can write:
z = reiθ .
This is another compact form of representing complex numbers.

7. Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers

De Moivre’s Theorem: De Moivre’s theorem states that for any integer n:

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ ).
Using the polar form of z, we derive:
(reiθ )n = r n einθ .
Expanding, we get:
zn = r n (cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ )) .
π
Example 10: Let z = 2ei 4 , find z3 :
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Solution:
3π
z3 = (2ei 4 )3 = 23 ei3· 4 = 8ei
π π
4

Thus, the result is:

3 3π 3π
z = 8 cos + i sin
4 4
π
Example 11: Let z = 2ei 6 , find z4 :

Solution: π 4 2π
= 24 ei4· 6 = 16ei 3
π
z4 = 2ei 6
Thus, the result is:

4 2π 2π
z = 16 cos + i sin
3 3

7.1. nth Roots of a Complex Number

To find the nth roots of z = reiθ , we solve:

wk = r1/n ei(θ +2πk)/n , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
Thus, the n distinct roots are:

1/n θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
wk = r cos + i sin .
n n
These roots are equally spaced around the unit circle in the complex plane.

π
Example 12: Find the cube roots of z = 8ei 6 .

Solution: 1. Modulus of the root:

r1/3 = 81/3 = 2
2. Argument of the roots: For k = 0, 1, 2, we have:
π
θ + 2kπ 6 + 2kπ
=
3 3
For k = 0, 1, 2, the arguments are:

π 13π 25π
k=0: , k=1: , k=2:
18 18 18
Thus, the cube roots are:

π 13π 25π
z0 = 2ei 18 , z1 = 2ei 18 , z2 = 2ei 18

π
Example 13: Find the square roots of z = 4ei 3 .
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Solution: 1. Modulus of the root:

r1/2 = 41/2 = 2

2. Argument of the roots: The argument for each root is:

π
θ + 2kπ 3 + 2kπ
=
2 2
π π
π 3 +2π 7π
For k = 0, 1, we get: - k = 0 : 3
2 = 6 -k=1: 2 = 6
The square roots are:
π 7π
z0 = 2ei 6 , z1 = 2ei 6

Thus, the two square roots are:

π π 7π 7π
z0 = 2 cos + i sin and z1 = 2 cos + i sin
6 6 6 6

8. Concepts on Sets in the Complex Plane

By a point set in the complex plane we mean any sort of collection of finitely many or
infinitely many points. Examples are the solutions of a quadratic equation, the points of a line,
the points in the interior of a circle.

A set S is called open if every point of S has a neighborhood consisting entirely of points that
belong to S. For example, the points in the interior of a circle or a square form an open set, and
so do the points of the right half-plane Rez = x > 0.

A set S is called connected if any two of its points can be joined by a chain of finitely many
straight-line segments all of whose points belong to S. An open and connected set is called a
domain. Thus an open disk and an open annulus are domains. An open square with a diagonal
removed is not a domain since this set is not connected.

The complement of a set S in the complex plane is the set of all points of the complex plane
that do not belong to S. A set S is called closed if its complement is open. For example, the
points on and inside the unit circle form a closed set “closed unit disk" since its complement
|z| > 1 is open.

A boundary point of a set S is a point every neighborhood of which contains both points that
belong to S and points that do not belong to S. For example, the boundary points of an annulus
are the points on the two bounding circles. Clearly, if a set S is open, then no boundary point
belongs to S; if S is closed, then every boundary point belongs to S. The set of all boundary
points of a set S is called the boundary of S.

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A region is a set consisting of a domain plus, perhaps, some or all of its boundary points.
Note: “Domain" is the modern term for an open connected set.

8.1. Complex Function

In complex, S is a set of complex numbers. And a function f defined on S is a rule that

assigns to every z in S a complex number w, called the value of f at z. We write

w = f ( z ).

Here z varies in S and is called a complex variable. The set S is called the domain of definition
of f or, briefly, the domain of f . (In most cases S will be open and connected, thus a domain as
defined just before.)

Example 14: w = f (z) = z2 + 3z is a complex function defined for all z; that is, its domain S
is the whole complex plane.

The set of all values of a function f is called the range of f . w is complex, and we write
w = u + iv, where u and v are the real and imaginary parts, respectively. Now w depends on
z = x + iy. Hence u becomes a real function of x and y, and so does v. We may thus write

w = f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y)

This shows that a complex function f (z) is equivalent to a pair of real functions u( x, y) and
v( x, y), each depending on the two real variables x and y.

Example 15: Let w = f (z) = z2 + 3z. Find u and v and calculate the value of f at z = 1 + 3i.

Solution u = Re f (z) = x2 − y2 + 3x and v = 2xy + 3y. Also, f (1 + 3i ) =

(1 + 3i )2 + 3(1 + 3i ) = 1 − 9 + 6i + 3 + 9i = −5 + 15i. This shows that u(1, 3) = −5
and v(1, 3) = 15. Check this by using the expressions for u and v.

1
Example 16: Let w = f (z) = 2iz + 6z̄. Find u and v and calculate the value of f at z = 2 + 4i.

Solution: f (z) = 2i ( x + iy) + 6( x − iy) gives u( x, y) = 6x − 2y and v( x, y) = 2x − 6y. Also,

f ( 12 + 4i ) = 2i ( 21 + 4i ) + 6( 12 − 4i ) = i − 8 + 3 − 24i = −5 − 23i. This shows that u( 21 , 4) = −5
and v( 12 , 4) = −23. Check this by using the expressions for u and v.

9. Limit of a Complex Function

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Let f (z) be a function of a complex variable z, and let z0 be a point in the complex plane. The
limit of f (z) as z approaches z0 is defined as:
lim f (z) = L
z → z0

if for every ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ, we have
| f (z) − L| < ϵ.
This means that as z gets arbitrarily close to z0 , the function f (z) gets arbitrarily close to L.

Example 17: Consider the function

z2 − 1
f (z) =
z−1
Find limz→1 f (z).

Solution: Factorizing:
(z − 1)(z + 1)
f (z) =
z−1
For z ̸= 1, we simplify to f (z) = z + 1. Thus,
lim f (z) = 1 + 1 = 2.
z →1

10. Continuity of a Complex Function

A function f (z) is continuous at z0 if:

lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z → z0
This means that:

(i) The limit limz→z0 f (z) exists.

(ii) The function f (z) is defined at z0 .

(iii) The limit and function value are equal.

Example 18: Consider f (z) = z2 . We check continuity at z0 = 2 + i.

Solution:
lim f (z) = (2 + i )2 = 3 + 4i.
z→(2+i )
Since f (2 + i ) = 3 + 4i, the function is continuous at z0 .

11. Derivative of a Complex Function

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The derivative of a complex function f (z), where z = x + iy, is defined as:
f (z + ∆z) − f (z)
f ′ (z) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
provided this limit exists. Then f is said to be differentiable at z.
Example 19: f (z) = z2 Let f (z) = z2 . We can compute the derivative as follows:

Solution:
f (z) = z2 = ( x + iy)2 = x2 − y2 + 2ixy
Thus, the derivative is:

f ′ (z) = 2z

11.1. Analytic Function

A function f (z) is said to be analytic in a domain D if f (z) is defined and differentiable at all
points of D. The function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z = z0 in D if f (z) is analytic in a
neighborhood of z0 . A more modern term for analytic in D is holomorphic in D.

11.2. Cauchy-Riemann Equations:

Let f (z) be a complex function, written as:

f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y)

where:

(i) u( x, y) is the real part of f (z).

(ii) v( x, y) is the imaginary part of f (z).

(iii) z = x + iy, where x and y are real variables.

If f (z) is complex differentiable at a point, then its real and imaginary parts satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Note: (Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Analyticity) If a function f (z) = u + iv

satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations in a region and u, v have continuous first-order partial
derivatives, then f (z) is analytic in that region.

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Example 20: Check if f (z) = x2 − y2 + i (2xy) is analytic:

Solution: Here,
u( x, y) = x2 − y2 , v( x, y) = 2xy.
Compute derivatives:
∂u ∂v
= 2x, = 2x,
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −2y, = 2y.
∂y ∂x
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, f (z) is analytic.

Example 21: Check if f (z) = e x cos y + ie x sin y is analytic

Solution: Here,
u( x, y) = e x cos y, v( x, y) = e x sin y.
Compute derivatives:
∂u ∂v
= e x cos y, = e x cos y,
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
= −e x sin y, = e x sin y.
∂y ∂x
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold, f (z) is analytic.

12. Laplace’s Equation

If a complex function f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y) is analytic, then its real and imaginary parts
satisfy the Laplace equation. That is, both u( x, y) and v( x, y) are harmonic functions, meaning
they satisfy:
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
+ = 0, + 2 = 0.
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂x2 ∂y
This property is useful in solving boundary value problems in physics and engineering. A
function satisfying Laplace’s equation is called a harmonic function.

13. Harmonic Functions in Complex Analysis

In the context of complex analysis, let f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y) be a holomorphic function,

where:

(i) u( x, y) and v( x, y) are the real and imaginary parts of f (z).

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(ii) z = x + iy.

For f (z) to be holomorphic, it must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations:

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Taking the second derivatives and using the Cauchy-Riemann equations, we get:
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
+ 2 = 0, + 2 =0
∂x2 ∂y ∂x2 ∂y
Thus, both u( x, y) and v( x, y) satisfy the Laplace equation, meaning they are harmonic
functions.

Example 22: Polynomial Function Consider the function:

f (z) = z3 = ( x + iy)3

Solution: Expanding:
( x + iy)3 = x3 − 3xy2 + i (3x2 y − y3 )
Thus,
(i) Real part: u( x, y) = x3 − 3xy2

(ii) Imaginary part: v( x, y) = 3x2 y − y3

Checking the Laplace equation:

∂2 u ∂2 u
+ 2 = 6x − 6x = 0
∂x2 ∂y
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ 2 = 6y − 6y = 0
∂x2 ∂y
Thus, both u and v satisfy Laplace’s equation.

Example 23: Trigonometric Function Consider f (z) = sin z = sin( x + iy).

Solution: Using the identity

sin( x + iy) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

Thus,

(i) Real part: u( x, y) = sin x cosh y

(i) Imaginary part: v( x, y) = cos x sinh y

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Computing second derivatives:
∂2 u ∂2 u
+ 2 = − sin x cosh y + sin x cosh y = 0
∂x2 ∂y
∂2 v ∂2 v
+ 2 = − cos x sinh y + cos x sinh y = 0
∂x2 ∂y
Thus, both u and v are harmonic.

14.1. Exponential Function for Complex Numbers

The complex exponential function is defined as:

ez = e x+iy = e x eiy
Using Euler’s Formula:
eiy = cos y + i sin y
we obtain:
ez = e x (cos y + i sin y)
where: x is the real part of z and y is the imaginary part of z.

This shows that the complex exponential function naturally involves trigonometric functions.

Properties of the Complex Exponential Function

Periodicity: Since cos y and sin y are periodic with period 2π, the exponential function
satisfies:

ez+2πi = ez .
Thus, ez is periodic with period 2πi.

Multiplication: For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 :

e z1 + z2 = e z1 e z2 .
Derivative: The function ez is entire (analytic everywhere in C) and satisfies:

d z
e = ez .
dz
Magnitude The modulus of ez is:

|ez | = |e x+iy | = e x .
This shows that |ez | depends only on the real part of z.

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14.2. Trigonometric Functions for Complex Numbers

Just as we extended the real e x to the complex ez in previous section, we now want to extend
the familiar real trigonometric functions to complex trigonometric functions. We can do this by
the use of the Euler formulas
eiz = cos z + i sin z, e−iz = cos z − i sin z.
By addition and subtraction we obtain for the real cosine and sine

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

cos z = , sin z = .
2 2i
Since is entire, cos z and sin z are entire functions. tan z and sec z are not entire; they are
analytic except at the points where cos z is zero; and cot z and csc z are analytic except where
sin z is zero.

Example 24: Show that

(1)
cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.
(2)
sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.
Solution (1): Using the exponential definition of cosine:

eiz + e−iz
cos z =
2
Substituting z = x + iy on the right side:

ei(x+iy) + e−i(x+iy)
cos(z) = .
2
Expanding the exponentials:

ei(x+iy) = e−y eix = e−y (cos x + i sin x ),

e−i(x+iy) = ey e−ix = ey (cos x − i sin x ).

Adding these:

e−y (cos x + i sin x ) + ey (cos x − i sin x )

cos(z) = .
2
Distributing:

(e−y + ey ) cos x (e−y − ey ) sin x

cos(z) = +i .
2 2
Using the hyperbolic function identities:
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ey + e−y ey − e−y
cosh y = , sinh y = ,
2 2
we get:

cos(z) = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.

(2) Using the exponential definition of sine:

eiz − e−iz
sin z =
2i
Substituting z = x + iy:

ei(x+iy) − e−i(x+iy)
sin(z) = .
2i
Expanding the exponentials:

e−y (cos x + i sin x ) − ey (cos x − i sin x )

sin(z) = .
2i
Distributing:

(e−y − ey ) cos x (e−y + ey ) sin x

sin(z) = +i .
2i 2i
Using the hyperbolic function identities:

ey + e−y ey − e−y
cosh y = , sinh y = ,
2 2
we get:

sin(z) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.

14.3. Hyperbolic Functions for Complex Numbers

The hyperbolic functions are defined similarly:

ez + e−z
cosh z =
2
ez − e−z
sinh z =
2
For z = x + iy:
cosh( x + iy) = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
sinh( x + iy) = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
This shows that complex hyperbolic functions involve trigonometric functions.

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Relationship Between Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Complex trigonometric and hyperbolic functions are closely related, and their connection
arises naturally from Euler’s formulas and the definitions of hyperbolic functions. These
relationships are important in many areas of mathematics and physics.
For any complex number z, we have the following fundamental identities:

cos(iz) = cosh z, sin(iz) = i sinh z.

Similarly, for a real number x and purely imaginary iy:

cosh(iz) = cos z, sinh(iz) = i sin z.

These identities establish a deep link between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions.

14.4. Complex Logarithm Function

The complex logarithm function is the inverse of the complex exponential function. That is,
for a complex number z,

ew = z ⇒ w = log z.
Definition: For any complex number z, expressed in polar form as

z = reiθ , where r = |z| and θ = arg z,

the complex logarithm is defined as

log z = ln r + iθ.
Since the argument θ can take infinitely many values differing by 2πk (where k ∈ Z), we
write
log z = ln |z| + i (θ + 2πk ), k ∈ Z.
Thus, log z is a multi-valued function.

Principal Value of Logarithm: To make the logarithm single-valued, we define the principal
branch of log z by restricting the argument θ to the range (−π, π ]:

Log z = ln |z| + iArg z, where − π < Arg z ≤ π.

Here: - ln |z| is the real logarithm of the modulus. - Arg z is the principal argument of z,
restricted to (−π, π ].
The principal logarithm is denoted by Log z (with a capital "L").

14.5. General Power zw in Complex Analysis

17
For two complex numbers z and w, the general power is defined as

zw = ew log z .
Using the logarithm formula, we get

zw = ew(ln |z|+i(θ +2πk)) , k ∈ Z.

Expanding the exponent:

zw = ew ln |z| · eiw(θ +2πk) .

Since k can be any integer, this function is multi-valued, giving infinitely many values.

Principal Value of Power Function To obtain the principal value, we use the principal
logarithm Log z:

zw = ewLog z = ew(ln |z|+iArg z)

.
This is the single-valued principal branch of zw ,
where Arg z is restricted to (−π, π ].
Singularities, Zeroes, and Infinity of Complex Functions

15. Singularities of a Complex Function

A singularity of a complex function f (z) is a point where the function is not analytic.
Singularities are classified as follows:

15.1. Removable Singularity A singularity at z = a is removable if lim f (z) exists and is finite.
z→ a

Example 25:
sin z
f (z) =
z
at z = 0 can be redefined as f (0) = 1 to make it analytic.

Example 26:
z2 − 1
f (z) =
z−1
at z = 1 is removable if we define f (1) = 2

15.2. Poles A singularity at z = a is a pole if f (z) → ∞ as z → a.

If f (z) can be expressed as
g(z)
f (z) =
(z − a)n
where g(z) is analytic and g( a) ̸= 0, then a is a pole of order n.

18
1
Example 27: f (z) = z2
has a pole of order 2 at z = 0.

1
Example 28: f (z) = ( z −3)3
has a pole of order 3 at z = 3.

15.3. Essential Singularity A singularity at z = a is essential if neither of the above conditions

hold.

Example 29: f (z) = e1/z at z = 0.

Example 30: f (z) = sin(1/z) at z = 0.

16. Zeroes of a Complex Function

A zero of a complex function f (z) is a point where f (z) = 0.

16.1. Isolated Zero A zero at z = a is isolated if there exists an ϵ-neighborhood around a

containing no other zeroes.

Example 31: f (z) = z3 − z has isolated zeroes at z = 0, ±1.

16.2. Zero of Order n If f (z) can be written as

f ( z ) = ( z − a ) n g ( z ),

where g( a) ̸= 0, then a is a zero of order n.

Example 32: f (z) = (z − 1)3 ez has a zero of order 3 at z = 1.

Example 33: f (z) = (z + 2)4 + (z + 2)5 has a zero of order 4 at z = −2.

8. Infinity in Complex Functions

The behavior of f (z) as |z| → ∞ is studied using the point at infinity.

Classification of Infinity

- Removable singularity at infinity: If lim f (z) exists and is finite.

z→∞

- Pole at infinity: If f (z) behaves like a polynomial as |z| → ∞.

- Essential singularity at infinity: If f (z) exhibits unbounded behavior, e.g., ez .

19
1
Example: f (z) = z has a removable singularity at infinity.

Additional Example: f (z) = z3 has a pole of order 3 at infinity.

8. Line Integral in the Complex Plane

In complex analysis, the line integral (also known as the contour integral) of a complex
function f (z) along a curve C in the complex plane is an important concept. It extends the idea
of real line integrals to functions of a complex variable.

Definition of the Line Integral

Let C be a smooth, piecewise differentiable curve parameterized by z(t), where t ∈ [ a, b] and

z(t) = x (t) + iy(t). The line integral of a complex function f (z) along C is defined as:
Z b
dz
Z
f (z) dz = f (z(t)) dt.
C a dt
Since dz = dz
dt dt = ( x ′ (t) + iy′ (t))dt, the integral can be rewritten as:
Z Z b
f (z) dz = [u( x, y) + iv( x, y)] ( x ′ (t) + iy′ (t))dt,
C a

where f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y), with u and v representing the real and imaginary parts of f (z).

Evaluation of Line Integrals

To evaluate a contour integral, follow these steps:

(1) Parameterize the contour C as z(t) = x (t) + iy(t) for t ∈ [ a, b].
(2) Compute dz ′ ′
dt = x ( t ) + iy ( t ).
(3) Substitute into the integral:
Z b
dz
Z
f (z)dz = f (z(t)) dt.
C a dt
(4) Evaluate the resulting integral as a standard integral.
Example: Evaluate the integral:
Z
z2 dz,
C
where C is the line segment from z = 0 to z = 1 + i.

Solution:
• Parameterize the line segment: z(t) = t + it, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
• Compute dz:
dz = (1 + i )dt.
20
• Evaluate z2 :
z2 = (t + it)2 = t2 − t2 + 2itt = 2it2 .
• Compute the integral:
Z 1 Z 1
2
(2it )(1 + i )dt = (2it2 + 2i2 t2 )dt.
0 0
Since i2 = −1, we simplify:
Z 1
(2it2 − 2t2 )dt.
0
Evaluating separately,
Z 1 Z 1
2
2i t dt − 2 t2 dt.
0 0
t3
t2 dt =
R
Using 3,
1 1 2i 2
2i − 2 = − .
3 3 3 3
Thus, the final answer is:
2
(−1 + i ).
3

How to parametrize the curve (Not included in syllabus)*

In complex analysis, a contour is a path in the complex plane, which can be parametrized
as a function of a real parameter. Below are common parametrizations for different types of
contours.
1. Line Segment A line segment connecting two points z1 and z2 in the complex plane can
be parametrized as:
z(t) = (1 − t)z1 + tz2 , t ∈ [0, 1].
This ensures that when t = 0, we have z(0) = z1 , and when t = 1, we have z(1) = z2 .
2. Circle of Radius R Centered at z0 A counterclockwise parametrization of a circle of
radius R centered at z0 is given by:
z(t) = z0 + Reit , t ∈ [0, 2π ].
For a clockwise traversal, the parametrization is:
z(t) = z0 + Re−it , t ∈ [0, 2π ].
3. Semi-Circle Upper Semi-Circle The upper semi-circle of radius R centered at z0 is
parametrized by:
z(t) = z0 + Reit , t ∈ [0, π ].
Lower Semi-Circle The lower semi-circle of radius R centered at z0 is parametrized by:
z(t) = z0 + Re−it , t ∈ [0, π ].
4. Ellipse Centered at z0 For an ellipse centered at z0 with semi-axes a and b, the parametriza-
tion is:
z(t) = z0 + a cos t + ib sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π ].
21
5. General Parametrization for a Curve γ If a curve γ is given by parametric equations
x = x (t) and y = y(t), then its parametrization in the complex plane is:

z(t) = x (t) + iy(t), t ∈ [ a, b].

–. Cauchy’s Integral Theorem

Statement of Theorem Let f (z) be a complex function that is holomorphic (analytic) inside
and on a simple closed contour C in a simply connected domain D. Then,
I
(0.1) f (z) dz = 0.
C
Proof: (Step 1: Expressing the Contour Integral) Let the contour C be parameterized as:

(0.2) z(t) = x (t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

where x (t) and y(t) are real-valued functions, and z( a) = z(b).

The contour integral of f (z) over C is:
I I
(0.3) f (z) dz = u + iv (dx + idy),
C C

where f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y).

Expanding,
I I
(0.4) udx − vdy + i vdx + udy .
C C
Thus, defining two real integrals:
I I
(0.5) I1 = (udx − vdy), I2 = (vdx + udy).
C C
If we show both are zero, then the original contour integral is also zero.
Step 2: Applying Green’s Theorem By Green’s Theorem, if P( x, y) and Q( x, y) are continu-
ously differentiable functions,
I ZZ
∂Q ∂P
(0.6) Pdx + Qdy = − dA.
C R ∂x ∂y
Applying this to I1 , where P = u and Q = −v:
I ZZ
∂v ∂u
(0.7) I1 = (udx − vdy) = − − dA.
C R ∂x ∂y
For I2 , where P = v and Q = u:
I ZZ
∂u ∂v
(0.8) I2 = (vdx + udy) = − dA.
C R ∂x ∂y
Step 3: Using the Cauchy-Riemann Equations Since f (z) is holomorphic in D, it satisfies the
Cauchy-Riemann equations:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
(0.9) = , =− .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
22
Substituting these into the integrals:
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
(0.10) − = 0, + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Thus,
ZZ ZZ
(0.11) I1 = 0 dA = 0, I2 = 0 dA = 0.
R R
Since both integrals vanish, we conclude:
I
(0.12) f (z) dz = 0.
C
Example 1: Direct Application of Cauchy’s Integral Theorem Evaluate the contour integral:
I
(0.13) (z3 + 2z + 5) dz
C
where C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution The function inside the integral is:
(0.14) f (z) = z3 + 2z + 5.
Since this function is a polynomial, it is entire (analytic everywhere). By Cauchy’s Integral
Theorem,
I
(0.15) f (z) dz = 0.
C
Thus, the integral evaluates to:
I
(0.16) (z3 + 2z + 5) dz = 0.
C
Example 2: Using Cauchy Integral Formula Evaluate:
1
I
(0.17) dz,
C z−3
where C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution The function inside the integral is:
1
(0.18) .f (z) =
z−3
The singularity (pole) is at z = 3, which lies outside the contour |z| = 2. Since f (z) is analytic
inside and on C, by Cauchy’s Integral Theorem,
1
I
(0.19) dz = 0.
C z−3
Example 3: Integral of a Function with a Singular Point Inside Evaluate:
1
I
(0.20) dz,
C z
where C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution The function inside the integral is:
1
(0.21) f (z) = .
z
23
It has a singularity at z = 0, which is inside the contour |z| = 2. By the Cauchy Integral Formula,
1
I
(0.22) dz = 2πi.
C z
–. Cauchy’s Integral Formula If f (z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C, and
a is a point inside C, then:
1 f (z)
Z
f ( a) = dz.
2πi C z − a
This result is crucial in evaluating many complex integrals.

Example: Evaluate the contour integral:

ez
I
(0.23) dz,
C z−2
where C is the circle |z − 2| = 1.

Solution By Cauchy’s Integral Formula, if f (z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed
contour C, and a is inside C, then:
f (z)
I
(0.24) dz = 2πi f ( a).
C z−a
Here, we identify:
• f (z) = ez , which is analytic everywhere.
• a = 2, since the denominator is z − 2.
Applying the formula:
ez
I
(0.25) dz = 2πie2 .
C z−2
Thus, the value of the integral is:
(0.26) 2πie2 .
Example 3: Complex Function Evaluate:
cos z
I
(0.27) dz,
C z−i
where C is the circle |z − i | = 1.
Solution Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula:
f (z)
I
(0.28) dz = 2πi f ( a),
C z−a
where f (z) = cos z and a = i. Evaluating:
(0.29) f (i ) = cos i.
Thus, applying the formula:
cos z
I
(0.30) dz = 2πi cos i.
C z−i
24
–. Cauchy’s Integral Formula For Analytics Function

Cauchy’s integral formula extends to higher derivatives:

n! f (z)
I
f ( n ) ( z0 ) = dz
2πi Γ (z − z0 )n+1
This shows that analytic functions are infinitely differentiable, and their derivatives can be
computed using contour integrals.

1. Taylor and Maclaurin Series in Complex Analysis

If a function f (z) is analytic (holomorphic) in a domain, then it can be represented as a power
series around a point z0 :

∞
f (z) = ∑ c n ( z − z0 ) n
n =0
where the coefficients are given by:

f ( n ) ( z0 )
cn =
n!
Thus, the series can be written explicitly as:

f ′′ (z0 )
f (z) = f (z0 ) + f ′ (z0 )(z − z0 ) + ( z − z0 )2 + . . .
2!
The series converges inside a disk of radius R, known as the radius of convergence, which is
determined by the distance from z0 to the nearest singularity.

2. Maclaurin Series
The Maclaurin series is a special case of the Taylor series centered at z0 = 0:

∞
f ( n ) (0) n
f (z) = ∑ n!
z
n =0
Examples Let’s find the Taylor series for the function:

f (z) = ez
centered at z0 = 0 (Maclaurin series).

Solution Step 1: Compute the Derivatives

The derivatives of f (z) are:

f (z) = ez , f ′ (z) = ez , f ′′ (z) = ez , f (n) ( z ) = ez

At z = 0:
25
f ( n ) (0) = e0 = 1
Step 2: Apply the Taylor Series Formula
The Taylor series formula is:

∞
f ( n ) (0) n
f (z) = ∑ n!
z
n =0
Substitute the derivatives:
∞
zn
ez = ∑
n=0 n!
Step 3: Expand the Series
Expand the series to see the first few terms:

z2 z3 z4
ez = 1 + z +
+ + +...
2! 3! 4!
Example 1: Taylor Series for sin(z) The function is:

f (z) = sin(z)
Step 1: Compute the Derivatives

f (z) = sin(z), f ′ (z) = cos(z), f ′′ (z) = − sin(z), f ′′′ (z) = − cos(z)

At z = 0:

f (0) = 0, f ′ (0) = 1, f ′′ (0) = 0, f ′′′ (0) = −1

Step 2: Taylor Series

z3 z5 z7
sin(z) = z − + − +...
3! 5! 7!

26
Unit-II

General Form of the Laurent Series The Laurent series is a representation of a complex
function as an infinite series, which includes both positive and negative powers of the variable. It
generalizes the Taylor series and is especially useful for representing functions with singularities.
Let f (z) be a complex function. The Laurent series of f (z) in an annulus R1 < |z − z0 | < R2
is given by:

∞
(2.1) f (z) = ∑ c n ( z − z0 ) n
n=−∞

where the coefficients are computed using the formula:

1 f (w)
Z
(2.2) cn = , dw
2πi γ ( w − z 0 ) n +1
Here:
z0 is the center of the series.
γ is a positively oriented, simple closed contour around z0 within the annulus.
cn are complex coefficients.
The Laurent series is split into two parts:
• The regular (analytic) part: The terms with positive powers of (z − z0 ), which resemble
a Taylor series and represent the smooth part of the function.
• The singular part: The terms with negative powers of (z − z0 ), which capture the
behavior of the function near singularities (e.g., poles).

Convergence of the Laurent Series The Laurent series typically converges in an annular region
around the center z0 . This region is defined by two radii:
• Inner radius: r1 , the radius inside which the series does not converge (often this is where
the function has a singularity).
• Outer radius: r2 , the radius outside of which the series diverges (possibly due to another
singularity or infinity).
The series converges in the annular region r1 < |z − z0 | < r2 .

Types of Singularities and Their Corresponding Laurent Series

• Removable Singularity: If the function has a singularity that can be "removed" (i.e., the
function can be extended to a holomorphic function at that point), the Laurent series will
only have non-negative powers of (z − z0 ). This is effectively a Taylor series.
• Pole: If the function has a pole of order m at z0 , the Laurent series will have terms
with negative powers of (z − z0 ) down to (z − z0 )−m . For example, if f (z) = (z−1z )2 , the
0
1
Laurent series would be just the single term ( z − z0 )2
.
27
• Essential Singularity: If the function has an essential singularity at z0 , the Laurent
series will have an infinite number of terms with both positive and negative powers. For
example, the function f (z) = e1/(z−z0 ) has an essential singularity at z0 .

Example: Laurent Series for f (z) = z21−1 Consider the function f (z) = z21−1 , which has
singularities at z = ±1. Let’s find the Laurent series for this function centered at z0 = 0.
First, factor the denominator:
1
f (z) =
(z − 1)(z + 1)
We can decompose this into partial fractions:
A B
f (z) = +
z−1 z+1
Solving for A and B:

1 1 1
f (z) = −
2 z−1 z+1
Now, we can expand each fraction as a Laurent series around z0 = 0:
- For z−1 1 , the series is:
∞
1
= − ∑ zn
z−1 n =0
(valid for |z| < 1)
- For z+1 1 , the series is:
∞
1
= ∑ (−1)n zn
z+1 n =0
(valid for |z| < 1)
Thus, we have the Laurent series for f (z) in the region |z| < 1:
∞ ∞
!
1
f (z) = − ∑ zn + ∑ (−1)n zn
2 n =0 n =0

This series represents f (z) in the region around z = 0.

Residue in Complex Analysis

In complex analysis, the residue of a function at an isolated singularity is a complex number

that captures the behavior of the function near that singularity. It is essential for evaluating
complex integrals using the Residue Theorem.
1
Formal Definition The residue of a function f (z) at a point z = z0 is the coefficient of z − z0 in
the Laurent series expansion of f (z) around z0 :

∞
f (z) = ∑ a k ( z − z0 ) k
k =−∞
The residue is given by:
28
Res( f , z0 ) = a−1

Methods to Compute Residues 1. Laurent Series Method: Expand the function into a Laurent
series and extract the coefficient of (z − z0 )−1 .
2. Limit Formula (for simple poles): If f (z) has a simple pole at z = z0 , then:

Res( f , z0 ) = lim (z − z0 ) f (z)

z → z0
3. For higher-order poles (pole of order n):

1 d n −1
Res( f , z0 ) = lim n−1 [(z − z0 )n f (z)]
(n − 1)! z→z0 dz
Residue Theorem If f (z) is analytic in a region except for isolated singularities, and γ is a
simple closed curve enclosing those singularities, then:
I
f (z) dz = 2πi ∑ Res( f , zk )
γ k
This theorem is a powerful tool for evaluating contour integrals in the complex plane.

Example
Evaluate the integral:

z
I
(2.3) I= , dz
|z|=2 (z − 1)(z − 2)
Solution:
The function has simple poles at z = 1 and z = 2. Compute the residues:
For z = 1:

z 1
(2.4) Res( f , 1) = lim(z − 1) = = −1
z →1 (z − 1)(z − 2) 1−2
For z = 2:

z 2
(2.5) Res( f , 2) = lim(z − 2) = =2
z →2 (z − 1)(z − 2) 2−1
Now, apply the Residue Theorem:

(2.6) I = 2πi (Res( f , 1) + Res( f , 2))

(2.7) I = 2πi (−1 + 2) = 2πi

29