Week 1

Topic 3. Complex Numbers (Zill pp. 820 – 825)

1 Introduction
There is no real number x for which

x2 + 1 = 0

We expand the real numbers, so that it contains a new number i, which satisfies the equation
i2 + 1 = 0.
Definition 1. A complex number is a number in the form of

z = a + bi where a, b ∈ R

Here i is the imaginary unit, and the set of all complex numbers is indicated by C.
For a complex number z = a + bi

Re(z) = a is the real part of z and Im(z) = b is the imaginary part of z

Two complex numbers z, w ∈ C is of course equal if and only if both their real- and imaginary
parts are equal.
We also expand the opeerations of R to C as follows.
Definition 2. For any two complex numbers a + bi and c + di, we define the following operations.

Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

Subtraction: (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i
Multiplication: (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (bc + ad)i
a + bi (a + bi)(c − di) (ac + bd) + (bc − ad)i
Division: = 2 2
=
c + di c +d c2 + d2
where c, d ̸= 0 for division.
Further, wee define the conjugate z of any complex number z = a + bi as

z = a + bi = a − bi

Notice that for any two real numbers a = a + 0i and b = b + 0i, the above operations is the same
as the usual operations on real numbers. Also, notice the special case of i2 = −1

i2 = (0 + 1 · i)(0 + 1 · i) = (0 · 0 − 1 · 1) + (0 · 1 + 1 · 0)i = −1
z z·w
Also notice that we could remember division as follows, for anyz, w ∈ C, w ̸= 0: =
w w·w
These new operations satisfies the following properties.

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Theorem 3. For any three complex numbers u, v, w ∈ C satisfies the following.
Commutative law: u + v = v + u uv = vu
Associative law: u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w u(vw) = (uv)w
Distributive law: u(v + w) = uv + uw (v + w)u = vu + wu
Additive identity and inverse: w + 0 = w = 0 + w w + (−w) = 0 = (−w) + w
w
Multiplicative identity and inverse: w · 1 = w = 1 · w = 1, for w ̸= 0
w
where 0 = 0 + 0i, 1 = 1 + 0i, and −w = −a − bi if w = a + bi.
And the (complex) conjugates satisfies the following.
Theorem 4. For any complex number z = a + bi ∈ C, we have
z · z = z · z = a2 + b2 ∈ R
as well as
zz = 0 ⇐⇒ z = 0 and z = z ⇐⇒ z ∈ R

For any two complex numbers z, w ∈ C, the following identities are valid
z+w =z+w z−w =z−w zw = z · w
z z
= , w ̸= 0
w w
Lastly, which is useful for the solution of more general polynomial equations, is the following result.
Theorem 5. We have
x2 = −1 =⇒ x = i or x = −i
or more generally, for any positive real number a, we have
√ √
x2 = −a =⇒ x = ai or − ai

Here is an example how complex numbers plays a role in solving polynomial equations.
Example 6. Solve for x ∈ C if
x2 + x + 1 = 0

Solution: By completing the square,

1 2 1 2 1 2 3
0 = x2 + x + 1 = x + 1 3

2 − 4 +1= x+ 2 + 4 =⇒ x+ 2 =−
4
And thus
√ √
1 3 3
x+ 2 =± 2 i =⇒ x = − 12 ± 2 i

Alternatively, with the quadratic formula, the solution is

√ √ √
−1± 1−4 −3 3
x= 2 = − 21 ± 2 = − 21 ± 2 i

2
Example 7. Write the following complex numbers in standard form x + iy.
(2 + 3i)2 i
(a) z = i7 (4 − i) − 4i13 (1 + 2i) (b) w =
1 + 2i

Solution:
(2 + 3i)2 i
(a) z = i7 (4 − i) − 4i13 (1 + 2i) (b) w =
1 + 2i
= i4 i3 (4 − i) − 4i12 i(1 + 2i) (2 + 3i)(2 + 3i)i(1 − 2i)
=
= −i(4 − i) − 4i(1 + 2i) 12 + 22
= −4i + i2 − 4i − 8i2 (4 − 9) + 12i (2 + i)
=
= 7 − 8i 1+4
1
Since i4 = 1 en i3 = −i = (−5 + 12i)(2 + i)
5
1 22 19i
= (−10 − 12 + 24i − 5i) = − +
5 5 5

Example 8. Determine Im z 2 − z 2 + Re(2z + 1), where z = x + iy.

Solution:
z 2 − z 2 = (x − iy)(x − iy) − (x + iy)(x + iy)
= x2 − y 2 − 2xyi − x2 − y 2 ) + 2xyi

= x2 − y 2 − 2xyi − x2 + y 2 − 2xyi
= −4xyi
and
2z + 1 = 2(x + iy) + 1 = 2x + 1 + 2yi
Thus
Im z 2 − z 2 + Re(2z + 1) = −4xy + 2x + 1

Remark. Note, Im(a + bi) = b, and not bi! The Im(z) is the coefficient of i without the i.

2 Geometric representation of complex numbers

A complex number z = x + iy is uniquely determined by an ordered pair (x, y), where x = Re(z)
and y = Im(z).

Im
z = x + iy
Seen geometrically, a complex number z = x + iy could
also be a vector with initial point (0, 0) and terminal point
Re (x, y).

3
From the geometric representation of a complex number, we could observe that a complex number
could also be represented by an angle θ, measured anti-clockwise from the x-axis (called the real-
axis), and the length r from the origin.
Relationship between z = x + yi and the “length/angle”
representation:
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
|z |

y
r=

Thus
θ
z = r cos θ + ir sin θ
= r(cos θ + i sin θ)
x

Definition 9. Consider any complex number z ∈ C.

The standard form of z is z = x + yi, where x = Re(z) and y = Im(z). And its cartesian
coordinates is (x, y).
The polar form of z is z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), where r cos θ = Re(z) and r sin θ = Im(z). And
its polar coordinates (r, θ).

The r in the polar form of z is known as the “modulus” of z. There is also a more direct formula
to determine this modulus r.

Definition 10. The modulus of z = x + iy ∈ C, denoted by |z|, is the real number

p √
|z| = |x + yi| = x2 + y 2 = zz

Geometrically, the modulus formula is nothing else but Pythagoras’ formula!

Note: For any z ∈ C, |z| ≥ 0, and |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0.
Theorem 11 (Triangle Inequality). For any z, w ∈ C is |z + w| ≤ |z| + |w|
More generally, for any positive integer n and z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ∈ C, is

|z1 + z2 + . . . + zn | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | + . . . + |zn |

Notice that this triangle inequality is a generalization of the one for real numbers (numbers with
imaginary part 0) and absolute values.
Just as the r in polar form, the θ also has a special name.

Definition 12. An angle θ is an argument of complex number z, if z = |z|(cos θ + i sin θ).

The notation for the general argument is arg(z).

4
The principal argument of z is the unique argument of z which is in the interval − π2 , π2 .

The notation for the principal argument is Arg(z), with a capital ‘A’.

Remark. The (positive) argument is always measured anti-clockwise form the (positive part of)
the real-axis. A negative argument is measured clockwise. Here are a few illustrations:

(1, 1) (−1, 1) 3π
π 4
4
− π4
− 5π
4
(1, −1)

Notice that both 3π 5π 3π

4 and − 4 are arguments of z = −1 + i, as well as, for example, 4 + 2π. But its
principal argument is 3π π π
4 . Likewise 2π − 4 is also an argument of z = 1 − i, but − 4 is its principal
argument.
Example 13. Determine |z + 2z| if z = x + iy.

Solution:
p p
|z + 2z| = |x + iy + 2x − 2yi| = |3x + (−y)i| = (3x)2 + (−y)2 = 9x2 + y 2

Example 14. Write the following complex numbers in polar form.

√
(b) z = sin π7 + i cos π

(a) z = 1 − 3 i 7

Solution:
√ √ √
(a) x = 1; y = − 3 =⇒ r = |z| = 1+3= 4=2

y
√ 5π
tan θ = x =− 3 =⇒ θ = arg(z) = 3
θ
1
Another possibility θ = − π3 ,
which is the principal argument.

√
− 3

√ 5π
5π

Thus, the polar form is 1− 3 i = 2 cos 3 + i sin 3

Polar forms are not unique! It could have also been

√
1 − 3 i = 2 cos − π3 + i sin − π3

5
q
π π π π
sin2

(b) For z = sin 7 + i cos 7 we have |z| = 7 + cos2 7 = 1.

Notice that z is not in polar form! The polar form is r(cos θ + i sin θ), with the cos as real
part an sin as imaginary part.
For the polar form, we rewrite z as follows:
z = sin π7 + i cos π7 = cos π2 − π7 + i sin π2 − π7

= cos 7π−2π + i sin 7π−2π = 1 · cos 5π 5π

14 14 14 + i sin 14

Theorem 15. For two complex numbers z = r(cos α + i sin α) and w = (cos β + i sin β), we
have
z r
z · w = rs cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β) and = cos(α − β) + i sin(α − β)
w s

Proof: We have
zw = rs(cos α + i sin α)(cos β + i sin β)

= rs cos α cos β − sin α sin β + i(sin α cos β + cos α sin β)

= rs cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β)
as well as
r(cos α + i sin α) r (cos α + i sin α)(cos β − i sin β)
=
s(cos β + i sin β) s 1
r
= (cos α + i sin α) cos(−β) + i sin(−β)
s
r
= cos(α − β) + i sin(α − β)
s
In particular, notice that for any z, w ∈ C,
z |z|
|zw| = |z| · |w| and =
w |w|
z
arg(zw) = arg(z) + arg(w) and arg = arg(z) − arg(w)
w

3 Integer powers of z

Theorem 16 (De Moivre’s Formula). For any n ∈ Z and complex number z = r(cos θ +i sin θ),
we have
n
r(cos θ + i sin θ) = rn cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)

Stated differently,
|z n | = |z|n and arg (z n ) = n arg(z)

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Even though we left out the proof, the proof strategy is as follows. First confirm that De Moivre’s
Formula is valid for n = 0. By Mathematical Induction, prove that De Moivre’s Formula is true fol
all natural numbers. After that, prove that theh formula is true for any negative −m, for m ∈ N.
√
Example 17. If z = 1 − 3i and w = 1 + i, determine wz 6 .

Solution: We have
√ √ π
|w| = 1 + 1 = 2 and arg(w) = 4
5π
|z| = 2 and arg(z) = 3 (See Example 14(a))
Now it follows that
√ √
|wz 6 | = |w||z 6 | = |w||z|6 =2 · 26 = 64 2
π π
arg(wz 6 ) = arg(w) + arg(z 6 ) = + 6 arg(z) = + 10π.
4 4
Thus
√
wz 6 = 64 2 cos π4 + 10π + i sin π4 + 10π

√
= 64 2 cos π4 + i sin π4

√
= 64 2 √12 + i √12 = 64 + 64i

Example 18. Determine

√ 2
(2 − 2i) 3 − i 3
z= √ 5
1+i 3

Solution: We have
√ √ −2
|2 − 2i| = 4 + 4 = 2 2 and tan arg(2 − 2i) = = −1
2
=⇒ arg(2 − 2i) = − π4 (forth quadrant)
√ √ √ √ √
3−i 3 = 9+3=2 3 and tan arg 3 − i 3 = −3 3 = − √13
√
=⇒ arg 3 − i 3 = − π6 (fourth quadrant)
√ √ √ √ √
1+i 3 = 1+4=2 and tan arg 1 + i 3 = 13 = 3
√
=⇒ arg 1 + i 3 = π3 (third quadrant)
Thus
arg(z) = − π4 + 2 − π6 − 5 · π3 = − π4 − 2π

√ √ 2 √
2 2· 2 3 3 2
|z| = =
25 4
Consequently
√ √
3 2 π
π
3 2 1 1 3 3
z= cos − 4 − 2π + i sin − 4 − 2π = √ −√ i = − i
4 4 2 2 4 4