HIGHER MATH

Complex Numbers

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Complex Numbers
Any ordered pair of real numbers a, b, written as (a, b) is
called a complex number.
If we write z = (a, b), then a is called the real part of z and
b the imaginary part of z. it is customary to write Re (z) =
a, Im (z) = b, where Re (z) stands for the real part of z and
Im (z) stands for the imaginary part of z.
Equality of complex Numbers: Two complex numbers z1
= (a1, b1) and z2 = (a2, b2) are equal if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2.
Thus, z1 = z2 ⇒ Re (z1) = Re (z2) and Im (z1) = Im (z2).
Algebra of complex numbers: Let z1 = (a1, b1) and z2 = (a2,
b2). Then we have the following definitions of the
addition, subtraction and multiplication of z1 and z2.
I. Addition: z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2, b1 + b2)
II. Subtraction: z1 – z2 = (a1 – a2, b1 – b2)
III. Multiplication: z1 z2 = (a1 a2 - b1b2, a1b2 + a2b1)
It can be easily seen that addition and multiplication
defined above satisfy commutativity, associativity and
distributivity of multiplication over addition.
The symbol i: It is customary to denote the complex
number (0, 1) by i(iota). With this notation,

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i2 = (0, 1) (0, 1) = (0.0 – 1.1, 0.1 + 1.0) = (-1, 0) so that i
may be regarded as the square root of -1.
Using the symbol i, we may write the complex number (a,
b) as a+ ib. For, we have
a + ib = (a,0) + (0,1) (b,0) = (a,0) +(0,b) = (a, b)
Geometrical Representation of a Complex Number
The complex number z = a + ib = (a, b) is represented by a
point P whose coordinates are (a, b) referred to
rectangular axes XOX’ and YOY’, which are called real
and imaginary axes respectively. Thus, a complex
number z is represented by a point P in a plane, and
corresponding to every point in this plane there exists a
complex number. Such a plane is called Argand plane of
Argand diagram or complex plane or Gaussian plane.
Polar Form of a Complex Number
Y
P(a,b)

b
Θ
x’ X
O M

Y’
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If P is a point in the complex plane corresponding to the
complex number z = a + ib = (a, b), then from the figure,
we have
a = r cos θ, b = r sin θ
where r = + a 2  b2  OP.

OP is the complex number z = a+ ib.
The length OP = + a 2  b 2 is called the modulus of z and
is denoted by | z |.
Thus, | z | = a 2  b2  Rez 2  Imz 2
b Imz   Imz  
We have, tan       tan 1  .
a Rez   Rez  

∠MOP = θ is called the amplitude or argument of z and is

written as θ = amp (z) or θ = arg (z). A value of θ
satisfying – π ≤ θ ≤ π is called the principal value of the
argument. It is to mention here that the argument of 0 is
not defined.
Thus, if r is the modulus and θ is the argument of a
complex number z = a + ib, then
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ). (∵ a = r cos θ, b = r sin θ)
This is called the polar form of z or trigonometrical form
of z.

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Multiplicative Inverse of a Complex Number
Let z = a + ib = (a, b) be a complex number. Since 1 + i0 is
the multiplicative identity, therefore
if x + iy is the multiplicative inverse of z = a + ib. Then
(a + ib) (x + iy) = 1 + i 0
⇒ (ax – by) + i (ay + bx) = 1 + i 0
⇒ ax – by = 1
bx + ay = 0
b
if a2 + b2 ≠ 0 i.e. z ≠ 0
a
⇒ x= and y  2
a b
2 2
a  b2
a i b 
Thus, the multiplicative inverse of a + ib is  2 .
a b
2 2
a  b2

or z-1.
1
The multiplicative inverse of z is denoted by
z

Division: The division of a complex number z1 by a non-

zero complex number z2 is defined as the product of z1
by the multiplicative inverse of z2.
z1 1
Thus, z1  z 2   z1 
z2  z2 
If z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2, then

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z1 ÷ z2 =
z1
= (a1 + ib1)  a2 i  b2   a1 a 2  b1b2 a b  a b 
 2 
z2  a  b2  a2  b2  a 2  b2
2 2
 i 2 21 12 2
a 2  b2
 2 2 2 2 

Geometrical Interpretation of Multiplication of a Complex

Number by i
Let z = a + ib be a complex number and let z = r (cos θ + i
sin θ). Then r = | z | and θ = arg (z).
 
We may write i = cos  i sin
2 2
iz

r z

r
π/2
Θ
O X

 
∴ iz =  cos  i sin  r (cos θ + i sin θ)
 2 2

    
 r cos     i sin     
 2  2 

Thus, the vector iz is obtained by rotating the vector z

through one right angle without changing its length.

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Conjugate of a Complex Number
If z = a + ib is a complex number, then a - ib is called the
conjugate of z and is denoted by z.
By definition, if z = (a, b), then z = (a, -b). Thus if (a, b)
represents z, then (a, - b) represents z. Therefore,
conjugate of z is the reflection of z in real axis. If (r, θ) are
polar coordinates of z, then the polar coordinates of z are
(r, - θ) so that we have arg (z) = - arg z 
Properties of Conjugate:

(I) z = z
(II) z = z  z is purely real
(III) z =  z  z is purely imaginary
(IV) z + z = 2 Re (z) Y
(V) z - z = 2 i Im (z) P(z)

(VI) z z = | z |2 r

(VII) z 1  z 2  z 1  z 2 Θ
O x
 
(VIII) z 1 z 2  z 1 z 2
-Θ

r
 z1  z1
(IX)    Q z 
 z2  z2 Y’

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Properties of Argument:
(I) arg (z1 z2) = arg (z1) + arg (z2)
 z1 
(II) arg   = arg (z1) - arg (z2 )
 z2 
Properties of Moduli:
(I) | z | = |z|
(II) | z1 z2| = |z1| |z2|
z1 z1
(III) 
z2 z2

(IV) |z1  z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|

(V) |z1 - z2| ≥ |z1| - |z2|
(VI) |z1 + z2| ≥ |z1| - |z2|
(VII) |z1 + z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 + 2 Re (z1 z2 )
|z1 + z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 + 2 |z1| |z2| cos (θ1 – θ2),
(VIII)|z1 - z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 – 2 Re (z1 z2 )
or
|z1 - z2|2 = |z1|2 + |z2|2 - 2 |z1| |z2| cos (θ1 – θ2)
(IX) |z1 + z2|2 + |z1 – z2|2 = 2 (|z1|2 + |z2|2).

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(X) z1  z 2  z3 = z1 2  z2 2  z3 2 + 2 Re ( z1 z2  z2 z3  z3 z1 ) .
2

De Moivre’s Theorem
It states that
(i) if n is an integer, then
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos n θ + i sin n θ
(ii) If n is a rational number, then cos n θ + i sin n θ is
one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n.
Roots of a Complex Number using De' Moivre’s Theorem
Let z be a complex number, and let z = r (cos θ + i sin θ).
Then for any positive integer n
w = z1/n
= r1/n (cos θ + i sin θ)1/n
= r1/n [cos (2 k  + θ) + i sin (2 k π + θ)]1/n
(∵ sin (2 k π + θ) = sin θ, cos (2 k π + θ) = cos θ)
 2k     2k   
= r1/n cos   i sin   k = 0, 1, 2, ……., (n – 1)
  n   n 

This gives n roots of the equation wn = z.

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Euler’s Formula
ei  = cos θ + i sin θ
e- i = cos θ - i sin θ
Cube Roots of Unity
Let z = 11/3
= 1 (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/3 = (cos 2 r π + i sin 2 r π)1/3, where r
is an integer
2r 2r
= cos  i sin where r = 0, 1, 2
3 3
2 2 4 4
∴ z = 1, cos  i sin , cos  i sin
3 3 3 3

or z = 1,  1  i 3 ,  1  i 3
2 2

Hence, three cube roots of unity are 1,  1  i 3 ,  1  i 3 or

2 2

1,w, w2 where w   1  i 3 .
2

Properties of cube roots of unity:

I. 1 + w + w2 = 0
II. Three cube roots of unity lie on a circle |z| = 1 and
divide it in three equal parts.

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III. Cube roots of unity are in GP.
nth Roots of Unity
Let z = 11/n. Then
⇒ z = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/n (∵ 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0)
⇒ z = (cos 2 r π + i sin 2 r π)1/n
where r ∈ Z (the se of integers)
2r 2r
⇒ z = cos  i sin (Using De' Moivre’s theorem),
n n
where r = 0, 1, 2, ….., (n – 1).
2 r
i
⇒z= e n , where r = 0, 1, 2, ….., (n – 1).
2
i
Let α = e n .
Then nth roots of unity are 1, α, α2, ….., αn – 1.
Properties of nth roots of unity:
I. The n, nth roots of unity are in GP
II. The product of n, nth roots of unity is (-1)n – 1.
III. The n, nth roots of unity lie on a circle |z| = 1.

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