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Grammar Notes updated

The document provides a comprehensive overview of punctuation rules, focusing on the use of colons, semicolons, and commas. It includes specific examples for each punctuation mark, detailing their functions in various contexts such as separating items in lists, connecting related sentences, and clarifying meaning. Additionally, the document covers modal verbs, explaining their role in expressing possibility, ability, necessity, and permission.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

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Grammar Notes updated

Uploaded by

Abdul Raheem Sultan

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Colon:

A colon is a piece of punctuation that has a number of functions.

Use a colon after the greeting in a business letter.
 Dear Sir:  To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate hours and minutes.
 They have recess at 10:15.  The plane departs at 14:10.
Use a colon to express a ratio.
 The study revealed that cats outnumbered dogs by 3:1.
Use a colon to separate acts from scenes in a play.
 Act III: Scene 2 is my favourite part of the play.
Use a colon to set off dialogue for a play or other script.
 Principal: Kinza, why were you late this morning?
Kinza: The power went off, so I slept in.
Use a colon o separate a title from a subtitle.
 My new book is called Hot Stuff: One Hundred Ways to Make Chili.
More Complex Usage
Colons can be used after a complete sentence or independent clause to draw attention to specific information that
follows.
Use a colon to introduce items in a long list if the introductory clause can stand by itself.
 I will bring the following: pop, chips, napkins, and plates.
Use a colon to introduce a quotation if the introductory sentence can stand by itself.
 Even the experts seem to agree: “One consistent finding is that more than half the teenagers studied wish they
had more time for sleep.”
Use a colon to introduce an explanation or definition if the introductory clause can stand by itself. The second
clause may be a sentence fragment.
 The dog and cat finally found something in common: enjoying a peaceful sleep in front of a warm fireplace.
The second clause may be a complete sentence.
 The dog and cat finally found something in common: they both enjoy sleeping in front of a warm fireplace.
Use a colon to introduce contrasting statements.
 It was useless to try pleasing him: he criticized everything.
Use a colon to highlight a situation, especially if it seems a bit dramatic.
 Running along the cliff, the hiker knew he had only one chance to escape from the charging beast: jump.

Note: Capitalizing the first word after the colon when a complete sentence follows is optional.

Punctuate each sentence by inserting a colon where appropriate.

1. My brother likes oranges my sister hates them.
2. There is only one reason for this problem he never learned to drive properly.
3. My morning routine looks like this wake up, brush my teeth, and run to school.
4. The car has a number of extras sun roof, tinted windows, heated seats, and wing mirrors.
5. The following creatures are all imaginary vampires, werewolves, zombies, and elves.
6. Her chess advice, I remember, was this “Make sure you plan at least two moves ahead.”
7. My favourite part of Hamlet was Act III Scene 2.
8. We have set a house rule do your homework before watching television.
9. My final answer still stands “No!”
10. I enjoy reading novels by Jane Austen are among my favourites.
Correct the following sentences by inserting or deleting a colon where appropriate.
1. Boys who play “action adventure” and “sport” video games outnumber girls by a ratio of 51.
2. Both of these types of video games share one important factor they contain violence.
3. Dr. Ismail Jaffar is the author of a new study titled Video Games The Beginning of Aggression.
4. His study found an increase in the following behaviours verbal attacks and physical attacks.
5. Dr. Rehman states something important “Playing a violent video game fosters aggressive thoughts.”

Semicolon;
A semicolon introduces a longer pause than a comma. It can be tricky to use correctly, so save it for the following
special situations.
Use a semicolon to connect sentences that are closely related.
The semicolon can connect two complete sentences that are closely related and that are of equal importance. In these
examples, the semicolon is a better choice than the period because the break is not as strong as writing two sentences.
 Some people like ketchup with their fries; others prefer vinegar.
 It hadn’t rained for sixty days; the farmers were desperate for water.
 I am getting cold; I wish that they’d turn up the heat.

Note: Avoid using a semicolon if short joining words, such as and, but, or or, are used between complete sentences.

Use a semicolon to separate a statement from its explanation.

 Be here by three o’clock at the latest; otherwise, we will not wait.
 We suffered many indignities; for example, all of our pockets were turned inside out.
Use a semicolon in place of a coordinate conjunction to show cause and effect.
 The sun was rising; we had to move.
Use a semicolon to separate items in a series.
Like the comma, the semicolon can be used to separate items in a series if the items already contain commas. The
semicolon helps the reader understand where the breaks in the list should be.
 In one afternoon at the beach, the Kids’ Environmental Clean-Up Crew filled ten bags with aluminium cans,
glass, and garbage; cleaned the storm drain; and removed graffiti from the information kiosk.
It can also be used to separate items in a list, especially if the list is headed by a colon.
 The camp counsellor told us what to pack: toothbrush and toothpaste; an extra pair of socks; a bottle of
water; and some kind of protein snack.

Punctuate each sentence inserting a semicolon where appropriate.

1. Cycling is excellent exercise I cycle every day.
2. The air was crisp and clear it was a lovely day.
3. Call me tomorrow I will give you my answer then.
4. I missed the early bus however, I still made it to class on time.
5. I’ve travelled as far away as Paris, France Rome, Italy, Athens, and Greece.
6. I needed only two cards to win I needed the ten of hearts and the jack of diamonds.
7. I ordered the CD six weeks ago therefore, I expected it to arrive by now.
8. A cougar was spotted on the hiking trail we couldn’t go on.
9. The computer performs millions of operations in a split second however, it still breaks down.
10. Three objects lay on the desk: a large book a spiral-bound notepad and a vase containing flowers.

Correct each sentence by either inserting or deleting a semicolon where appropriate. When necessary, replace
the semicolon with correct punctuation.
1. To address the problem of childhood obesity; many schools are prohibiting the sale of junk food.
2. There are two causes of increased obesity; poor eating habits and a lack of exercise.
3. Fatty foods would be banned healthy snacks would be in.
4. Canada doesn’t subsidize school meals however, provinces want to get junk food out of schools.
5. The solution is not just to ban junk food, students must also increase their level of exercise.
Comma,
A comma is a piece of punctuation that has a variety of uses, but its purpose is mainly to keep words and ideas clear.
Use a comma to separate items in dates and places.
July 1, 2023 Saleem Ahmed, Pakistan
Use a comma in the openings of friendly letters and in the closings of all letters.
Dear mother, Yours truly,
Use a comma to separate initials from surnames, and to separate titles from surnames.
Arham, R.O. Saim, M.Sc.
Use a comma between words or groups of words in a series.
 My lunch contained sandwiches, an apple, cake, and one raw carrot.
Use a comma to separate adjectives before a noun.
 Azam bought a shiny, new, red, sports car.
 They looked out on the choppy, grey sea.

Note: If the word “and” can be inserted between ideas, insert a comma.

Use a comma before a coordinate conjunction in a compound sentence.

Commas are used to separate independent clauses (clauses that can stand by themselves) in a compound sentence.
Independent Clause Conjunction Independent Clause
The day felt chilly, but we went to the pool.
The dog licked my hand, and I knew I had to take her home.
Use a comma to set off words that interrupt the main idea of a sentence.
 My boss, for example, donated thousands of dollars to charity last year.
 It may not be my place, however, to say this.
Interrupters
by the way however still incidentally
for example furthermore in fact of course
Use a comma to set off appositives.
An appositive is a word or phrase that adds extra information about the noun that appears before it in a sentence.
Noun Appositive
Aqib, my youngest brother, was born on Eid Day.
The town of Salman, once known as Okara, is in Sindh.
Use a comma to set off non-essential words and phrases.
 Example: My dog, who is five-years old today, can sit, shake a paw, and roll over on command.
Explanation: The clause “who is five-years old today” is extra information and not essential to understanding
the sentence and is, therefore, placed between commas.
 Example: My car accident, which happened on Main Avenue and Third Street, involved a cyclist.
Explanation: The clause “which happened on Main Avenue and Third Street” is also not essential to
understanding the sentence.
 Example: My friend who rides a motorcycle is always trying to get me to ride with him.
Explanation: In this case, the clause “who rides a motorcycle” is essential to understanding the meaning of
the sentence; without it, the identity of the friend would be unclear. Therefore, no commas are placed around
the phrase.
 Example: The book that is on the table is mine.
Explanation: In this sentence “that is on the table” is important because it tells which book is mine. There
might be books in other places, but this sentence is concerned with the book on the table.
Use a comma to set off the name of the person addressed (spoken to).
 I have finished my lesson, Miss Laiba.
 Close the door, Huzaifa, when you leave the room.
Use a comma in quotations.
 “I told you,” said the coach, “to get to bed early the night before a game.”

Circle the correct answer from the choices given.

1. My father was born on _____________ .
a. Monday, January 18th, 1954. b. Monday January 18th, 1954.
2. My father was born in ______________ .
a. Gulshun, Karachi Pakistan b. Gulshun, Karachi, Pakistan
3. Because her alarm was ________________ she missed her class.
a. broken b. broken, c. , broken
4. Today was her sister’s __________ so she took her out for dinner.
a. birthday b. birthday, c. , birthday
5. After class, __________ I went jogging.
a. but, before lunch b. but, before lunch c. but before lunch,
6. Students __________ only harm themselves.
a. who, cheat b. who cheat, c. who cheat
7. Apples __________ grow in my parents’ orchard.
a. which are my favourite fruit, b. which are my favourite fruit
8. The candidate promised to _________________________ and end unemployment.
a. lower taxes protect the environment reduce crime,
b. lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime
c. lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime,
9. In this case ____________ I don’t think you were to blame.
a. , however b. , however,
10. Jason said, ________________ “I never want to see you again.”
a. in a rage, b. in a rage c. in, a rage

Correct the following sentences by either inserting or deleting commas where appropriate.
1. Skateboarding, which my brother is crazy about is a different experience for different people.
2. For some skaters skateboarding is a sport, where skaters perform tricks or ride the ramps.
3. For others however the skateboard is used as a mode of transportation.
4. This is a dangerous way to get around town but, many people do it.
5. Some people, take skateboarding very seriously.
6. For example my brother said “For me, skateboarding is like a religion.”
7. Although I’m not an avid skateboarder I understand what he was saying.
8. When I skate my feelings include joy peace excitement and contentment.
9. My friends have taught encouraged pushed and challenged me to be the best skater I can be.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs (modals) are verbs that add the meaning of logical possibility, ability, necessity, permission to verbs,
which have a degree of strength from stronger to weaker. Modals do not need to match their subject in plural agreement,
so there is no need to add an “s” or “-es” ending to a modal. Modals will often be seen in sentences that are predicting
a future possibility, describing an ability, giving advice, making requests, or asking for permission. The nine most
common modals are can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must.
USE MODAL EXAMPLES
Logical possibility Must (Most Certain) The dark clouds must mean rain today.
Will Due to the news, the stock will go down.
Would The chemical would help the experiment.
Should The case should prevent cracking.
May This change may improve the results.
Can Being careless can have bad consequences.
Could The charm could protect you.
Might (Least Certain) I might be tired tomorrow.
Ability Can (Stronger Ability) He can type 34 words per minute.
Could (Weaker Ability) I could assist by interpreting the results.
Shall (Suggestion) Shall we dance?
Necessity Must (Obligation) They must go to work today.
Should (Advice) You should floss every day.
Permission May (Most Formal) May I turn my paper in tomorrow?
Might Might he have some more soup?
Could Could I buy the new model?
Can (Least Formal) Can I go to my friend’s house?

Logical Possibility
Logical possibility modals add a degree of possibility to an action. “Must” is the strongest modal that implies a
possibility will occur while “could” and “might” imply that the speaker is unsure of the action happening.

Examples:
 The weather report showed a 99% chance of rain, so it must rain.
 You might find an open store after 12:00 AM.

In the first example, the modal is “must.” It is placed before the verb “rain” and indicates that the writer believes there
is a strong possibility of rain. In the second example, the modal is “might.” It is placed before the verb “find” and
indicates that the writer believes there is a low chance the reader will “find an open store after 12:00 AM.”

Ability
Ability modals add a degree to a subject's ability to do an action.

Examples:
 Pigeons have a special ability; they can recognize themselves in mirrors.
 The editor could edit 70 pages in two days.

In the first example, the modal is “can.” It is placed before the verb “recognize” and indicates that the writer knows
that pigeons recognize themselves in mirrors. In the second example, the modal is “could.” It is placed before the verb
“edit” and indicates that the writer knows to a weaker degree that the editor has the ability to edit “70 pages in two
days.”
Necessity
Necessity modals add a degree of recommendation to an action.
Examples:
 The kids must drink water every day.
 My students should do their homework every night.

In the first example, the modal is “must.” It is placed before the verb “drink” and indicates a strong recommendation
that kids drink water every day. In the second example, the modal is “should.” It is placed before the verb “do” and
indicates a weaker recommendation that students do their homework every night.

Permission
Permission modals tend to be used in requests. The strength of the modal will determine how formal a request is by
adding a degree of formality to a question.

Examples:
 May I go to the restroom?
 Can you throw me the ball?

In the first example, the modal is “may.” It is placed before the subject “I” because it is written in the question format
(not as a statement as we’ve seen in previous examples). “May” indicates a strong formality and makes a request to
use the restroom. In the second example, the modal is “can.” It is placed before the subject “you” and indicates a more
casual request for you to throw the ball.

Identify whether the sentence is describing logical possibility, ability, necessity, or permission. Sentences can be
identified as more than one or have multiple uses.
1. You might win the lottery, but the chances are low.
2. Laraib can start a fire in five minutes.
3. Ozil should get braces.
4. Can I move out next week?
5. Naseem could run a mile in 11 minutes.
6. May I get my grade tonight?
7. It could rain tomorrow.
8. I can eat this cotton candy in three seconds.
9. Yaseen should catch his flight tomorrow if he arrives at the airport early.
10. They must complete their parts of the assignment, or we will fail.

Fill in the blank with a modal based on the use and degree of strength.
1. Logical Possibility, Most Certain
The restaurant __________ have digital menus on the tables.
2. Logical Possibility, Least Certain
The bus __________ be on time today.
3. Necessity, Advice
Everyone __________ brush their teeth every day.
4. Permission, Most formal
__________ Sara and I go to the dean’s office?
5. Ability, Stronger
We __________ write so quickly.
6. Permission, Somewhat formal
Farhan, __________ I have another sweet pie after dinner?
7. Ability, Stronger or Somewhat Certain
I __________ finish my finish my writing test in one hour.
8. Logical Possibility, Less Certain
It __________ snow in Muree if the weather keeps changing.
9. Necessity, Obligation
You __________ not text while you drive!
10. Logical Possibility, Somewhat Certain
The kids __________ have cleaned the house before we get home.

Do As Directed:
1. Identify the modal verb in "She must be on her way."
2. Rewrite "It is necessary to complete the assignment by Friday" using "must."
3. Complete the sentence "You ___ try this new recipe."
4. Rewrite "He is able to speak three languages" using "can."
5. Transform "He could swim as a child" into a sentence about present ability.
6. Choose a modal verb for "___ I take this seat, please."
7. Express obligation in "People are required to wear seatbelts" using "must."
8. Write a sentence using "might" to indicate possibility.
9. Compare "should" and "must" with examples for advice and obligation.
10. Transform "It is possible that she will join us" using "may."
11. Replace "Can you help me with this" with a modal verb expressing politeness.
12. Express past permission in "You were allowed to leave early" using "could."
13. Rewrite "It is important to study daily" using "should."
14. Complete "He ___ be at work, but I am not sure" with a modal verb.
15. Write a dialogue using "can" for ability and "should" for advice.
16. Create a sentence showing necessity with "have to."
17. Rewrite "It is likely to snow tomorrow" using "might."
18. Express permission in "You are allowed to use my laptop" using "may."
19. Indicate past ability in "She was able to solve puzzles quickly" using "could."
20. Write five sentences showing the uses of "can," "must," and "should."

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The type of modal verb in "You must memorize these rules":
A) Ability B) Obligation C) Permission D) Possibility
2. The modal verb for permission in "Could I use your phone":
A) Could B) Should C) Must D) Have to
3. The function of "should" in "You should exercise daily":
A) Obligation B) Ability C) Advice D) Possibility
4. "Might" as the modal verb in "I might go to the party":
A) Possibility B) Advice C) Obligation D) Permission
5. The modal verb used for ability in "She can solve complex problems":
A) Must B) Should C) Can D) May
6. "You have to follow these rules" as an expression of:
A) Possibility B) Obligation C) Advice D) Permission
7. "It may rain later" as an indication of:
A) Obligation B) Advice C) Possibility D) Ability
8. The modal verb in "You must finish your homework":
A) Obligation B) Advice C) Ability D) Permission
9. "Could" in "He could swim as a child" as an example of:
A) Present ability B) Past ability C) Permission D) Advice
10. The function of "might" in "It might rain tomorrow":
A) Advice B) Possibility C) Permission D) Obligation
11. "Should" in "You should call your doctor soon" as an example of:
A) Advice B) Obligation C) Permission D) Possibility
12. The type of modal verb in "Can I use your pen?":
A) Ability B) Permission C) Obligation D) Advice
13. "Must" in "You must wear a helmet" as an expression of:
A) Possibility B) Obligation C) Advice D) Permission
14. "Might" in "She might attend the event" as an indication of:
A) Possibility B) Advice C) Obligation D) Ability
15. The modal verb for advice in "You should sleep early":
A) Should B) Must C) Could D) May
16. "Could" in "Could I borrow your book?" as an example of:
A) Permission B) Advice C) Obligation D) Possibility
17. The obligation expressed in "You have to complete this task":
A) Necessity B) Advice C) Permission D) Possibility
18. "Can" in "He can lift 50 kilograms" as an expression of:
A) Ability B) Possibility C) Obligation D) Advice
19. The advice indicated in "You should revise the lesson":
A) Advice B) Obligation C) Possibility D) Permission
20. "May" in "You may leave the room now" as an example of:
A) Permission B) Advice C) Obligation D) Ability

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A verb is a doing word. It tells us what the noun is doing. Most verbs express an action, that is, they tell us what a
person or a thing is doing.
Examples:
 The gardener is sweeping away the leaves.  My friend will come later.
 The leaves fell from the trees.

Some verbs express a condition or possession, that is, they tell us in what state a person or a thing is.
Examples:
 She is a teacher.  I have been surfing the Internet.
 Those men are guilty.  I have a headache.

Verbs can be further classified into transitive and intransitive verbs.

Transitive verbs have or need an object to make complete sense.

Examples:
 She broke the window.
(Here, the verb ‘broke’ needs the object ‘window’ to make complete sense.)
 She is going to the market.
 They will be arriving tomorrow.

Intransitive verbs do not need an object to make complete sense.

Examples:
 She reads.
(Here, the verb ‘reads’ does not require any object to make complete sense.)
 Father was sleeping.
 We will work.
Underline the verbs in the following sentences. Say whether they are transitive (T) or intransitive (I). In case of
transitive verbs, circle the objects.
1. The Ganga flows into the Bay of Bengal. 8. He laughed loudly.
2. The sun rose. 9. I coughed.
3. Your hands are dirty. 10. The cat will lick up all the milk.
4. She is reading her mail. 11. The glass fell.
5. Both my parents are chartered accountants. 12. My cat ran.
6. This child is happy. 13. I am sure about the answer.
7. I slept. 14. We worked the entire day
Fill in the blanks with appropriate objects for the verbs, in the following sentences.
1. My brother has polished his ____________ .
2. I brought ____________ for my sister.
3. The boy threw a ____________ at the window.
4. Frustrated with the official’s call, Ethan kicked the ____________ .
5. The student guessed the ____________ correctly.
6. My brother is good both at ____________ and ________ .
7. There is ____________ on the last lay of the term.
8. Books are ____________ .
9. We staged ____________ on our Parents’ Day.
10. Mother helped him ____________ .

Underline the direct object and circle the indirect object in each sentence.
1. Rihanna sang a ballad for the loyal fans.
2. President Arif Alvi delivered a moving speech to the crowds of children.
3. Laeeq gave a book to each child.
4. Please chop the onions for the stew.

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs are verbs whose past and past participle are not formed by adding –ed or –d to the present. The five
sections of this chart show different patterns used to form the past and past participles of many irregular verbs.
Group 1: The forms of the present, past, and past Group 3: The past participle is formed by adding -n or
participle are the same -en to the past
Present Past Past Participle Present Past Past Participle
burst burst (have) burst break broke (have) broken
cost cost (have) cost choose chose (have) chosen
hurt hurt (have) hurt freeze froze (have) frozen
let let (have) let lie lay (have) lain
put put (have) put speak spoke (have) spoken
set set (have) set wear wore (have) worn
Group 4: The past participle is formed from the present,
shut shut (have) shut
often adding -n, -en, or -ne
Group 2: The forms of past and past participle are the
Present Past Past Participle
same
do did (have) done
Present Past Past Participle eat ate (have) eaten
bring brought (has) brought fall fell (have) fallen
catch caught (has) caught give gave (have) given
get got (has) got go went (have) gone
lead led (has) led know knew (have) known
sit sat (has) sat run ran (have) run
see saw (have) seen
throw threw (have) thrown
Group 5: The last vowel changes from i in the present to a in the past, to u in the past participle
Present Past Past Participle
begin began (have) begun
drink drank (have) drunk
ring rang (have) rung
sing sang (have) sung
sink sank (have) sunk
swim swam (have) swum

Underline the correct verb form of the two in parentheses.

1. The judges have (chose, chosen) the finalists.
2. Our mayor has not (broke, broken) any promises.
3. Everyone (drank, drunk) milk with the sandwiches.
4. Soccer fans (began, begun) to fill the stands an hour before the game.
5. Have you (brung, brought) your application with you?
6. We (did, done) an experiment showing the effects of global warming.
7. Rabbits (ate, eaten) most of the lettuce in our garden.
8. I haven’t (gave, given) my poetry reading yet.
9. My summer vacation certainly (went, gone) quickly.
10. Very few people (knew, known) about the secret room.
11. Grapes have (grew, grown) in this valley for years.
12. The last of the marathon entrants has (run, ran) past the finish line.

Decide which form is needed: the present participle, the past, or the past participle of each verb given in
parentheses. Write the correct form on the line.
EXAMPLE The squirrels have (steal) the birdfeed. stolen
1. Ammar (choose) her library books yesterday. ________________
2. My favorite jeans have (begin) to wear out. ________________
3. Someone (break) that valuable Chinese vase. ________________
4. Why didn’t you (bring) your skateboard? ________________
5. The cattle have (eat) the corn and oats. ________________
6. Patty has (do) twice as much research as Ron. ________________
7. No, I have never (drink) coconut milk. ________________
8. Another spacecraft (go) into orbit around the moon. ________________
9. My father has (give) me a new pair of skates. ________________
10. My hair (grow) two inches during the vacation. ________________

Decide which form of the verb given in parentheses is needed. Write the correct form on the line. Identify the
form you used by writing Present, Past, or PP for past participle.
EXAMPLE The horse (spring) into action at Roy’s call. sprang, Past
1. Currently, the police (know) of no motive for the crime. ________________
2. Have you (speak) to anyone about your vacation plans? ________________
3. Who (see) your solar calculator last? ________________
4. The senior choir has (sing) a medley of show tunes. ________________
5. Our lawn mower (run) out of gas before I finished the lawn. ________________
6. Who could have (steal) such a heavy statue? ________________
7. I have (write) several poems for the school newspaper. ________________
8. The team (swim) warm-up laps before the meet. ________________
9. Who has (take) the schedule off the bulletin board? ________________
10. The skittish pony (throw) everyone who tries to ride it. ________________
Draw a line through each incorrect verb form in this paragraph. Draw this proofreading symbol ^ next to the
error and, in the spaces between lines of type, write the correct form of the verb.
EXAMPLE In the past, Dad has went gone ice fishing with my uncle.
Last weekend I went ice-fishing for the first time with my dad and nearly freezed to death. I weared two pairs of wool
socks, but needed about four. For six hours, we sitted in this little hut and fished through a hole in the ice, but the fish
weren't biting. After a while, I begun to get hungry. When I told my dad, he opened a can of cold sardines, and we eat
them with some stale crackers.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person. An antecedent is the noun or pronoun that a
pronoun refers to or replaces.

Agreement in Number
If the antecedent is singular, use a singular pronoun. If it is plural, use a plural pronoun.
 Because this dollhouse is almost 300 years old, it is historically important.
 The furnishings are noticeably different from their modern counterparts.

Compound Subjects – A plural pronoun is used to refer to nouns or pronouns joined by and.
 The tiny chest and dresser still have their original hardware.

A pronoun that refers to nouns or pronouns joined by or or nor should agree with the noun or pronoun
nearest to it.
 Neither the astronauts nor NASA neglected its duties.
 Neither NASA nor the astronauts neglected their duties.

With Collective Nouns – A collective noun such as class, crew, team, audience, or family may be referred to by
either a singular or a plural pronoun, depending upon the meaning of the noun in the sentence.
A pronoun that refers to a collective noun should be singular if the collective noun names a group acting as a unit.
 The family that owns the house loaned its treasure to the library.
(singular - The family is acting as a single unit)

A pronoun that refers to a collective noun should be plural if the collective noun names the members or parts
of a group acting individually.
 The family wanted their friends to see the house.
(plural - The family members are acting individually)

Gender and Person – The gender of the pronoun – masculine (he, his, him), feminine (she, her, hers) or neuter (it,
its) – must be the same as the gender of its antecedent. The person (first, second, third) of the pronoun also must agree
with the person of its antecedent.
 You would be proud to see your work appreciated by future generations.
 Any artist would like his or her creation to last for hundreds of years.
 An astronaut conducts his or her experiments during the flight.

Tip: You can often avoid the awkward “he or she” construction by making both the pronoun and its antecedent plural.
Notice that you may also need to change the verb to a plural form.

 Artists would like their creation to last for hundreds of years.

 Astronauts conduct their experiments during the flight.

Identifying Pronouns and Their Antecedents

Directions: In each sentence underline once the personal pronoun and underline twice its antecedent.
1. As a child, Aunt Sultana often played with her dollhouse.
2. In the 1500s, dollhouse owners used the dollhouses to show off their wealth.
3. The dollhouses were made to imitate their owners’ homes.
4. In one place, a rich woman could show visitors how beautifully her whole house was decorated.
5. The man of the house could give guests an idea of treasures he kept in storage.
6. These houses were not small; some of them were six feet high.
7. Indian merchants made their dollhouses much smaller.

Directions: Circle the pronoun that correctly completes each sentence. Also, underline the antecedent(s) of the
pronoun.
1. When the team scored a touchdown, the crowd threw (its, their) hats in the air.
2. Neither Tahir nor his sisters have bought a gift for (her, their) brother.
3. Scuba divers are taught that (you, they) should check (your, their) equipment.
4. Saleem and Suleman will present (his, their) routine before the other gymnasts do.
5. Not one hiker would set out without (his or her, their) compass.
6. Either Danish or Mohsin will bring (her, their) ice skates.
7. Anyone who wants a job should bring (his or her, their) application to me.
8. The town council will be presenting (its, their) own proposal for the new park.
9. Farhan always liked walking home because (you, she) saved money on bus fare.
10. Neither Kinza nor Aisha has had (her, their) vacation pictures developed yet.

Directions: Read the following paragraph. Look especially for errors in agreement between pronouns and
their antecedents. When you find a pronoun error, cross out the incorrect pronoun and write the correct one
above it. There will not be a mistake in every sentence.
(1) Kinza has always liked dollhouses, and she got an idea for a business from their hobby. (2) Now she and her brothers
make dollhouses for sale. (3) Neither she nor her brothers give all of her time to the business. (4) Still, the team makes
all its spending money from their sales. (5) Kinza’s older and assembles the pieces. (6) He chooses the plywood, cuts
it to scale, and assembles the pieces. (7) Her younger brother, Mohsin, paints the houses inside and out, giving it details
like doors, windows, and shutters. (8) While Muneeb and Mohsin do his jobs, Kinza buys miniature furniture. (9) Then
she sews curtains, rugs, tablecloths, and bedspreads to make each house special. (10) From October until mid-
December, the crew takes turns selling its products at craft sales.

Indefinite Pronouns as Antecedents

When an indefinite pronoun is the antecedent of a personal pronoun, the personal pronoun must agree in number with
the indefinite pronoun. This chart shows the number of some common indefinite pronouns.
Indefinite Pronouns
Always Singular Always Plural Singular or Plural
Another each everything one both all none
Anybody either neither few any some
somebody
Anyone everybody nobody many most
someone
Anything everyone no one several
Use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun. The phrase “his or her” is considered a singular
pronoun.
 Each of the cars has its sponsor’s name painted on it. (singular)
Use a plural pronoun to refer to a plural indefinite pronoun.
 Many of the cars are in their first race. (plural)
Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural. Use the meaning of the sentence to determine whether the
indefinite pronoun is singular or plural.
 Some of the equipment was still packed in its containers. (singular)
 Some of the race teams were still looking for their equipment. (plural)

Directions: In each sentence, circle the correct pronoun. Also underline its antecedent. If its antecedent is a
pronoun that can be either singular or plural, underline twice the word that indicates its number in the sentence.
1. Everyone must bring (his or her, their) own instrument to the music class.
2. Last spring one of the baby robins fell and broke (its, their) wings.
3. All of the mineral water has lost (its, their) sparkle.
4. Nobody appreciates (his or her, their) own good health until illness strikes.
5. None of the books are in (its, their) proper position on the shelves.
6. Each of the boys enjoyed (his, their) trip to the Art Institute.
7. Both of the girls had to take medication for (her, their) allergies.
8. One of the brochures has a photograph of Barcelona on (its, their) cover.
9. Few of the members on the girls’ team had arranged (her, their) own transportation.
10. Everything in the jewelry case has (its, their) own price tag.
11. None of the new dimes have been removed from (its, their) wrappers.
12. Either of those girls may be invited to display (her, their) paintings at the fair.
13. Neither of those dogs ever learned to obey (its, their) master.
14. During the violent thunderstorm, most of the county lost (its, their) electricity.
15. All but one of the alligators that escaped from the zoo found (its, their) way back safely.
16. Each of the boys on the team is wearing (his, their) new uniform.
17. Many have expressed (his or her, their) support for our plan.
18. Neither of the women has told me (her, their) opinion.
19. Everyone in the gardens planted (his or her, their) tomatoes just before the unexpected frost.
20. None of the women skaters has taken (her, their) turn on the ice yet.
21. Most of the bus drivers had completed (his or her, their) routes by midnight.
22. Some of the flowers have lost (its, their) fragrance.
23. Several of the men insist that (his, their) votes were not counted.

Active and Passive Voice

Active versus Passive Voice
When we talk about active versus passive voice, we’re really talking about how the verb is used in a sentence.
 An active verb style leaves no doubt about who did what. The subject performs the action that the verb
describes.
 A passive verb style can leave the reader wondering who did what. The subject is the recipient of the action
that the verb describes.

Identify and circle Active Voice or Passive Voice.

1. My mom read the novel in one day. Active Passive
2. I will clean the house every Sunday. Active Passive
3. A safety video will be watched by the staff every year. Active Passive
4. Larry is donating money to the food bank. Active Passive
5. Baby kangaroos are carried in their mother's pouch. Active Passive
6. The presentation was created by my friend. Active Passive
7. We used to be driven to school when we were younger. Active Passive

Introduction to Active and Passive Voice

 Active Voice:
o In an active voice sentence, the subject performs the action indicated by the verb.
o Example: The chef (subject) prepares (verb) a gourmet meal (object).
o Why use it? Active voice is clear, direct, and engaging, making it a preferred choice in most writing.

 Passive Voice:
o In passive voice, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence, and
the focus shifts to the action or the recipient.
o Example: A gourmet meal (new subject) is prepared (auxiliary + past participle) by the chef (doer,
optional).
o Why use it? Passive voice is useful when the action or the recipient of the action is more important
than the performer.

2. Detailed Structure of Active and Passive Voice

A. Active Voice Structure:
 General Format:
o Subject + Main Verb + Object + (optional additional information)
 Component Breakdown:
o Subject: The doer of the action (e.g., The student).
o Main Verb: The action being performed (e.g., completed).
o Object: The receiver of the action (e.g., the assignment).
 Example:
o The student (subject) completed (verb) the assignment (object).

B. Passive Voice Structure:

 General Format:
o New Subject (former object) + Auxiliary Verb (be) + Past Participle of Main Verb + (optional
“by” + Original Subject) + (optional additional information)
 Component Breakdown:
o New Subject: The original object of the active sentence becomes the subject (e.g., The assignment).
o Auxiliary Verb (be): Conjugated according to the tense (e.g., is, was, has been).
o Past Participle of Main Verb: The base verb in past participle form (e.g., completed).
o Optional Agent: The original subject, introduced with "by" (e.g., by the student).
 Example:
o The assignment (new subject) was completed (auxiliary + past participle) by the student (agent).

3. Detailed Explanation of Auxiliary Verb Forms

The auxiliary verb “be” changes form according to the tense:
Tense Active Voice Example Auxiliary Form Passive Voice Example
Present Simple She writes the report. is/am/are The report is written by her.
Past Simple He cooked the dinner. was/were The dinner was cooked by him.
Present They are building the bridge. is/am/are + being The bridge is being built by them.
Continuous
Past Continuous She was mending the dress. was/were + The dress was being mended by her.
being
Present Perfect He has finished the project. has/have + been The project has been finished by him.
Past Perfect We had completed the survey. had + been The survey had been completed by us.
Future Simple She will announce the results. will + be The results will be announced by her.
Future Perfect They will have published the will have + been The book will have been published by
book. them.

4. BY OR WITH?
In the passive voice, we use:
1. by with the agent to refer to by whom the action is being done.
 The door was opened by Mr. Rashid. (Mr. Rashid = agent)
2. with to refer to the instrument, object or material that was used for something to be done.
 The door was opened with a key. (a key = the object that was used)
 The omelet was made with eggs, cheese and peppers. (eggs, cheese and peppers = the material that was used)

5. DOUBLE OBJECT VERBS

When we have verbs that take two objects like, for example, give somebody something, we can convert the active
sentence into a passive one in two ways:
1. By making the indirect (animate) object the subject of the passive voice sentence, which is also the way that we
usually prefer.
2. By making the direct (inanimate) object the subject of the passive voice.

 Rahil gave me (indirect object) this book (direct object).

 I was given this book by Rahil
 This book was given to me by Rahil.

Some of the verbs that take two objects are: give, tell, send, show, bring, write, offer, pay, etc.

When the indirect object is alone after the verb in the passive voice sentence, it needs the preposition to.
If the indirect object of the active voice sentence is a personal pronoun it has to be changed into a subject pronoun to
be the subject of the passive voice sentence.

6. Comprehensive Modals in Passive Voice

Structure of Modals in Passive:
 Active Voice: Subject + Modal + Base Verb + Object
 Passive Voice: Object + Modal + Be + Past Participle + (by + Subject)
Examples:
 Active: The committee must approve the budget.
 Passive: The budget must be approved by the committee.
 Active: The students can solve the problems.
 Passive: The problems can be solved by the students.

7. Forming Passive Sentences with Complex Phrases

Phrases with "Has to," "Have to," "Had to," etc.
These phrases express obligation or necessity and are commonly transformed into passive voice by adding "be."
Phrase Active Voice Example Passive Voice Example
Has to The teacher has to check the assignments. The assignments have to be checked by the teacher.
Have to We have to clean the auditorium. The auditorium has to be cleaned by us.
Had to The workers had to repair the road. The road had to be repaired by the workers.
Will have to She will have to update the records. The records will have to be updated by her.

8. Additional Details on Modals

Modals and their usage in passive sentences:
 Can/Could:
o Active: The engineers can design the system.
o Passive: The system can be designed by the engineers.
 Must:
o Active: The student must submit the essay.
o Passive: The essay must be submitted by the student.
 Should/Ought to:
o Active: The nurse should monitor the patient.
o Passive: The patient should be monitored by the nurse.
 May/Might:
o Active: He may deliver the speech.
o Passive: The speech may be delivered by him.
 Will/Would:
o Active: The president will sign the bill.
o Passive: The bill will be signed by the president.

9. Practice Exercises for Mastery

Exercise 1: Rewrite the Following Sentences in Passive Voice
1. The chef must prepare the dishes. Expected Answers:
2. The team can finish the task by tomorrow. 1. The dishes must be prepared by the chef.
3. She will have to complete the analysis. 2. The task can be finished by the team by tomorrow.
3. The analysis will have to be completed by her.

Exercise 2: Identify the Voice and Change Accordingly

1. The car was being repaired by the mechanic.
2. They will have completed the project by next week.
3. The professor may have graded the tests already.

Expected Answers:
1. Passive; Active: The mechanic was repairing the car.
2. Active; Passive: The project will have been completed by them by next week.
3. Active; Passive: The tests may have been graded by the professor already.

Complete the sentences with the correct passive form of the verbs in brackets. Use the Present Simple.
a. English ____________________ (speak) in many countries.
b. The post ______________________ (deliver) at about 7 o’clock every morning.
c. ______________________________ (the building/use) any more?
d. How often ______________________________ (the Olympic Games(hold)?
e. How _______________________ (your name/spell)?
f. My salary _____________________ (pay) every month.
g. These cars _________________________ (not make) in Japan.
h. The name of the people who committed the crime _____________________ (not know).
i. His travel expenses ________________________ (not pay) by his company.

Complete the sentences with the correct passive form of the verbs in brackets. Use the Past Simple.
a. My car ______________________ (repair) last week.
b. This song ________________________ (not write) by Sajjad Ali.
c. ________________________________ (the phone/answer) by a young girl?
d. The film ________________________ (make) ten years ago.
e. When ______________________________ (tennis/invent)?
f. The car ________________________ (not damaged) in the accident.
g. The original building _________________________ (pull) down in 1965.
h. Where ______________________________ (this pot/make)?
i. When _______________________________ (this bridge/build)?

Change the following sentences into passive sentences using the words in brackets.
a. We sell tickets for all shows at the Box Office. (Tickets for all shows/sell/at the Box Office)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. Thomas Edison invented the electric light bulb. (The electric light bulb/invent/by Thomas Edison)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

c. Someone painted the office last week. (The office/paint/last week)

Rewrite these sentences in the passive voice.

a. Someone built this house 200 years ago.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. A thief stole my purse.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. The police will arrest the robbers.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. They produce cars in this factory.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. They serve breakfast at eight o’clock every day.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
f. People throw away tones of rubbish every day.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. They make coffee in Brazil.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

h. Someone stole Rahil’s bike late night.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

Rewrite these sentences in the passive voice.

a. They will build a new bridge next year.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. Brian Brody directed The Ultimate Space Adventure.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. HSY will design her costume.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. Someone found my wallet.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

e. One of the students broke the window.

Form the question.

a. Paper is made from wood. Is paper made from wood?
b. The telephone was invented by Mr. Basit.
________________________________________________________________?
c. This picture was painted by Luqman.
________________________________________________________________?
d. The thieves will be arrested by the police.
________________________________________________________________?
e. Coca seed is grown in Nigeria.
________________________________________________________________?
f. The letters will be sent next week.
________________________________________________________________?
g. The animals are fed three times a day.
________________________________________________________________?
h. This article was written by Saqib.
________________________________________________________________?
i. The Qawali was organised by Saeed.
________________________________________________________________?

Read and complete. Use Past Simple.

a. The toothbrush / invent / in the 15th century.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. The first public basketball game / play / in 1892.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. The first eyeglasses / wear / in the 1200s.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. The first bicycle / ride in 1791.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. The first hot dog / eat / in the 1860s.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
f. The first CDs / sell / in the 1980s.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. The first electric guitar / play / in 1923.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
h. The first computer mouse / use / 1964.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

Complete with the passive. Use Present Simple.

a. This programme _______________________ (watch) by millions of people.
b. Paper __________________________ (make) from wood.
c. Hundreds of people _______________________ (kill) in accidents every year.
d. London __________________________ (visit) by thousands of tourists every year.
e. The biology class _________________________ (teach) by Mr. Riaz.
f. English _____________________ (speak) all over the world.
g. Lunch _____________________ (serve) at twelve o’clock.
h. Books _____________________ (write) by authors.

Put the verbs in brackets into Past Simple Passive.

Two men _________________________ (see) breaking into a house in my street last night. The police
_____________________ (call) and they arrived very quickly. One man _____________________ (catch)
immediately. The other escaped, but he ______________________ (find) very soon. Both men
_____________________ (take) to the police station where they _________________________ (question) separately
by a police officer. The two men ________________________ (charge) with burglary.

Turn from Active to Passive in two ways.

a. He gave me a present.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. The waiter will bring us the bill.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. Her mother bought Maria some sweets.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. Basil has sold Tehseen a second-hand car.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. Luqman is going to send a letter to Tahir.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

Turn from Active to Passive.

a. Someone is helping her with the housework.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. The mail-order company sent Mrs. Shams a parcel.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

c. My friend sent me an invitation.

l. They pay her an excellent salary.

Rewrite these sentences in the passive voice.

1. They sell Biryani in the shop.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
2. They haven’t delivered the food yet.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
3. Shakespeare wrote King Lear.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
4. They have to answer the questions on this sheet.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

5. Has anybody put the cases upstairs?

______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
6. Someone should take this rubbish away.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
7. They’ll ask you a lot of questions.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
8. Someone’s going to send her some flowers.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
9. They didn’t pay me much for that job.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
10. Have they offered him a better job?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
11. They told us a secret.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
12. Would they lend me their car?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
13. People should send their complaints to the head office.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
14. They had to postpone the meeting because of illness.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
15. They are going to hold next year’s congress in San Francisco.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
16. The bill includes service.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
17. People don’t use this road very often.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
18. They cancelled all the flights because of fog.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
19. Somebody accused me of stealing the money.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
20. They are building a new ring-road round the city.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
21. I didn’t realize that someone was recording our conversation.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

22. They have changed the date of the meeting.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
23. Basil told me that somebody had attacked and robbed him in the street.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
24. You should open the wine about three hours before you use it.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
25. Somebody had cleaned my shoes and brushed my suit.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
26. We use this room only on special occasions.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
27. In some districts farmers use wild dogs to find truffles.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
28. Jasim gave Elsa that beautiful ring.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
29. They have offered Sarah a very good job.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
30. The estate agent showed the house to the young people.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
31. We will pay the gardener a lot of money.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
32. Someone is going to repair the roof next week.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
33. They can’t find Jasim.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
34. They should decorate the room with flowers.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
35. Archaeologists have discovered an ancient temple.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
36. We will put all these things into boxes.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
37. The firefighters rescued the teenagers from the burning building.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

38. The youngest student in the class has written the best composition.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
39. The children send me messages every day.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
40. The villagers gave the travellers food and water.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
41. A very talented young girl wrote the story.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
42. They are going to finish the new road in a few days.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
43. They cancelled the match because of the rain.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
44. You must not cross this line.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
45. They had picked the oranges before the storm.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
46. Professor Iftekhar should write the book.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
47. Mr. Eilahi will pay the workers.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
48. Two men were following Tehseen.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
49. Millions of people use the Internet every day.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
50. They gave him an iPhone for his birthday.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
51. The prime minister will give a medal to the winners.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
52. She is telling the children a story.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
53. They’ve offered Saim a job.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

54. Poisonous chemicals have polluted the river.

Just like comparative adjectives, the object of comparison can sometimes be left out.
Example Sentence
 We took an exam in class today, and I scored the highest. (“in the class” is implied)
Creating Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Changing an adjective into its comparative or superlative form depends on the number of syllables in the base form
of the adjective (e.g., small, tall, big).
One-Syllable Adjectives
The suffix -er will be added for comparative adjectives and -est for superlative adjectives. When the adjective has a
single vowel between two consonants (consonant + single vowel + consonant), the second consonant will be doubled.
Example of a Comparative Adjective with a Single Vowel between Two Consonants
Adjective: hot
h (consonant) + o (single vowel) + t (second consonant)
Comparative form: hotter
h (consonant) + o (single vowel) + tt (doubled second consonant) + er (comparative suffix)
In a sentence: The temperature is hotter today than yesterday.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
fast faster fastest
cheap cheaper cheapest
fresh fresher freshest
big bigger biggest
sad sadder saddest
Two-Syllable Adjectives
For comparative adjectives, the suffix -er will be added, or it will be preceded by more. For superlative adjectives, the
suffix -est will be added, or it will be preceded by most. Occasionally, both forms are used, but one will be more
common. When in doubt, use more or most instead of a suffix. For adjectives ending in y, the y will become an i, and
the appropriate suffix will be added.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
gentle gentler gentlest
clumsy clumsier clumsiest
happy happier happiest
anxious more anxious most anxious
polite more polite most polite
Three Syllables or More
Comparative adjectives will be preceded by more, and superlative adjectives will be preceded by most.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
important more important most important
attractive more attractive most attractive
embarrassed more embarrassed most embarrassed

Irregular adjectives
Adjectives are irregular when their comparative and superlative forms do not adhere to the rules discussed in this
handout. The chart below displays some examples of irregular adjectives.
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much more most
far farther/further farthest/furthest
Exceptions
Adjectives are exceptions to the rules discussed in this handout when they simply do not have a comparative or
superlative form. Some examples include blind, unique, vertical, wrong, left, intelligent, complete, perfect, etc.

Directions: Complete the sentences with the correct comparative or superlative adjective based on the adjective
provided in parentheses.
1. The Burj Khalifa building in Dubai is the ________ (tall) building in the world.
2. Labradors are ________ (big) than Chihuahuas.
3. We built rockets in physics class today. Mine flew the ________ (high).
4. My necklace is ________ (expensive) than my bracelet.
5. I got a C on my essay, which is ________ (bad) than the 100% I got last time.
6. Homework is ________ (important) than watching television.
7. Watching television makes me ________ (happy) than doing homework.
8. To save money, I am searching for the ________ (cheap) textbooks.
9. My grandmother’s chocolate chip cookies are the ________ (good).
10. Driving on a dirt road is ________ (bumpy) than driving on asphalt.

Directions: Each of the following sentences has an error in the use of comparative or superlative adjectives.
Identify the error and correct it.
1. My bed is more big than my desk.
2. Usain Bolt can run fast than me.
3. You are most generous than my brother.
4. Of all our luggage, mine is the heavier.
5. Statue of liberty is the more realistic statue I have ever seen.
6. The weather during the summer is the most hot than during the winter.
7. Frank Ocean is the goodest musician of the decade.
8. The Earth is closest to the moon than the sun.
9. You should always turn in your work because some points are best than no points.
10. The Writing Center is the greater resource for writing help on campus!

Position of Adverbs
Adverbs should come as near as possible to the verbs they qualify. This is because the meaning of a sentence can
change with the change in the position of the adverb.

Rule 1
When the verb is intransitive (verbs that do not have objects), place the adverb immediately after it.
 He walked slowly. She smiled beautifully.

Rule 2
When the verb is transitive with an object following, place the adverb immediately after the object.
 She endured the pain bravely. He offered his help willingly.

Rule 3
Adverbs of Time and Frequency normally come before the verb. Examples are: always, before, often, never, seldom
etc.
 They seldom visit us. She never admitted her fault.

Rule 4
Note that when the verb consists of an auxiliary, the adverb goes after it.
 They have never invited us to their parties. He was greatly praised for his novel idea.
Rule 5
An adverb which modifies an adjective or another adverb comes before it.
 She is very beautiful. (Here the adverb very modifies the adjective beautiful.) The girl sang so sweetly. (Here
the adverb so modifies the adverb sweetly.)
Rule 6
The words only, merely, even, not and never are usually placed before the words they modify.
 I merely wanted to know his name. She was not clever enough to see through his scheme. He never keeps his
word.

Adverbs are generally placed at three (3) different places in a sentence these are:
a. In the beginning of a sentence.
Example:
 Suddenly, the dog barked at the stranger.

b. In the middle of a sentence.

i. Next to the main verb.
Examples:
 They completely forgot about their appointment with the chairman.
 He recovered slowly from his illness.

ii. After first helping verb

Examples:
 He has occasionally been absent from the school.
 We have often been called by them.

iii. Used after helping verb (when a sentence has a single helping verb) but before the main verb.
Examples:
 She is always late for everything.
 They are seldomly complaining about things.

iv. After a modal verb but before a main verb

Examples:
We could definitely predict the result based on his performance.
The machine might not properly handle the weight after this repair.

v. Between a modal verb and a helping verb

Examples:
 We could certainly have used our car if we had it.
 They would surely have got themselves used to the situation by now.

vi. When Be verb (helping verb) is emphasized, the adverb comes before the Be verb
Examples:
 I never was a supporter of their policies.
 They always had opportunities, but they their actions were wrong.

vii. When an adverb is used in a question statement, the adverb is used between the subject and the main verb.
Examples:
 Did you ever think of going there?
 Why does he frequently lie about his achievements?
c. At the end of the sentence.
Example:
 He has been working well.
 He is driving very fast.
 It is very warm here.

d. Adverbs are never placed between a verb and the object.

Examples:
 We play often handball.
 I ate quickly my food.
 They are writing slowly a letter.

From adjective to adverb:

• adj. +ly: quickly.
• adj. ended in consonant + y: > -ily Sleepily.
• adj. ended in –ic: -ally Tragically.
• adj. ended in –le: drop –e and add –y: agreeable > agreeably.
• adj. ended in –e: +ly. falsely. Exceptions: wholly and truly.
• adj. ended in –ly: adverb with ...manner / way. in a lively manner.

Adjectives and adverbs with the same form: best, better, big, cheap, clean, clear, close, cold, daily, dead, deep,
direct, dirty, early, easy, far, fast, free, further, hard, high, hourly, inside, kindly, last, late, long, low, monthly,
right, slow, straight, sure, thick, tight, weekly, well, wide, wrong, yearly...

Adverbs that can either keep the adjective form or add –ly: cheap, clean, clear, close, dear, fine, quick, quiet, thin.

Adverb Category Example Words Example Sentences

time yesterday, today, tonight, She will come tomorrow.
tomorrow, now, nowadays, Suddenly, I heard a noise.
presently, then, suddenly…
frequency never, ever, occasionally, I often think about you.
sometimes, often, usually, She is always late.
generally, always…
manner slowly, quickly, kindly, nicely, He sleeps quietly.
sadly, happily, quietly… I asked nicely.
place here, there, inside, outside, Come here!
everywhere… I will be there.
quantity/degree very, enough, so, too, We were very satisfied.
extremely, completely… It is extremely interesting.
connection however, therefore, However, the second one was not as popular.
consequently, anyway, Anyway, let’s do it!
nevertheless, accordingly…
probability/opinion maybe, perhaps, possibly, This could possibly happen.
surely, certainly, honestly, Personally, I would not buy this product.
personally…

Table of placement of adverbs

Adverb Position Example
Manner They usually go in end position. She ate quickly.
They sometimes go in mid position if the adverb is not the She quickly ate her dinner and ran out.
most important part of the clause or if the object is very
long.
Place They usually go in end position. Can you come over here?
They sometimes go in front position, especially in We’ll be at that table there.
writing. Here she sat.
Outside, there was a small pond.

Time They usually go in end position. I’m flying to Edinburgh tomorrow.

They sometimes go in front position especially if we want Today, I’m going to clean the house.
to emphasize the adverb.
Duration They usually go in end position. I’m not staying long.
(Time)
Frequency They usually go in mid position. We often have friends to stay.
They sometimes go in front position. I usually get up late on weekends.
They can also go in end position. I could never swim fast.
Always, ever and never do not usually go in front Sometimes she wore a woolen hat.
position. We don’t see them very often.
Degree Really, very, quite usually go in mid position. I really like those pink flowers.
A lot and a bit usually go in end position. We go to Ireland a lot.
I would just like to change things a bit.
Focusing They usually go in mid position. He simply walked out without saying a
word.
Certainty Some go in mid position: probably, possibly, certainly. It will probably rain.
Or Others go in front position: maybe, perhaps or in end Maybe Nick will know the answer.
Obligation positions after a comma. Can I get you a drink, or something to
eat, perhaps?
Are the underlined words adjectives or adverbs?
1) My shoes are too tight. _______________.
2) I buy Think in English monthly, but Jasim subscribes to it on a yearly basis. _______________.
3) I couldn’t get the glass from the shelf because it was too high. _______________.
4) The teacher always arrives late. _______________.
5) The late director was fantastic. _______________.

Underline the adjective or the adverb to complete each sentence.

Example: My friend is a _____ driver. [ careful / carefully ]
1. My classmate is a _____ person. [ nice / nicely ]
2. I can speak Spanish very _____. [ good / well ]
3. Katrina took a painting class, so she can paint _____ pictures. [ beautiful / beautifully ]
4. Mr. Smith looked _____ at me when I arrived late. [ angry / angrily ]
5. Of course, I was _____ when I got an A+ on the exam. [ happy / happily ]
6. The music is too _____. Please turn it down! [ loud / loudly ]
7. My friends all tell me that I sing _____. [ bad / badly ]
8. The thief _____ took the money and walked out the door. [ quiet / quietly ]
9. The cat waited _____ for the mouse to come out of the hole. [ silent / silently ]
10. My cousin always walks very _____. [ quick / quickly ]
11. The work that my boss gave me was _____. [ easy / easily ]
12. Thomas is very _____. He always helps me. [ kind / kindly ]
13. The little boy _____ kept the cookie for himself. [ selfish / selfishly ]
14. The man _____ opened the door and looked inside. [ nervous / nervously ]
15. The fireman _____ rescued the people from the burning house. [ brave / bravely ]

Adverbs and adjectives

1.- ….. to the beach on Mondays. c) I never go d) Never go I
a) I go never b) Never I go 2.- Don’t worry about Asim; … on time
a) he’s always b) he always is c) I have stayed never d) Never I have stayed
c) always he is d) always is
3.- Asim’s daughter …. been late for school. 15.- Gaudiest … in the mountains.
a) has never b) never has a) picturesquely sits b) sits picturesquely
c) she’s never d) she never is c) sits picturesque d) picturesque sits
4.- The tourists …. on Saturday. 16.- I … visit my aunt in Lahore.
a) arrive often b) often arrive a) hardly never b) ever hardly
c) are often arrived d) often are arrived c) never hardly d) hardly ever
5.- The ……. the names of the tourists. 17.- I … too glad to see Peter come.
a) remembers never b) can never remember a) only was b) was only
c) never remember d) never can remember c) only be d) be only
6.- … surprised to hear the anecdote. 18.- That guide explains the route very …
a) Both they were b) they both were a) best b) good
c) They were both d) Both of they were c) goodly d) well
7.- The guide … to work by bus. 19.- … been to Glasgow?
a) always goes b) goes always a) have you never b) you have never
c) he always goes d) he goes always c) have you ever d) have ever you
8.- My guidebook has disappeared.… stolen. 20.- Which one is correct?
a) It has probable been a) I like very much Chinese food.
b) Probably it has been b) I like Chinese food very much
c) It has probably been c) Very much I like Chinese food.
d) It probably has been d) I very much like Chinese food.
9.- Have you … eaten snails? 21.- … Faris today.
a) neverb) sometimes a) I’ve seen alsob) I also have seen
c) sometime d) ever c) I have also seen d) I too have seen.
10.- Have you ever … London? 22.- I … chosen the route for the excursion.
a) stayed b) gone to a) ‘ve careful b) ‘ve carefully
c) been to d) been in c) careful have d) carefully have
11.- The boat went … as it could. 23.- Rooms are cleaned …
a) as fast b) fastly a) daily b) all days
c) fastest d) faster c) every days d) all correct
12.- … the names. 24.- The hotel … near the beach.
a) I ordered carefully b) I carefully ordered a) conveniently is located
c) Carefully I ordered d)I order careful b) is located conveniently
13.- Do … as a guide? c) conveniently is located
a) always you work b) always work you d) is conveniently located
c) you always work d) you work always
14.- … more than 3 hours at the beach.
a) I never have stayed b) I‘ve never stayed

Read the sentences given below and underline the adverbs.

1. The boy is too careless. 9. I did my homework already.
2. The winds are very strong. 10. I was rather busy.
3. The baby slept soundly. 11. Is your mother within?
4. The soldiers fought the war valiantly. 12. We looked for the lost puppy everywhere.
5. Joey always tries his best. 13. We do not know her.
6. Surely you are mistaken. 14. How long is the trip?
7. The movie is to end soon. 15. Maria seldom visits here
8. Your friend messaged again.

Use the Right Adverbs

Fill in the blanks by choosing the most appropriate adverb from the table.
Out quickly Forward pretty too
Before often Once somewhat so

1. Riyan ran to her mother ____. 6. The naughty boy is ___ annoying.
2. The scores are ____. 7. My aunt comes to visit us ___.
3. We have met ____. 8. My grandpa is ____ better today.
4. I know him ____ well. 9. I met a magician ___.
5. The baby is ___ sleepy. 10. Ambition urges us ___.

Identify the Type of Adverb

Go through the given sentences and identify the type of adverb used in each sentence.
1. The boy practised his speech regularly. 9. He solved the problem quickly.
2. The phone kept ringing constantly. 10. I have heard enough.
3. The people have gone out. 11. The boy often makes the same mistake.
4. I have heard this story before. 12. Why are you still here?
5. Are you quite sure? 13. I could hardly recognise him.
6. You are driving too carelessly. 14. The little kid is too shy to sing.
7. I always try my best. 15. The horse galloped away.
8. You are quite right.

Adverbs. Rewrite the following sentences in the correct order.

1. Often I this hotel stayed have in
2. Never has hotel this so been crowded
3. Very room executive the like much I
4. Beautifully designed this complex got gardens has
5. The party was welcomed yesterday
Sentence Types and Functions
What Is a Sentence?
A sentence is a complete set of words that conveys meaning. A sentence can communicate
 a statement (I am studying.)
 a command (Go away.)
 an exclamation (I’m so excited!)
 a question (What time is it?)
A sentence is composed of one or more clauses. A clause contains a subject and verb.
Independent and Dependent Clauses
There are two types of clauses: independent clauses and dependent clauses. A sentence contains at least one
independent clause and may contain one or more dependent clauses.
An independent clause (or main clause)
 is a complete thought.
 can stand by itself.
A dependent clause (or subordinate clause)
 is an incomplete thought.
 cannot stand by itself.
Dependent clause can be identified by the subordinating conjunction. A subordinating conjunction creates
a dependent clause that relies on the rest of the sentence for meaning. The following list provides some
examples of subordinating conjunctions.
 as  while  even  after
 before  unless though  until
 if  although  since  whereas
 though  because  when

Independent and Dependent Clauses

 Independent clause: When I go to the movies, I usually buy popcorn.
 Dependent clause: When I go to the movies, I usually buy popcorn.
 Independent clause: I don’t like the ocean because sharks scare me.
 Dependent clause: I don’t like the ocean because sharks scare me.

What Are the Different Types of Sentences?

Sentences are divided into four categories: simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and
compound-complex sentences.
Simple Sentences
Definition A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
Examples  Junaid rode his bike to school.
 Who is your best friend?
 She ate her lunch, took a walk, and went back to work.
Compound Sentences
Definition A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. A
coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) often links
the two independent clauses and is preceded by a comma.
Examples  She wanted to go on vacation, so she saved up her money.
 I like apples, but my sister loves oranges.
 Tahir loves to read, and he also loves to hike.
Complex sentence
Definition A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. A complex sentence will include at least one
subordinating conjunction.
Examples  She went to class even though she was sick.
 As Junaid was arriving to work, he realized he forgot his lunch.
 While I enjoy classical music, I prefer rock and roll because I
play the drums.

Directions: Identify the sentence type. Circle any coordinating or subordinating conjunctions.
Underline independent clauses once and dependent clauses twice. Then, explain what function the
sentence is performing.
1. Harry Potter was rejected from many publishers before J.K. Rowling found success.
Sentence type:
____________________________________________________________________________________.
2. Even though the patients showed various symptoms, the clinical study found that lack of sleep contributes
to the inability to focus, irritability, and poorer health.
Sentence type:
____________________________________________________________________________________.
3. More and more students are relying on online databases to find sources.
Sentence type:
____________________________________________________________________________________.
4. The business analysts proposed higher numbers for next quarter, and they expect to exceed those numbers
the following quarter.
Sentence type:
____________________________________________________________________________________.
5. Homeless teens face intense obstacles, but when it comes to schooling, they do have the chance to receive
an education if they enroll in a special program.
Sentence type:
____________________________________________________________________________________.

Prepositions: The Basics

A preposition is a word or group of words used to link nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a
sentence. Some examples of prepositions are single words like in, at, on, of, to, by and with or phrases such
as in front of, next to, instead of.

Prepositions in English are most frequently dictated by fixed expressions. While there are some general
guidelines to follow, many prepositions are used idiomatically with certain verbs. In these cases, it is best
to memorize the phrase instead of the individual preposition.

A Few Rules for Usage

Although there are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition, most commonly prepositions
define relationships between nouns and locate words, actions or ideas in a particular time or place. To
remember the role of prepositions, notice that ''position'' appears in the word ''preposition''!
The following tables contain rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
Preposition of Time:
English Usage Example
in  months/seasons  in August/in the summer
 years  in 1985
 time of day  in the evening
 centuries and historical periods  in the 19th century
 after a certain period of time  Hyderi Market closes in two hours.

at  time of days  at 2:30

 noon, night, and midnight  at night
 names of mealtime  at breakfast
 age  I learned how to use a computer at 12.
on  days of the week  on Friday
since  from a period of time up to the  I have been a student since 2004.
present (when it started)
for  how long a period of time has been  I have been a student here for 2 years.
from...to...  the beginning and end of a period of  My appointment is from 13:30 to 14:00.
time
until  a period of time up to a specific point  I cannot go dancing until I finish reading this
in time chapter.
by  in the sense of ''at the latest''  You must return your book by April 21st.
 due date  My essay is due by the end of the week.
Prepositions – Place (Location and Direction)
English Usage Example
in  when something is in a place, it is  in class/in Victoria
inside it (enclosed within limits)  in the book
 in the car/in a taxi
 You look serious in this photo.
at  located at a specific place (a point)  at the library
 for events  at a concert/at a party
 place where you are to do  at the cinema/at school/at work
something typical (watch a movie,
study, work)
on  being on a surface (not enclosed)  I left the keys on the table.
 for a certain side (left, right)  Go down this hall to the end, turn right, and
 for a floor in a building it's the third door on your left.
 for public transport  My apartment is on the fourth floor.
 for television, radio  I forgot my phone on the bus.
 You can hear my brother on the radio.
to  moving toward a specific place (the  Every morning, I take the bus to campus.
goal or end point of movement)
from  for the origin or starting point  I used carrots from my garden.
 I received a suspicious email from my bank.
 I will be on vacation from July 31 for a week.
towards  movement in direction of something  I suddenly saw a dog running towards me.
across  movement from one side to another  There is a coffee shop across the street.
 I swam across the lake.
through  movement from one side to another  I entered the room through an open window.
but ''in something''  You have to go through the kitchen to get to
the bathroom.
between  a place ''in the middle'' of two or  I was standing between my friend and his
more separate people or things parents.
 The gap between the rich and poor keeps
growing.
among  a place ''surrounded'' by more than  France is among the countries of Western
two people or things together as a Europe.
group (in the sense of ''included  Among the advantages of exercising
in'') regularly are lower risks of depression and a
better quality of life.

Prepositions – Connections
English Usage Example
of  between two noun phrases to show  The keyboard of my computer is pink.
that the first belongs to or is part  Rahil is the son of Adnan/He is a good friend
of the second of mine.
 to say how people are related
with  Between two noun phrases when  I spilled coffee on the computer with a pink
the second is a particular feature keyboard.
of the first  I think Sarah is studying with Tara/I went to a
 to say that people or things are workshop with my friend.
together  My roommate killed a spider with a book.
 for the specific thing used to
perform an action

by  when we want to describe an  My roommate saved my live by killing the

action in a more general way spider.
Prepositions in Academic Writing
Here are the prepositions most frequently used in academic writing, with some explanations for their use:
English Usage Example
about  For topics (in the sense of ''with regard  She was the author of many books about the history
to/concerned with'') of ancient Egypt.
for  with a purpose/giving a reason  The concept of class is important for understanding
(associated with an action; shortened how society works.
form of ''for the purpose of'')  Theories about strategies for linking nouns and
verbs
from  the origin, cause or agent of something  The meaning is often hard to guess from the
individual words.
in  inclusion, location or position within a  You can see this in works by contemporary authors.
time period or limits
on  the basis for something  Many engineers proceed on the assumption that the
digital age is unique.
of  belonging to, relating to, or connected  The results of the investigation are still relevant.
with  The root of the problem is the absence of any
 describe a relation/causation evidence supporting our thesis.
 the origin, cause, motive or reason of  Henderson discovered that the king died of
something poisoning by analyzing blood samples.
by  describe a direct cause or agent  According to folklore, he was killed by
strangulation by the Mad King when he protested
the new tax.
with  connected to something and near  Respondents were asked to indicate levels of
something agreement with statements regarding immigration.
 using something
 It is difficult to infer any definitive conclusion with
the available data.
between  marking a connection  In this study, they investigated the relationship
between education, diet and health.
Using Articles with Prepositions
Many writers hesitate when using articles (a, an, the) and prepositions. They must decide if they are using the
preposition to demonstrate a specific noun. When using a preposition and a noun, a writer often needs an article. (An
adjective or pronoun can also be inserted after the preposition.)
 Ex. The athlete threw the ball to me. Ex. The pianist composed a song for the symphony.
This informal rule also applies to plural nouns.
 Ex. The dog happily played with the boys. Ex. The pilot soared above the clouds.

Ending a Sentence with a Preposition

When composing formal documents, such as academic essays, writers should avoid ending sentences with a
preposition. The rule also applies to questions ending in propositions. Admittedly, this rule changes depending on the
formality of the piece being written, but for essays and most materials used in classes, writers should avoid ending a
sentence with a preposition whenever possible. Yet, remember to watch out for awkward sentences when avoiding the
error as well.

 Ex. Incorrect Sentence: The party is where I want to be at. (Ending a sentence with a preposition)
 Ex. Repaired Sentence: I want to be at the party.

 Ex. Incorrect Question: Who are you going to the party with? (Ending a question with a preposition)
 Ex. Repaired Sentence: With whom are you going to the party?

 Ex. Incorrect Sentence: I saw the swimming pool that I wanted to jump into. (Ending with a preposition)
 Ex. Incorrect Sentence: I saw the swimming pool into which I wanted to jump. (Correct but Awkward)
 Ex. Repaired Sentence: I saw the swimming pool and wanted to jump into it.

Unneeded Prepositions
Watch out for unnecessary use of prepositions. Often, writers only need to use one preposition at a time. Frequently,
multiple prepositions can be eliminated by relying on a single preposition or by rewording the sentence.

 Incorrect Sentence: The girl is identical to with the actress on Broadway. (To and With create redundancy)
 Repaired Sentence: The girl is identical to the actress on Broadway.

 Incorrect Sentence: I don’t think you should go out with her. (Out and With are informal)
 Repaired Sentence: I don’t think you should date her.

Prepositions: Definitions and Examples

Below are a list of basic definitions and examples for when and how to use each preposition.
About: Shows approximation; describes a topic of discussion. Above: Illustrates an object in relation to another object. The first item is
Ex. The cord should be about three inches long. represented over the second object.
Ex. We talked about Susie for an hour. Ex. The picture hangs above the television.
Ex. The shelf sits above the door.
Across: Demonstrates distance between objects. Often useful After: Suggests the passage of time and prior events. Establishes
when giving directions. cause/effect relationships; demonstrates the position of one object behind
Ex. He could not get across the chasm. another object.
Ex. Do you see the building across the street? Ex. After the movie, I read an exciting book.
Ex. After he failed to appear, I left.
Against: Shows a lack of distance between objects. Reveals a Along: Illustrates one object following another. Often used in place of
negative reaction to a situation or person. with or beside.
Ex. Push the chair against the wall. Ex. We left the yard, and the dog followed along.
Ex. He was against the plan already. Ex. If you behave, we will take you along (with us).
Alongside: Shows one object next to another, usually in close Amidst: Describes a noun’s location between two other nouns; refers to
proximity. the middle of an event or occurrence, often used in place of middle.
Ex. The police cruiser pulled alongside my car. Ex. The trophy lay amidst the messy clothes.
Ex. The gerbil ran alongside the chair. Ex. Amidst the meeting, she called.
Among: Describes the closeness of objects, usually used with Around: Illustrates movement that bypasses without harming an object.
groups; indicates fellowship. When used figuratively, implies dodging an area of concern or worry.
Ex. The dog sat among the tulips. Ex. I crashed my bike when I did not go around the tree.
Ex. He felt welcomed sitting among the students. Ex. I must find a way around my financial problems.
At: Demonstrates specific location. When describing future Behind: Shows an object’s location in relation to another. The first object
locations or goals, often used in place of toward. precedes the second one. When used figuratively, implies procrastination
Ex. I am at home. or delay.
Ex. I am aiming at having a degree in five years. Ex. The magazine fell behind the couch.
Ex. I am behind on my project (because I was sick).
Below: Reveals an object’s location underneath another object. Beneath: Suggests the location of one object below another object; often
When used figuratively, indicates substandard performance. used in place of under.
Ex. Many organisms live below the water’s surface. Ex. The cat raced under the table after his toy mouse
Ex. The test scores were below average.
Beside: Shows one object’s position next to or alongside Besides: Illustrates extra information. Often used in place of in addition.
another object. Ex. Besides snacks, he brought music for the party.
Ex. The trashcan sits beside the desk.
Between: Reveals the location of one object in the middle of Beyond: Indicates extended distance between objects; shows an object
two others. as out of reach.
Ex. Put the tomato between the lettuce and the meat. Ex. Her house lies beyond the shopping center.
Ex. The shelf is too high. It is beyond my reach.
By: Demonstrates responsibility of passive actions; illustrates Concerning: Suggests a degree of action. Often used in place of about.
how to complete an action; indicates authorship. Ex. The letter is concerning your meeting with Charles.
Ex. The riddle was solved by me. Ex. If reading magazines concerning cars, check that you have a
Ex. Cut the rope by using the three-inch blade. reputable source.
Ex. The book is by Sharon Shinn.
Down: Indicates a direction beneath or away from a central During: Shows action taking place in the midst of a particular event;
position. When used figuratively, suggests a drop in value or indicates a specific moment in time.
price. Ex. During the argument, the cat innocently meowed.
Ex. The store is down the street from her house. Ex. We shall discuss it during lunch.
Ex. After the rumors, the stock market finished down.
For: Reveals intended ownership; shows causal relationships. From: Demonstrates prior ownership; reveals causal relationships.
Ex. Is that gift for me? Ex. The gift is from all of us.
Ex. This step is crucial for our plan to succeed. Ex. She learned French from the language tapes.
In: Suggests motion moving toward and inside an object; Inside: Describes a location within another place. Also, indicates
indicates a moment of time; marks a specific location. motion toward a specific location.
Ex. Place the cereal in the cupboard. Ex. The key lies inside the decorative box.
Ex. In the future, cars will run on less gasoline. Ex. We will go inside the museum at 2:00.
Ex. I found my book in the den.
Into: Demonstrates motion moving between objects. Near: Reveals the proximity of one object to another; also suggests that
Figuratively, suggests inner workings of problems. a desire is within reach.
Ex. Everyone needs to move into the museum. Ex. The creamer is near the sugar.
Ex. We need to delve into his psyche. Ex. He is near his goal of graduating.
Of: Shows the relation of one object to another; suggests Off: Suggests a change in location. Idiomatically, recommends
kinship; indicates possession. avoidance of a subject or person.
Ex. I am aware of your plans. Ex. The cat fell off of the chair.
Ex. She is from the Kansas part of the Ross family. Ex. Get off the subject already.
Ex. This is the book of the girl.
On: Shows location at a specific place, usually atop something. Onto: Reveals movement from one location to the top of another locale.
Idiomatically, indicates preciseness. Ex. The cat jumped onto the chair again.
Ex. Set the book on the table.
Ex. Your numbers are dead on!
Out: Illustrates movement when exiting a location; indicates a Outside: Demonstrates the relationship between objects separated by a
lack of resources. wall or partition. Implies a distance between objects or ideas.
Ex. She needed to get out of the building. Ex. The cat watched the dogs play outside.
Ex. He realized that he was out of paper. Ex. Your paper is outside the assignment parameters.
Over: Indicates the location of one object above another one. Regarding: Shows a degree of concern; used in place of about or
Ex. The papers fell over the coins. concerning.
Ex. Send me an email regarding those books.
Through: Illustrates motion that moves inside of an object. Throughout: Suggests permeation of an object or idea; implies a
Idiomatically, indicates finality. duration.
Ex. The train raced through the tunnel. Ex. The rumors spread throughout the school.
Ex. I’m glad that project is through! Ex. Throughout the project, track your eating habits.
To: Indicates changes in possession or location. Toward: Demonstrates motion coming near an object.
Ex. I returned the book to the shelf. Ex. The ball flew toward my head by mistake.
Under: Shows an object’s location below another one. Underneath: Describes the location of an object under another one.
Figuratively, implies a lack of something. Ex. The cat remained underneath the bed.
Ex. The ball rolled under the table.
Ex. The numbers are under the CEO’s expectations.
Up: Indicates movement of one object over another. Upon: Demonstrates location, (archaic) used in place of on; denotes a
Ex. The car raced up the hill. temporal occurrence.
Ex. The car sat upon the hill.
Ex. Upon finishing the book, loan it to Rasheeda.
With: Implies a method of action; suggests association. Within: Illustrates an object’s position inside of another.
Ex. She quickly recorded the number with her pen. Ex. The project fits within the assignment boundaries.
Ex. He left with Mike and Rachel, not Chris.
Without: Shows the importance of a crucial yet lacking object;
figuratively, applies to people as well as objects.
Ex. We cannot make the cake without flour.
Ex. I cannot finish the project without her.
PREPOSITION EXERCISES
Draw a circle around the correct preposition in parentheses in the exercises below:
Place or Position or Direction
1. Do you live (at, on) sharah e Faisal (in, on) Karachi?
2. I hung the picture (above, on) the fireplace.
3. She walked (in, into) the kitchen and put her packages (on, over) the table.
4. Is Jasmine (at, in) home? No, she is (on, at) the library.
5. Maria is sitting (in, on) the sofa (at, in) the living room.
6. Michigan is situated (in, between) Lake Michigan and Lake Huron.
7. While waiting for my train, I took a walk (around, across) the station.
8. A formation of twelve airplanes flew (over, on top of) our house.
9. The artist spends many hours (in, on) his studio (on, at) 50 Charles Street.
10. Junaid found a note pinned (in, on) his door which said: “Meet me (at, in) the corner of Sakhi Hassan Road.
11. The Siddiqui family lives (at, on) Third Street (in, on) Nazimabad, Karachi.
12. Don’t forget to put your return address (in, on) the envelope.
13. He sat (near, against) the camp fire.
14. Mr. Rehan, who is (from, of) Ireland, is staying (at, to) his sister’s home in Lahore.
15. Someone has spilled ink (in, on) this rug and has burned a hole (in, on) that one.
16. The door was locked; so I shoved the letter (under, around) the door.
17. He piled the books (above, on top of) the table.
18. He arrived (in, at) Switzerland last week.
19. You are ahead of me. Your name is (above, at the top of) the list.
20. Your score on the examination is well (above, over) average.
Time
1. Does the movie begin (at, on) 6:30? No, it will not begin (until, for) 9:00; so do not arrive (before, by) that time.
2. He asked me to come (at, in) noon.
3. We will go to Florida (since, during) the month of January.
4. The stores stay open (on, in) Mondays (until, for) 9:00p.m.
5. Maria has been in the United States (for, during) a year.
6. Javaid has lived in France (for, since) two years.
7. I read (for, during) three hours, (at, from) 9:00p.m. (until, by) 12:00.
8. Did you meet Mr. Rasheed (at, during) your stay in Islamabad?
9. No, I did not see him because I was there (for, during) only two hours.
10. The train is (on, in) time. It will arrive (in, by) three hours.
11. Is your birthday (in, on) April? Mine is (in, on) April 7.
12. Come (by, on) 8:00 if you can; no one will be seated at the theater (after, since) 8:30.
13. I try to get to school (in, on) time to have a cup of coffee before my first class.
14. He will leave for Thailand (at, in) the end of August. There will be a farewell party for him (in, on) the twentieth
of August.
15. Columbus discovered America (in, on) 1492.
16. The projector broke down twice (for, during) the showing of the film.
17. He had been waiting here (during, since) noon.
18. I received my bill (to, in) the middle of the month.
19. Can you be ready (by, on) six o’clock?
20. We plan to finish this project (around, until) the first of the year.
Miscellaneous
1. We accept your kind invitation (by, with) pleasure.
2. I should like to read that book (by, of) Ernest Hemingway.
3. These oranges are sold (of, by) the dozen.
4. The door (of, at) the house is painted red.
5. He says he can communicate (by, of) mental telepathy.
6. Always sign important papers (by, in) ink.
7. Would you rather write (by, with) a pen or pencil?
8. Over one-third (of, in) the oranges are spoiled.
9. The first speech will be given (by, of) Mr. Steele.
10. Do you like to travel (by, in) bus?
11. He toured the country (in, by) a station wagon.
12. How would you like to go (by, with) us (by, in) our car?
13. This dish tastes (like, as) pasta.
14. This cake is (for, to) lunch.
15. We always buy olive oil (of, by) the gallon.
16. The sound (of, by) rain lulls me to sleep.
17. It looks (like, as) a nice day.
18. It will take four yards (of, by) material to make this dress.
19. He always speaks (in, by) a loud voice.
20. Sami took a temporary job (as, like) a salesman.
Use of Indirect speech
Indirect speech is used to report the speech of another or someone else. There are two ways of reporting speech.
 Direct speech
 Indirect speech
Direct speech
What the person actually says is known as direct speech. In other words when we say exactly what someone has said
is called direct speech. In short, we quote speaker’s actual words. So, it is also called quoted speech.
For example
 Sahil said “I am a very clever boy.”
Indirect speech
When we report someone else’s speech without quotation or exact words, it is called indirect speech. Here we report
what speaker says without quoting his exact words.
For example
 Sahil said that he was a very clever boy.
In short reported speech gives the remarks of the speaker as reported by someone else.
There are four kinds of direct speech:
(a) Statement (b) Question (c) Command (d) Exclamation

Pattern of reporting statements

 Person + reporting verb + statement (Direct)
 Person + reporting verb + conjunction + statement (Indirect)
 Sania said, “I read Othello yesterday.” (Direct)
 Sania said that she had read Othello the previous day. (Indirect)

The following sentence pattern is less commonly used in indirect speech

1. Statement + person +reporting verb
Example: “I read Othello yesterday.” Sania said
2. Statement +reporting verb + person
Example: “I read Othello yesterday.” said Sania

Rules of changing direct into indirect speech

General rules:
1. Firstly comma (,) and the quotation marks (“…”) are removed.
2. Reporting verb is changed.
3. Conjunction is used according to different kinds of sentence i.e., assertive, interrogative etc.
4. Pronoun is changed according to speaker and hearer.
5. Verb is changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses (Tenses are changed)
6. Words expressing nearness are changed into words expressing distance.

Removal of comma and the quotation marks:

 Direct: Hira said, “I am very busy now.”
 Indirect: Hira said that she was very busy then.

Change in reporting verb according to kinds of sentence.

Reporting verb Assertive Interrogative Imperative Exclamatory &
wishes
Indirect forms of reporting verbs
Said/said to/: Direct Indirect asked, requested, Exclaimed,
said said inquired, ordered, warned, Prayed, blessed,
said to told Demanded etc. commanded, Wished,
say say (Note: asked is implored, Bade,
says says generally used suggested, applauded,
Say to tell here.) forbade, confessed,
Says to tells threatened etc
Use of conjunction
Generally, conjunction is used after reporting verb or hearer.
Interrogative Imperative Exclamatory
If/whether to (use in positive sentence) that
‘No conjunction with ‘wh’ not to (use in negative sentence)
interrogative words as ‘wh’ words
function as conjunctions’
Change in pronoun
Pronoun is changed according to gender of speaker and hearer. The pronouns of the direct speech are changed into
the third person in the indirect speech.
Pronouns of the first person are changed according to speaker:
First person singular (I)
Speaker Nominative(I) Possessive Accusative(me) Possessive
adjective(my) pronoun(mine)
Male he his him his
Female she her her hers
Pronouns of the second persons are changed according to hearer.
Second person singular (You)
Hearer Nominative (You) Possessive Accusative (You) Possessive
adjective (Your) pronoun(yours)
Male he his him his
Female she her her hers
There is no change in the pronouns of the third person
 He said,” He may marry Romaisa.” (Direct)
 He said that he might marry Romaisa. (Indirect)
When “me” and “us” are used as hearer, pronouns of the second person are changed as under:
Hearer Nominative(You) Possessive Accusative(You) Possessive
adjective (Your) pronoun(yours)
me I my me mine
When the quoted speech presents universal truth or habitual fact or saying, there is no change in tense.
 My grandfather said, “The earth is round”
 My grandfather said that the earth is round

Change in tense:
Present Simple Past
“I never eat meat”, he explained. = He explained (that) he never ate meat.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
“I’m waiting for Anni”, he said. = He said (that) he was waiting for Anni.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
“I have found a flat”, he said. = He said (that) he had found a flat.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said, “I’ve been waiting for ages”. = He said (that) he had been waiting for ages.
Simple Past Past Perfect
“I took it home with me”, she said. = She said (that) he had taken it home with her.
Future Conditional
He said, “I will/shall be in Paris on Monday”. = He said (that) he would be in Paris on Monday.
Future Continuous Conditional Continuous
“I will/shall be using the car myself on the 24h”, she = She said (that) she’d been using the car herself on
said. the 24th.
Conditional Conditional
I said, “I would like to see it”. = I said (that) I would like to see it.
EXPRESSIONS OF TIME AND PLACE IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time change as follows:
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
today that day
yesterday the day before
the day before yesterday two days before
tomorrow the next day/the following day
the day after tomorrow in two day’s time
next week/year etc. the following week/year etc.
last week/year etc. the previous week/year etc.
a year etc. ago a year before/the previous year
QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH
 Direct question: He said, “Where is she going?”
 Indirect question: He asked where she was going.

A. When we turn direct questions into indirect speech, the following changes are necessary:
a. tenses, pronouns and possessive adjectives, and adverbs of time and place change as in statements.
b. the interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative form.
c. the question mark is omitted in indirect questions.

B. If the introductory verb is say, it must be changed to a verb of inquiry, e.g. ask, wonder, want to know etc.
 He said, “Where is the station?” ↔ He asked where the station was.

C. ask can be followed by the person addressed (indirect object):

 He asked, “What have you got in your bag?” ↔ He asked (me) what I had got in my bag.
But wonder and want to know cannot take an indirect object, so if we wish to report a question where the person
addressed is mentioned, we must use ask.
 He said, “Maria, when is the next train?” ↔ He asked Maria when the next train was.

D. If the direct question begins with a question word (when, where, who, how, why etc.) the question word is
repeated in the indirect question:
 He said, “Why didn’t you put on the brake?” ↔ He asked (her) why she hadn’t put on the brake.
 She said, “What do you want?” ↔ She asked (them) what they wanted.

E. If there is no question word, if or whether must be used:

 “Is anyone there?” he asked ↔ He asked if/whether anyone was there.

COMMANDS, REQUESTS, ADVICE IN INDIRECT SPEECH

 Direct command: He said, “Lie down, Tahir”.
 Indirect command: He told Tahir to lie down.

Indirect commands, requests, advice are usually expressed by a verb of command/request/advice + object +
infinitive.
A. The following verbs can be used: advise, ask, beg, command, order, remind, tell, warn etc.
 He said, “Get your coat, Tom!” ↔ He told Tom to get his coat.

B. Negative commands, requests etc. are usually reported by not + infinitive:

 “Don’t swim out too far, boys”, I said ↔ I warned/told the boys not to swim out too far.

EXCLAMATIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

Exclamations usually become statements in indirect speech. The exclamation mark disappears.
a. Exclamations beginning What (a) ... or How ... can be reported by:
- exclaim/say that:
 He said, “What a dreadful idea!” or “How dreadful!” ↔ He exclaimed that it was a dreadful idea/was
dreadful.
- give an exclamation of delight/disgust/horror/relief/surprise etc.
- if the exclamation is followed by an action, we can use the construction with an exclamation of delight/disgust etc.
+ he/she etc. + verb.

b. Other types of exclamation such as Good! Marvellous! Splendid! Heavens! Oh! Ugh! etc. can be reported as
in (b) or (c) above:
“Good!” he exclaimed. ↔ He gave an exclamation of pleasure/satisfaction.
“Ugh!” she exclaimed, and turned the programme off. ↔ With an exclamation of disgust she turned the programme
off.

c. Note also:
 He said, “Thank you!” ↔ He thanked me.
 He said, “Good luck!” ↔ He wished me luck.
 He said, “Happy Eid!” ↔ He wished me a happy Eid.
 He said, “Congratulations!” ↔ He congratulated me.
 He said, “Liar!” ↔ He called me a liar.
 He said, “Damn!” etc. ↔ He swore.
 The notice said: WELCOME TO KRACHI! ↔ The notice welcomed visitors to Karachi.

YES AND NO IN INDIRECT SPEECH

yes and no are expressed in indirect speech by subject + appropriate auxiliary verb.
 He said, “Can you swim?” and I said “No” ↔ He asked (me) if I could swim and I said I couldn’t.
 He said, “Will you have time to do it?” and I said “Yes” ↔ He asked if I would have time to do it and I said
that I would.

OFFERS AND SUGGESTIONS IN INDIRECT SPEECH

A. OFFERS
 “Shall I bring you some tea?” could be reported He offered to bring me some tea.
B. SUGGESTIONS
 “Shall we meet at the theatre? could be reported He suggested meeting at the theatre.

INDIRECT SPEECH: MIXED TYPES

Direct speech may consist of statement + question, question + command, command + statement, or all three together.
Normally each requires its own introductory verb.
 “I don’t know the way. Do you?” he asked. ↔ He said he didn’t know the way and asked her if she did/if she
knew it.
 He said, “Someone is coming. Get behind the screen.” ↔ He said that someone was coming and told me to
get behind the screen.

REPORTED SPEECH: OTHER POINTS

A. MUST: after a past reporting verb, must does not usually change:
 He said, “It must be pretty late, I really must go”. ↔ He said that it must be pretty late and he really must go.
had to is also possible in reported speech, but this is really the past of have to, not must.
 He said, “I have to go. I have an appointment in half an hour” ↔ He said that he had to go because he had
an appointment in half an hour.

B. MODAL VERBS: Past modal verbs (could, might, ought to, should, used to, etc.) do not normally change in
reported speech.
 He said, “I might come”. ↔ He said that he might come.
 He said, “I would help him if I could”. ↔ He said that he would help him if he could.
 He said, “You needn’t wait”. ↔ He said that I needn’t wait.

C. CONDITIONALS: Conditional sentences type two remain unchanged.

 He said, “If my children were older, I would emigrate”. ↔ He said that if his children were older, he would
emigrate.

EXERCISES
STATEMENTS
1. These people are saying these things. Report them, using says that.
a. Farhan: “Atlanta is a wonderful city.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. Qasim: “I go jogging every morning.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
c. Anni: “Jenny isn’t studying for her exams.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. Asim: “I used to be very fat.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

2. People made these statements. Report them, using said.

a. “Maria works in a bank”, Maheen said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “I’m staying with some friends”, Junaid said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “I’ve never been to Russia”, Maria said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. “Tooba can’t use a computer”, Esha said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. “Everybody must try to do their best”, Jasim said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
f. “Rahil may move to a new flat”, Rabia said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. “I’ll stay at home on Sunday”, Basil said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

3. Report what the guests said at a wedding last Sunday.

a. Aunty Razia: “They’ll make a lovely couple.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. Mr. Javaid: “They’re going to live in Brighton.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. Mrs. Siddique: “The bride and the groom are very nice young people.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. Mr. Qasim: “The bride is wearing a beautiful wedding dress.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. Mr. Sami: “The couple’s parents look happy.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
f. Miss Maria: “The bride’s father has bought them a big flat.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

4. Change the following statements into the reported speech.

a. “I have something to show you”, I said to her.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “I’m going away tomorrow”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “I’ve been in London for a month but I haven’t had time to visit the Tower”, said Mohsin.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. “I’ll come with you as soon as I’m ready”, she replied.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. “We have a lift but very often it doesn’t work”, they said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.f
. “I must go to the dentist tomorrow”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. “I found an old Roman coin in the garden yesterday and I am going to take it to the museum this afternoon”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

5. Write these sentences in indirect speech.

a. “I’m very tired”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “I’ll see them soon”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “I’m going to the cinema”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. “I see the children quite often”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. “I’m having a bath”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.f
. “I’ve already met their parents”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. “I stayed in a hotel for a few weeks”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
h. “I must go home to make dinner”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.i
. “I haven’t been waiting long”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.j
. “I’m listening to the radio”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
k. “I’ll tell them the news on Saturday”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.l
. “I like swimming, dancing and playing tennis”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
m. “I can drive”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
n. “I walked home after the party”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
o. “I’m going to be sick”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
p. “I must go out to post a letter”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
q. “I spoke to Jane last week”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.r
. “I’m trying to listen to the music”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.s
. “I’ll phone the office from the airport”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.t
. “I can’t speak any foreign languages”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

6. Write these sentences in indirect speech, changing words where necessary.

a. “I’ll see you tomorrow”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “I saw her today”, he said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “I don’t like this film”, she said.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

d. She said, “We went swimming today.”

QUESTIONS
7. Report the police-officer’s questions to the shop owner.
a. What’s your name?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. Did you see the robbers?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. What were they wearing?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. How do you think they got in?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. What did they take?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.f
. Has this ever happened before?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

8. Write these sentences as reported questions using the words given.

a. “What’s your name?”, he asked. (wanted to know)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “Do you like Fawad Khan?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “How old are you?”, she said. (asked)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. “When does the train leave?”, I asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

e. “Are you enjoying yourself?”, he asked.

______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.f
. “How are you?”, he said. (asked)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. “Does your father work here?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
h. “Do you live near your father?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.i
. “Who did you see at the meeting?”, my mother asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.j
. “Why did you take my wallet?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
k. “How did you get to school?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.l
. “Are you a foreigner?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
m. “Where do you live?”, the boy asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
n. “Have you met Saim before?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
o. “Are you hungry?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
p. “Why wasn’t Junaid at the party?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
q. “Why didn’t you telephone?”, my father asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.r
. “Did you borrow my dictionary?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.s
. “Why are you so late?”, the teacher asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.t
. “Have you finished your exams?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
u. “Did you invite Judy and Mitch?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
v. “Does your brother live in London?”, she asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
w. “Why didn’t the police report the crime?”, the judge asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
x. “Do you know who broke the window?”, he asked.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
y. “Why you won’t let me in?”, he shouted.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

COMMANDS, REQUESTS AND ADVICE

9. Rewrite these sentences in reported speech.
a. “Make some coffee, Babar”, Qasim said. (ask)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “You must do the homework soon, Sara”, she said. (tell)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

c. “Remember to buy a map, Ann” he said.(remind)

10. Report the following sentences.

a. “Don’t try to be funny.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “Wait here till I come.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “Go to bed and don’t get up till you’re called.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. “Be a good girl and sit quietly for five minutes.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. “Watch the milk and don’t let it boil over.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
f. “Don’t take your coat off.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
g. “Don’t forget to thank Mrs Jones when you’re saying good bye to her.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
h. “Stop that dog.”
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

11. Write the sentences in reported speech using the words given.
a. “Sit down, Maria.” (he told)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
b. “Would you pass my suitcase?” (he asked)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
c. “Don’t go near the sea, children.” (the children’s mother warned)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
d. “Don’t be late, Tamim.” (Tamim’s father told)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.
e. “Be quiet, children.” (the librarian told)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.f
. “Have your tickets ready, please.” (the inspector told us)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________.

SAY AND TELL

12. Use the correct form of SAY and TELL in these sentences.
a. She _______________________ me she didn’t agree.
b. He _______________________ , “Have we met before?”
c. I _______________________ them I wasn’t happy with their work.
d. She smiled and _______________________ to me, “I’m very pleased to meet you.”
e. She _______________________ me a story about her parents.
f. He _______________________, “Are you feeling OK?”
g. I didn’t hear. What did he _______________________?
h. Could you _______________________ me the time, please?
i. They _______________________ me they were going to a meeting.
j. I _______________________ the police my address.
k. I _______________________ I wanted to buy a magazine.
l. He _______________________ he wasn’t interested in politics.
m. Could you _______________________ me your name again?
n. Do you think he is _______________________ the truth?
o. Would you _______________________ him to come early tomorrow?
p. If he _______________________ that again there’ll be trouble.
q. I _______________________ them it was dangerous to swim here.
r. Did you _______________________ anything to him about your problem at work?
s. _______________________ me what happened.
t. I think he is _______________________ lies.
u. The policeman _______________________ the man was lying.
v. Philip _______________________ it would probably rain tomorrow.
w. Susan _______________________, “Let’s go out for dinner tonight.”
x. Jim _______________________ me about the party last night.
y. Our teacher _______________________ he was pleased with our work.
z. Stop _______________________ lies!

OFFERS AND SUGGESTIONS

13. Rewrite the sentences with the gerund or the infinitive and the in reported speech.
a. “I’ll bring my CDs to the party.”
He promised to bring his CDs to the party.
b. “Let’s go to the cinema tonight, shall we?
She suggested
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________.
c. “Yes, I stole the wallet.”
He admitted
______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________.
d. “Be careful! The water is boiling.”
She warned us
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________.
e. “You must apologise to your teacher.”
My father insisted (on)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
___.
f. “All right! I’ll share the expenses with you.”
My friend agreed
______________________________________________________________________________________________
___________.
WHAT IS A CONDITIONAL SENTENCE?
Conditional sentences have two parts or clauses that give a condition in the dependent clause and a result in the
independent clause. The condition clause usually contains an if statement.
 Condition (if) clause + result clause

ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional uses the present tense in both clauses and is used to talk about something that is always or generally
true. The present tense signifies that these actions are both possible and typical.
Form: If + simple present, simple present
 Example 1: If it rains, I take an umbrella with me to work.
 Example 2: If I wake up early, I always read in bed.

FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional uses the present tense in the if clause and the future tense in the result clause. This form is used to
talk about something that is a probable future result of a condition.
Form: If + simple present, will + base verb
 Example 1: If I see you later, I will say hello.
 Example 2: If I don’t see you later, I won’t be able to say hello.

SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional uses the past tense in the if clause and a modal and base verb in the result clause. This form is
used to talk about a hypothetical situation that cannot happen or is unlikely to happen.
Form: If + simple past, modal + base verb
 Example 1: If I had a million dollars, I would buy a large vacation home.
 Example 2: If I were you, I wouldn’t wait to study for the test.

Note: The condition and the result are not taking place in the past, but the past tense is used to indicate the unreal
nature of the situation.

THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional uses the past perfect in the if clause and a perfect conditional in the result clause. This form is
used to talk about a hypothetical situation in the past that did not happen – typically with an outcome that did not
happen and is perhaps the opposite of what did happen.
Form: If + past perfect, modal + present perfect
 Example 1: If it had rained last week, the plants would not have died.
 Example 2: If I had finished college, I would have become a doctor.

Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
1. They won’t let you in if you …………… (not have) a mask.
2. If you want to go to the festival, you …………… (have to) buy a ticket
in advance.
3. He’ll definitely get better if he …………… (practice) every day.
4. She …………… (not be) laughing when she sees the mess inside!
5. If you ask nicely, I’m sure she …………… (say) yes.
6. Unless the law is changed, I …………… leave the country.

Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in brackets:
1. If she was rich, she …………… (retire) tomorrow!
2. They would take the bus if they …………… (not have) a car.
3. I would tell you if I …………… (know).
4. If you weren’t an engineer, what job …………… you …………… (have)?
5. I’d learn the piano if I …………… (have) more time.

Make third conditional sentences from the statements given.

Example: We missed the bus. We left the house late.
We wouldn’t have missed the bus if we hadn’t left the house late.
1. We ate the whole cake. We felt ill.
2. There was a witness. He was arrested.
3. He said Ronaldo was better than Messi. We stopped being friends.
4. She didn’t know who won. She didn’t watch the match.
5. I had a motorbike. I didn’t buy the car.

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