A semicolon (;) is a punctuation mark that connects

two separate but related thoughts. They indicate a

longer pause than a comma provides in a sentence,
but a shorter pause than a colon.
There’s one main semicolon rule to remember:
When used in a sentence, each side of the
semicolon must include an independent clause (a
full sentence). Otherwise, the sentence isn’t
grammatically correct.
•You shouldn't capitalize the word after a
semicolon unless it’s a proper noun.
•Just like with coordinating conjunctions, a
semicolon creates a sentence with two parts.
I live in Arkansas; my best friend lives in Utah.
(Don’t capitalize)
I live in Arkansas; Nora lives in Utah. (Only
capitalize because Nora is a proper noun)
•When two sentences are closely related,
separating them with a period
may seem too harsh. That’s where semicolons
come in handy.
•You’ll usually find semicolons in compound
sentences, though skillful writers may use
them in other sentence types too.
I missed the bus; I guess I’m walking to school.
We’d love to hire you; however, we need a few
more documents.
The restaurant was booked; John got us a table
anyway.
My sister called this morning; unfortunately, I
missed the call.
Paula loves football; her husband prefers
soccer.
• Semicolons are helpful in sentences when you
want to:
-join independent clauses in a sentence
-fix comma splices
-use conjunctive adverbs in a sentence
-define parts of a list in a clearer way
It's important to get the details right when using
semicolons in a sentence so that the reader doesn't
find it jarring when a semicolon is added to a
sentence.
•Place Semicolons Between Independent
Clauses
•The most common way to use a semicolon is
to separate independent clauses. They can
replace coordinating conjunctions (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so) to connect two complete
thoughts that are closely related.
We need a new car, so we’ll take a test drive at
the dealership.
We need a new car; we’ll take a test drive at
the dealership.
My mother grew up in Alaska, and she’s always
wanted to go back.
My mother grew up in Alaska; she’s always
•Note that you never use
coordinating conjunctions with
semicolons. Use them separately
— and if the sentence makes
more sense with the conjunction,
feel free to use it instead of the
semicolon.
• A comma splice is a common grammatical error where a
comma is connecting two independent clauses, which it’s not
supposed to do. An easy way to fix a comma splice is to make
the comma into a semicolon (if the sentences are somewhat
related).
You made me a picnic lunch, you’re so sweet. (Comma
splice)
You made me a picnic lunch; you’re so sweet. (Correct)
That dress is gorgeous, I must have it. (Comma splice)
That dress is gorgeous; I must have it. (Correct)
• Add Semicolons Before Conjunctive Adverbs
• Another way to use semicolons is just before a conjunctive
adverb (however, unfortunately, therefore). Like semicolons,
conjunctive adverbs also connect related independent clauses, and
using them together can smooth out choppy sentences.
I’d love to marry you. However, we’ve only been dating for two
months. (Choppy)
I’d love to marry you; however, we’ve only been dating for two
months. (Smoother)

We’re out of milk. Unfortunately, Fred forgot to get some at the store.
(Choppy)
We’re out of milk; unfortunately, Fred forgot to get some at the store.
(Smoother)
• Use Semicolons To Separate Phrases in a List
• You can also use semicolons instead of commas in serial lists
with longer phrases (or phrases that already have commas) to
avoid confusion.
I’ve lived in many cities, including Atlanta, Georgia; Paris,
France; Los Angeles, California; and Boise, Idaho.
On Hannah’s to-do list: pick up the kids and drop them off at
band practice; call the post office and cancel the mail for the
next week; see if the handyman can stop by sometime on
Friday; list the old couch online for sale; and grab burgers for
the family on her way home.
• Semicolons vs. Colons
• Even though semicolons and colons share part of their name,
they don’t function in the same way.
• Colons connect very strongly related ideas (usually part of the
same sentence), or show emphasis to a second idea.
Additionally, a colon can come before incomplete thoughts or
even single words.
We need to bring the following: bread, meat, tomatoes, and
lettuce.
•Notice another difference between
semicolons and colons? You should
capitalize the first letter after a colon
if it’s an independent clause,
according to AP and APA style guides.

Don’t tell me: You’re not

coming.
• Semicolons vs. Em Dashes
• Replace semicolons with em dashes (—), particularly when
you want to add emphasis to part of a sentence.
• Remember the primary semicolon rule: They separate
independent clauses. If you want to add a longer, more
sudden pause to this separation, feel free to replace a
semicolon with an em dash.
There was a knock at the door; Drew looked up in
alarm. (Correct)
There was a knock at the door — Drew looked up in
alarm. (More dramatic)
• But that’s the only time when semicolons and em
dashes are interchangeable. Using a semicolon instead
of an em dash isn’t grammatically correct in any other
context.
• He wasn’t supposed to open the door for
strangers — especially when his parents weren’t home.
(Correct)
He wasn’t supposed to open the door for
strangers; especially when his parents weren’t
home.
• (Incorrect — the second clause is a subordinate clause, not an
• Use Semicolons Semi-Often
• Semicolons and em dashes have one more thing in
common: You shouldn’t use them too often.
• Lots of semicolons and/or em dashes on a page mean
that you’re not actually varying your sentences that
much, which is the whole point of using them in the first
place.
• Avoid using more than one or two semicolons or em
dashes per page (and definitely never more than one
per paragraph). Otherwise, they can get repetitive and
annoying, rather than stylistic and purposeful.
• A colon is a punctuation mark that introduces or
points to other directly related text. It looks like
two dots, one on top of the other (:) and always
has a space after it.
• Colons come after independent clauses. They can’t
split a noun from a verb, and they can’t break up a
clause or a phrase. However, the words after a
colon can be a complete thought, an incomplete
thought, a list of words, or even a single word.
• Examples of Colons in a Sentence
• Colons have many functions in a sentence. They can often
stand in for the phrases such as or which is to introduce lists
or emphasize a point.
• I’ve got one more question: What are you doing here?
• There are five people in my department: Jessica, Raul, Sean,
Jamal, and me.
• We moved here for one reason: opportunity.
• Maribel stood and announced: “We’re having a baby.”
• To Whom It May Concern: I visited your restaurant
yesterday, and I have a complaint.
• Do You Capitalize After a Colon?
You only capitalize after a semicolon if the first word is a
proper noun — so does the same rule apply with a
colon?
• Capitalize the first letter after the colon if it’s the
beginning of a full sentence.
Mary was shocked: She never expected to see
Nate again.
The jar was empty: Mike had eaten the last
• The Chicago Manual of Style and MLA
format recommend capitalizing the first letter
after the colon only if it introduces two sentences,
not just one.
Mary was shocked: She never expected to see Nate
again. Not here, of all places.
The jar was empty: Mike had eaten the last cookie.
Kelly’s stomach grumbled with hunger and
irritation.
• Use a Colon To Link Closely Related Sentences
• When two sentences are directly related, you can
connect them with a colon. It provides more of a pause
than a comma or semicolon, but less of a pause than
a period.
Thinking back, our trip to Ireland was the best: We
saw some of the most beautiful terrains this Earth
has to offer.
Diane deserved this degree: She got what she
worked for.
•Use a Colon To Point to Words
•A colon also can function like an arrow, telling
readers “Look at this word!” Typically, only
one word or phrase follows a colon in these
sentences.
There’s one more thing we need: a plane
ticket.
I’ve met the love of my life: Patricia Perez.
• Use a Colon To Clarify Information
• Use colons between two sentences if the second
sentence explains more about the first sentence.
Note that both sides of the colon are complete
sentences with this usage.

Life is like a road: Every path takes you

somewhere.
The results are in: He is the president.
• Use a Colon To Introduce a Serial List
• When a serial list somes after an independent clause,
you can use a colon to stand in for the phrases which
include or which are.

There are three things every dog needs: food,

water, and healthcare.
For the camping trip, you need to pack many
things: clothing, sleeping bags, food, utensils,
and cookware.
• Avoid splitting up a phrase or clause with the colon in
these cases. The colon should only come after a
complete sentence, and before the list of items. Don’t
add a colon after phrases like such as, for
example, or we need.
Incorrect - We need: eggs, milk, and fabric softener.
Correct - We need the following items: eggs, milk,
and, fabric softener.
Also correct - We need eggs, milk, and fabric
softener.
• Use a Colon To Introduce a Bulleted or Numbered List
• If items appear in bullets or numbers rather than in a sentence, you can use a
colon to introduce them as well. Just be sure that the sentence before the colon is
an independent clause.
There are three things every dog needs:
food
water
healthcare
For the camping trip, you need to pack many things:
clothing
sleeping bags
food
utensils
• Capitalization and ending punctuation are optional for single words or
short phrases in bullet points or numbered lists.
• Use a Colon To Introduce Extended Quotations
• When providing an extended quotation (more than a few sentences) in
your writing, add a colon after the sentence that introduces the quote.
Then indent the quotation from the left margin, and don’t use quotation
marks.
Dyer's philosophy can be summed up in his belief that our
thoughts manifest our reality:
Act as if what you intend to manifest in life is already a
reality. Eliminate thoughts of conditions, limitations, or
the possibility of it not manifesting. If left undisturbed in
your mind and in the mind of intention simultaneously, it
will germinate in the physical world.
• Use a Colon for Shorter Quotes
• You can also use a colon instead of a comma to
introduce a direct quote after an independent
clause (though you should use a comma if the
sentence before isn’t a complete sentence).
My father always used to tell me: “Being kind
to one other is the deepest type of love.”
The cowboy uttered his final words: “Protect
the ranch at all costs.”
•Use a Colon Following a Salutation
•You can also use a colon after the salutation in
a formal letter, such as To Whom It May
Concern. When addressing someone by their
name in a formal way, you can also use a
colon.
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Mr. Wilson:
Dear Professor Jason Smith:
• When Should You Use a Semicolon Instead of a Colon?
• Semicolons are similar to colons, but they don’t provide as
much of a pause or emphasis. Semicolons typically join
independent clauses together — just one of the many
functions of a colon.
• The only time when you may want to use a semicolon instead
of a colon is if your independent clauses are only loosely
related, not directly related.
I hate ironing: I never do it right. (The clauses are directly
related — use a colon)
I hate ironing; I also can’t stand sweeping. (The clauses
are loosely related — use a semicolon)
Em Dash ( — )
•The em dash (—) is a punctuation mark
used to interrupt a sentence to add
information or show emphasis. It’s
called an em dash because it’s as wide as
the letter “M.”
•Em dashes set off information from the
rest of the sentence.
•You can add spaces to either side of an
em dash, depending on your style guide.
Setting off information - My best
friend — whom I’ve known since I
was a kid — is moving away.
Showing emphasis - The house was
beautiful — but haunted.
• Em dashes are a stylistic way to change your sentence variety, which makes
your writing more interesting to read.
• They’re especially common in informal writing and published fiction.

You can join our club — unless there’s something you’re

not telling us.
My sister — who doesn’t know a word of
French — wants to move to France.
It doesn’t matter if you win or lose this game — I’ll
always be proud of you.
The main ingredients of a cake — particularly milk,
flour, and butter — are available at any grocery store.
•“Police Investigate Unlikely Robbery Suspect
— the School Librarian”
•Don’t put spaces before and after the em dash
if you are using MLA format, Chicago Manual
of Style, or APA stylebook.

“Librarian Confesses to Theft—Claims ‘I Just

Needed More Books’”
• Em dashes create breaks in a sentence. They are used
to:
• connect two sentences together (or replace a comma)
to add emphasis
• to replace a colon or semicolon to add emphasis
• to separate nonessential information from the rest of a
sentence
• to show the reader that part of a sentence is an
afterthought
• to add a person's name to a quote
I don’t know that man. I’ve never even seen
him before.
I don’t know that man — I’ve never even seen
him before. (More dramatic)
Let’s explore the haunted house, unless you’re
scared.
Let’s explore the haunted house — unless
you’re scared. (More dramatic)
• Use Em Dashes Around Nonessential Clauses
• Nonessential clauses are groups of words that add
extra information to a sentence, but aren’t
necessary for understanding that sentence.
• You can use parentheses or commas to separate
nonessential clauses or lists when you want the
information to be more of an aside to the reader.
• However, if you want the information to stand out
more, use one em dash before the clause and
another one after the clause.
This plan, which wasn’t my idea, is never going to
work.
This plan — which wasn’t even my idea, by the
way — is never going to work.
We’ll read three plays (Hamlet, A Doll’s House,
and A Raisin in the Sun) before comparing them in
class.
We’ll read three plays — Hamlet, A Doll’s House,
and A Raisin in the Sun — before comparing them
in class.
• Use an Em Dash To Add an Afterthought
• Sometimes nonessential clauses come at the end of a
sentence. They’re known as afterthoughts, and they can
clarify another part of the sentence, answer a future
question, or even ask a related question.
• When adding an afterthought to a sentence, you don’t need a
second em dash, since the end punctuation will end the
sentence by itself.
John really wants to see his family — especially his mom.
I’m single right now — and no, I don’t want to go on a blind
date.
The cookie jar is empty — so who took all the cookies?
• Use an Em Dash in Place of a Colon or Semicolon
• Like an em dash, a colon can “point” to a word or
phrase in a sentence.
• If the two parts of the sentence aren’t closely
related, you can use an em dash instead to add
more emphasis.
There’s one thing I won’t tolerate: disrespect.
There’s one thing I won’t tolerate — disrespect.
Sasha had only one wish: to see the ocean.
Sasha had only one wish — to see the ocean.
• Semicolons function by joining two independent clauses
together. If you’d like to use an em dash instead (or you want
to give more emphasis to the second clause), you can.
Cats are clean and independent; plus, they don’t bark at
the door.
Cats are clean and independent — plus, they don’t bark
at the door.
You’re thirty minutes late; the meeting started without
you.
You’re thirty minutes late — the meeting started without
you.
•Use an Em Dash When Quoting Someone
•Another way to use em dashes is after
quoted text, just before the quote
attribution (the person who said it).

“What barrier is there that love

cannot break?” —Mahatma Gandhi
• Don’t use an em dash:
• in formal writing (stick to semicolons and commas
instead)
• to link compound words (use a hyphen instead)
• to show ranges of numbers or dates (use an en dash
instead)
• to replace prepositions to, through, from,
or between (use an en dash instead)
• more than once per paragraph (it’s repetitive)
• in a sentence or paragraph that already has a semicolon
(also repetitive)
En Dash ( – )
•The – is called an en dash. En dashes are
shorter than em dashes, and they
indicate a range or connection between
numbers or words.
•You don’t need to use spaces on either
side of an en dash.
•En dashes (–) are punctuation marks that
show number ranges, directions, and
connections between similar words.
They’re called en dashes (or
sometimes ndashes) because they’re
approximately the width of a capital “N.”
•En dashes are longer than hyphens (-)
and shorter than em dashes (—).
Indicating range - The Civil War
(1861–1865) made a lasting
impact in the United States.

Indicating connection - When

does the Denver–Dallas flight
arrive?
The American Civil War (1861–1865) ended when
General Robert E. Lee surrendered. (En dash shows
the range of years)
What time does the Pittsburgh–Cincinnati train
leave? (En dash shows direction)
Who are you rooting for in the home–visitor game?
(En dash shows opposition)
My ice cream–themed birthday party was so much
fun. (En dash clarifies a double compound adjective)
• The en dash replaces the prepositions from, to, through
versus and between. For example:

“We’re expecting between 60 to 70 guests at

the wedding”
“We’re expecting 60 −70 guests at the wedding”

“Our store is open from Monday to Thursday”

“Our store is open Monday −Thursday”
•Use an En Dash To Show Directions
•The en dash can also show connections
between other words. When showing
directions, an en dash replaces the word to.
Just take the Seattle–Boise flight first
thing in the morning.
The north–south trail was longer than
I expected.
•Use an En Dash Instead of “Versus”
•En dashes also replace the word versus when
placed between opposing words.
Are you going to the UCLA–Stanford game
next weekend?
The Nixon–Kennedy debate was the first
televised presidential debate in history.
•Use an En Dash To Show Equal Relationship
•Sometimes, you’ll see en dashes between
words that aren’t opposed to each other, but
equal in value or partnership.
According to the Henderson–Yang study,
the results take some time to appear.
Teachers try to balance the boy–girl ratio
in their classrooms.
• Use an En Dash to Clarify Compound Adjectives
• Editors may use an en dash when a compound adjective
includes an open compound word, and hyphenating it
would be confusing.
I love a good New York–style steak. (Hyphenating New
York and style makes it sound like it’s a new, York-style
steak, so an en dash is needed)
How much will you pay for this Revolutionary War–
era musket? (Hyphenating Revolutionary
War and era makes it sound like it’s a revolutionary, war-
era musket, so an en dash is needed)
• When Not To Use an En Dash
• With all these en dashes uses, it’s hard to think of a time
when you shouldn’t use them. But in American writing, it’s
best not to use en dashes in a few key situations.
• in AP style (use em dash only)
• to set off nonessential clauses (that’s an em dash)
• to indicate a break in a sentence (that’s an em dash)
• to link two parts of a compound word (that’s a hyphen)
• to write out ages (that’s a hyphen)
• to break a word at the end of a line on a printed page (that’s a
hyphen, too)
HYPEN -
• Hyphens are even shorter than en dashes. They join two or
more words together to make compound nouns, compound
adjectives, and compound numbers.
Compound noun - My sister-in-law works as a
pastry chef.
Compound adjective - The well-known author
signed autographs for his fans.
Compound number - Cory can count all the way to
follow-up
up-to-date
full-time (adjective only)
father-in-law
five-year-old
sugar-free
•It clarifies word meaning, forms new
ideas, and allows writers to use language
in a cool, creative way.
•Hyphens can also indicate when a word
is cut off, either at the end of a line or
because someone stops speaking
abruptly.
“Have you seen the pineapple mons-”
• When To Use a Hyphen
• While some situations can include a hyphen, there are
several occasions when you need to use a hyphen to be
grammatically correct.

For example:
• to join two adjectives that come before a noun to show they
are related
• to join prefixes and suffixes to a root word
• in written out numbers and fractions
• to clear up any confusion between similar words
• How To Use a Hyphen in Compound Words
• Combining two words makes a completely
different word known as a compound word. Most
compound words don’t need a hyphen, but in
some cases, they do. For example:
• when compound adjectives come before nouns

grass-fed beef
dog-friendly campground
ten-dollar bill
•with compound words that aren’t
combined

editor-in-chief
brother-in-law
six-pack
•You may see these rules in sentences like:
The two-hour class is almost over.
It’s a good idea to avoid lead-based paints
if possible.
Recess became a free-for-all once it
started raining.
This article about healthy eating is a
real eye-opener.
• How To Use Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes
• Most of the time, adding affixes to a word doesn’t require a hyphen.
In some cases, however, it’s a good idea to hyphenate the prefix or
suffix to its base word, including:
Use a Hyphen on: Hyphen Examples
prefixes self-, all-, and ex- self-esteem
all-inclusive
ex-girlfriend
prefixes and a noun
that share a letter re-energize
meta-analysis
anti-inflammatory
prefixes before proper
nouns or adjectives un-American
mid-April
post-Renaissance
suffixes -elect and -odd mayor-elect
president-elect
twenty-odd

suffixes with three-syllable

nouns (or more) adobe-like
vegetable-based
homecoming-ready
when a noun and a suffix
share a letter Moab-bound
shell-like
window-wide
• Examples of these hyphen rules in a sentence include:
Bullying can negatively affect teenagers’ self-
esteem. (Hyphenate self-)
My children believe I am all-knowing.
(Hyphenate all-)
Do you know my ex-husband? (Hyphenate ex-)
Let’s conduct a meta-analysis of the research.
(Hyphenate when prefix and word share a letter)
That is a beautiful pre-Raphaelite painting.
(Hyphenate when prefix comes before a proper noun or
adjective)
There will be thirty-odd kids at the party.
(Hyphenate suffix -odd)
I love these restaurant-style tortilla chips.
(Hyphenate suffix when noun has three or more
syllables)
The pitcher has a drip-proof lid. (Hyphenate when
suffix and word share a letter)
•Other Times To Use a Hyphen
• You’ll want to use a hyphen in a few additional
situations.
• Compound numbers (numbers twenty-one to ninety-
nine) and fractions always require hyphens when
written out.
• It’s also a good idea to include a hyphen when the
unhyphenated version of the word is a completely
different word (such as prefix, as in “a word placed in
front of another” and pre-fix, as in “before a fix”).
Use a Hyphen Hyphen Examples
with compound numbers (21-99) forty-seven
sixty-six
ninety-one
with fractions (except one half) two-thirds
three-fifths
nine-tenths
to avoid confusion re-pair (to pair again, not
“repair”)

re-sign (to sign again, not

“resign”)

un-Earth (not from Earth,

not “unearth”)
• Examples of these hyphen rules in sentences include:
The car was going fifty-five miles per hour. (Hyphenate
compound numbers)
Sheryl bought twenty-eight pencil boxes. (Hyphenate
compound numbers)
One-third of freshmen stayed in the dorms. (Hyphenate
fractions)
The kids ate three-quarters of the pizza. (Hyphenate fractions)
I re-sent the letter. (Not resent)
Most of the fans in the stadium are pro-State. (Not prostate)
• When Not To Use a Hyphen
• It seems like using a hyphen is often the safe choice in
writing.
• Generally, that’s true — although there are a few times when
you shouldn’t use hyphens. These occasions include:

• when a compound adjective follows the noun (“the well-

known artist” vs. “the artist is well known”
• when an adverb ending in -ly modifies a noun
(“the happily singing children”)
• when using most prefixes or adjectives
(countrywide, nondairy, untouched)
• The ( ) are called parentheses.
• Parentheses add further thoughts or qualifying
remarks to a sentence. They separate these
phrases from the rest of the sentence.
• Further thought - John and Jane (who are brother
and sister) both have red hair.
• Qualifying remarks - Add any special skills (typing,
organization, training, and so on) to your resume.
• Parentheses can enclose a single word, a sentence fragment,
a complete sentence, or even multiple complete sentences.
• Single word - Ivan is coming to the art show (yay!), and he’s
excited to see your work.
• Fragment - Ivan is coming to the art show (or so he says),
and he’s excited to see your work.
• Full sentence - Ivan is coming to the art show, and he’s
excited to see your work. (Will he be on time, though?)
• Multiple sentences - Ivan is coming to the art show, and
he’s excited to see your work. (Will he be on time, though?
He’s usually at least 30 minutes late, no matter what.)
• Use Parentheses To Add Extra Information
• The most common way to use parentheses is to insert extra
information in your sentence.
• Also known as non-essential clauses, these parenthetical
expressions should be helpful but unnecessary. The sentence
should still make sense without the extra information, but it
clarifies your meaning.
• I am making dinner (pot roast with potatoes and carrots) in
the slow cooker.
• She always brings her dog (the little one that barks at me)
when she comes to visit.
• Barry got a big promotion (senior vice-president).
• Use Parentheses To Make A Side Comment
• You can also put parentheses around a comment
that reveals how the speaker really feels about
something.
• These comments help your tone and voice, but
aren’t recommended for formal writing.
Mike burned the casserole (yet again).
I told the neighbor I’d watch his parrots (even though
I really didn’t want to).
Nicole forgot my birthday (surprise, surprise) and
• Use Parentheses To Add a Side Sentence
• If a side comment isn’t enough space for you, you can
finish your sentence and add a parenthetical statement
afterward.
• They’re not relevant enough to be their own sentences
outside the parentheses, but interesting enough to be
included after the main sentence.
This month’s sales figures are noteworthy. (Chances are,
you’ll be really impressed.)
Sure, I can meet you on Tuesday at 1 p.m. (I wonder if
she’ll really show up this time.)
• Use Parentheses To Define Acronyms
• When you refer to something that commonly goes by
an acronym or initialism, write it out fully and use
parentheses to show its shortened version.
• You only need to do this the first time it appears in your
writing; you can just use the acronym or initialism afterward.
We have reviewed Department of Labor (DOL) guidance
regarding how this job should be classified. Until the DOL rules
change, this is how we’ll classify it.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has
allocated funds to help people recover from the disaster. A
FEMA representative will visit soon.
• Use Parentheses With Source Citations
• In academic writing, you need to use parentheses for in-text
citations.
• This should be done in a manner consistent with the particular
style guide required by your instructor or the scholarly journal
or conference to which you plan to submit your work.
For long quotes, American Psychological Association (APA) style
requires the author’s name, the year and the page number
(White, 2020, p. 45).
In Modern Language Association (MLA) style, long quotes are
treated differently. The author’s name and page number go in
parentheses, with no comma (White 45).
• Use Parentheses With Numerals
• When including the equivalent of a numbered list
within a sentence, you are creating what is referred to
as a horizontal (across) list.
• With this type of numbered list, you should put
parentheses around each numeral.
This recipe requires three ingredients: (1) cucumbers, (2)
vinegar, and (3) salt.
I will be visiting three different Alabama cities, in order
from north to south: (1) Huntsville, (2) Birmingham, and
(2) Montgomery.
• Does Punctuation Go Inside or Outside Parentheses?
• Like quotation marks, parentheses tend to end up with some
extra punctuation, especially when they’re at the end of a
sentence. So where does that punctuation go?
• Periods, commas, exclamation points, and question marks
that belong to the outside sentence always go outside the
parentheses.
Amanda got a great deal on a used camper (just $500).
We left early in the morning (4:00), but forgot to eat breakfast.
I can’t believe she’s telling the truth (she never does)!
Will you sing me a song (something I haven’t heard before)?
• If the period, exclamation point, or question mark
belongs to the parenthetical expression, it goes inside
the parentheses. (Commas can’t end a sentence.)
• Parenthetical expressions may need their own
punctuation because they’re full sentences, or because
they have a different tone than the rest of the
sentence. (Note that the punctuation that belongs to
the sentence still goes outside the parentheses.)
Paul asked me out (even though he’s still dating Naomi!).
Ian bought me earrings (possibly vintage?) and flowers
for our anniversary.
• Parentheses in Emoticons and Emoji
• If you remember texting before the days of the emoji
keyboard, you’re probably quite familiar with using
parentheses in various emoticons.
• A parenthesis often functions as the bottom half of an
emoticon smiley face :), or a pair of parentheses can be
the sides of an exasperated face (-_-).
• While these uses may feel outdated, many text
programs will convert your typed emoticons into more
modern emoji, so don’t forget about all those cool faces
yet (we’re looking at you, clown emotion: <8-) )
•Tips for Using Parentheses
•Now that you know how these versatile
punctuation marks work, use these tips to
decide when you need them.
•Think of parenthetical expressions as a
friend whispering in your ear during a movie.
Can you still understand the movie without
your friend’s whispers?
• Double check that you’re using two parentheses, not
just one. It’s a common grammar error to add an
opening parenthesis but then forget the closing
parenthesis.
• Don’t use too many parentheses in your writing. (Even
if you want to.) (They can get annoying.) (But one per
page is okay!)
• If you like to use a lot of parentheses, try substituting
them with commas or em dashes. They’ll serve the
same purpose and give you even more sentence
variety.
• The [ ] are called brackets. Brackets clarify meaning in a
quote by adding words or the phrase sic. (sic erat
scriptum' which is Latin for 'thus it had been written) They
also form parenthetical statements inside larger
parenthetical statements (called nesting parentheses).
• Adding words to a quote - “He [Mr. Jones] was the last
person seen at the house,” reported the detective.
• Adding sic to a quote - “Our team issues no further
statments [sic] at this time.”
• Nesting parentheses - We decided to go to the Grand
Canyon (my [childhood] dream) this summer.
• When To Use Brackets Instead
• Brackets are square versions of parentheses — they also
enclose text inside a sentence. But they function a little
differently than their curved counterparts.
• Use brackets instead of parentheses when:
• adding a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical
statement
• adding a missing word to a quote
• adding [sic] to a quote
• translating a quote from another language
• What Are Brackets?
• Brackets are punctuation marks that go around text. Like
parentheses, brackets function in pairs — one bracket opens
the text, and the second bracket closes it [like this]. Brackets
are often used to add explanations, corrections, or comments
into quoted material.
• There are three main types of brackets that you’ll see in
writing. They include:
•square brackets [ ]
•curly brackets { }
•angled brackets < >
• Examples of Brackets in a Sentence
• Although brackets aren’t as common as parentheses, they’re
still quite useful and necessary in many situations.
• The man stated that he “never wants to see them [his
neighbors] again.”
• “I’ve never flown a plain [sic] before,” said the soldier.
• You’ll need a copy of the professor’s book (A History of
Philosophy [2016]) before attending class.
• As Winston Churchill said, “We
shall never surrender [emphasis added].”
• Remember the Spanish proverb “Zapatero, a tus
zapatos [Shoemakers, to your shoes].”
•When To Use Brackets
•You’re most likely to see and use
brackets when dealing with quoted text.
•Whether you’re adding context to a
quote, offsetting text within a
parenthetical statement, or translating a
quote in another language, brackets add
clarity to your writing.
•Use Brackets To Add Important Words to
Quotes
•Writers use brackets in academic writing to
add information to a quote without changing
the meaning of the sentence.
•This means that the writer can add words, if
necessary, to make the sentence clearer or
add a correction or comment to quoted
material.
• If you’re adding words to clarify a word that’s
already in the quote, don’t replace that word with
your brackets — remember, you can’t change
quotes. You can only add to them.
• "Books used [in classes] show methods of finding
information but not much information in
preparation of the review." (Libutti & Kopala, 1995,
p.15).
• “The fire started here [in the kitchen] and
continued to the living room,” reported the
firefighter.
• Use Brackets To Add Editorial Changes
• Square brackets allow a writer or editor to fix
mistakes within a quote, add explanatory
information, change a quote to fit in a sentence, or
add emphasis to a word through bold or italics.
• “We adopt the means of nonviolence because
our end is a community at peace with itself [italics
added].” —Martin Luther King, Jr.
• “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap
for mankind [emphasis ours].” —Neil Armstrong
• Use Brackets Inside Parentheses
• When you’re referencing a book or another written
work, add the date of publication in brackets —
especially if the book has more than one edition.
• She referenced an old book of hers (The Big
Book [1976]) in her new book.
• In Gary’s new book about education (Running Your
Classroom [2019]), he discusses the best approach
to classroom management in a technology-rich
world.
• Use Brackets To Show Quoted Errors
• Sometimes quotes contain spelling mistakes and grammatical
errors.
• They may drive editors crazy — but because you can’t change
quoted text, those mistakes have to remain.
• Editors and writers often use the Latin word sic (meaning “so” or
“thus”) to indicate an error was part of the original quote, and
they didn’t make the mistake in restating it. Sic is usually
italicized and appears inside brackets just after the error.
• “China stole the United States Navy research drone in
international waters in an unpresidented [sic] act.”
• “I always knew I’d make it too [sic] the major leagues,” the new
pitcher posted on social media.
•Use Brackets in Translations
•When you’re quoting another language, add
the English translation in brackets.
•Jen hired Mel for the movie stating, “That
woman just had a certain je ne sais quoi [I
don’t know what].”
•My father always used to say, “Finché c'è vita
c'è speranza [While there’s life, there’s hope].”
•Brackets also appear in math equations —
they group parts of the equation and set them
off from other parts. Math usage puts
brackets on the outside and parentheses on
the inside.
•103 - [(8 x 9) - (4 x 2)] x 2
•You’ll also see curly brackets more often in
math than in grammar, as they indicate
numbers are in a set. (For example:
{1,3,5,7,11} are prime numbers)
• Other Types of Brackets
• There are a few different types of symbols that can technically be considered
brackets. Each pair of marks has its own rules for academic use.
• Parentheses or Round Brackets ( )
• The most commonly used brackets in English are parentheses. These round
brackets add extra (usually non-essential) information to a sentence, or they
cite sources.
• George Washington (the first president of the United States) gave his
farewell address in 1796.
• The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) launched its
first Mars probe (Viking I) back in 1976.
• Task representations can sometimes differ between student and instructor
(Flower, 1994) and even from novice student to more experienced student.
• Angled Brackets < >
• Angled brackets, also known as chevrons, aren’t
common in modern writing. The most common use for
angled brackets outside of computer programming is
for setting off URLs in text or works cited pages.
• Fishman, Stephen M., and Lucille Parkinson
McCarthy. John Dewey and the Challenge of Classroom
Practice. The Practitioner Inquiry Series. New York
Urbana, Ill.: Teachers College Press, National Council of
Teachers of English, 1998.
<https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/3885600>
•Braces or Curly Brackets { }
•Braces, or curly brackets, are mostly used for
math, computer programming, or music.
•An exception to this would be if a writer
wanted to create a list of items that are all
equal choices.
•Otherwise, this punctuation mark would not
be used in academic writing.
• Is the narrator or speaker adding extra
information? Use parentheses.
• Is the editor or reporter adding extra
information? Use brackets.
• Could you remove the information and the
sentence still makes sense? Use parentheses.
• Does the text include a quote? Use brackets
(unless you’re citing the quote).
• Do you already have parentheses? Use brackets
inside.
• Braces { }
• The { } are called braces. Braces contain sets of
numerical or specialized information to show that they
are considered as a unit.
• You won’t often see braces in writing, but you’ll see
them around groups of numbers and mathematical
expressions.
• Grouping numbers - The teacher wrote a set of
numbers {6, 9, 12} on the board.
• Mathematical expression - (2{1+[23-3]}=x)
•Braces { } are a punctuation mark that
set off information from the rest of the
sentence. Also known as curly brackets,
these marks always appear in pairs,
similar to parentheses (which are
another type of bracket). They look like a
blend of parentheses and square
brackets with a little point in the middle.
• Examples of Braces in a Sentence
• Braces set off any incidental or optional information or
thoughts. In formal writing, braces enclose math equations,
music chords, computer programming commands, or lists of
equal choices.
• She highlighted six numbers {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} on the ruler
she made.
• His behavior changed at pivotal ages {5, 11, 14, 20}.
• Choose a color {red, white, blue, pink} to paint the wall.
• Which ice cream topping is your favorite {chocolate sauce,
sprinkles, caramel, cherries}?
• When To Use Braces in Grammar
• If you can’t think of a time when you’d use these
fancy little symbols, you’re not alone. Braces are
more common in math than in writing.
• But there are a few rare times when punctuation
braces may appear in sentences.
Adding commas to these lists are the only times
you need to include punctuation in braces (unlike
parentheses, braces do not include full sentences,
so they don’t need end punctuation).
•Use Braces To List Items of Equal Value
•Occasionally, you may see braces around a list
of items of equal value. You don’t need to
include the word and in this usage.
•Choose between your friends {Sara, Taylor,
Ann, Isadora} to bring to the movies.
•The lottery numbers were {5, 90, 82, 51, 1}.
• Use Braces Inside Brackets (Inside Parentheses)
• Also known as nesting parentheses, braces can go inside
brackets when brackets appear inside parentheses. You could
call it a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical
statement within a parenthetical statement (if you must), but
don’t add it to your formal writing — it’s for style only.
• My best friend Fiona (who used to live down the street
[which was one street away from my grandmother {who was
actually Fiona’s first grade teacher}]) usually comes over to
play on Mondays.
• Do you think this food is (too [very {extremely}]) spicy?
•Use Braces To List Music Chords
•A very specific usage of braces involves lists of
music chords, which can be confusing if listed
otherwise.
•He played his favorite chords {c, e, g} {e, g,
c2} {g, c2, e2} as he tried to write a love song.
•Please practice {f, a, c} {g, b, d} before our
next lessons.
•Using Braces in Math
•You’ll primarily see braces in scientific
writing and math equations. In these
cases, they’re usually around sets of
numbers {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10} or used to
indicate the order of operations in math
equations {6 + [(7 - 2) x (8 + 3)] - 10}.
• While braces, brackets, and parentheses are often
used interchangeably, they are not the same thing.
Each type of bracket has a slightly different use that
is specific.
• Parentheses ( ) add additional information or
provide information and detail that is helpful to
have.
• Square brackets [ ] add information to a quotation
that does not appear in the original quotation.
• Angled brackets < > denote a web address
in citation
• Apostrophe ( ‘ )
• The ' is called an apostrophe.
• Apostrophes are punctuation marks that indicate
the omission of a letter or letters from a word.
• They form contractions, show the possessive case,
or create plurals of lowercase letters.
• Contractions - I've seen that movie several times.
• Possessive case - Sara’s dog bit the neighbor.
• Plural for lowercase letters - Mind your p's and
q's.
•An apostrophe (pronounced ah-pah-stroh-fee)
is a small punctuation mark near the top of a
line of writing ('). Apostrophes look like single
quotation marks, but they’re used alone
rather than in pairs.
•Apostrophes mainly indicate that letters have
been omitted, or they show a noun’s
possession. Occasionally, they can show that a
single letter or number is plural.
• Deciding when to use an apostrophe can seem trickier than
determining when not to use an apostrophe, but it’s really not.
• Some quick tips to remember before diving in are:
• Is the apostrophe replacing anything?
-No? Then don’t use it.
• Is the apostrophe showing the noun owning anything?
-No? Then don’t use it.
• Would the sentence be confusing without an apostrophe?
-No? Then don’t use it.
• Are you writing a holiday card and adding an -s to your last name?
-No? Don’t use an apostrophe (it's always wrong).
• The main function of an apostrophe is showing
possession.
• Writers used to show possession by adding -es to the end
of a noun, long before spelling conventions made -es a
plural noun form.
• They began using apostrophes to omit the “E” in these
possessive nouns — which is how we get possessive nouns
with an apostrophe and “S” at the end.
• Use Apostrophe + “S” With Nouns That Don’t End in “S”
• When a singular noun has possession over another noun
(such as Mom’s hat or the boy’s dog), add an apostrophe +
“s” to the end of the noun.
• The same goes for collective nouns and plural nouns that
don’t end in “s.”
• The cat’s kittens all began meowing at once. (cat is singular)
• Something’s wrong with Lyle’s computer. (Lyle is singular)
• Our team’s uniforms are green and blue. (team is collective)
• My friend’s family eats dinner together every right. (family is
collective)
• The waiter served the women’s meals. (women is plural, but
doesn’t end in “s”)
• The children’s room was perfectly clean. (children is plural,
but doesn’t end in “s”)
•Only Use an Apostrophe With Plural Nouns
That End in “S”
•When the noun is plural and already ends in
“s,” just add the apostrophe at the end.
•My parents’ house is just around the
corner.
•Let’s go meet the Smiths’ new baby.
•Don’t throw away the kids’ art project.
• Use an Apostrophe With Singular Nouns That End in “S”
(Sometimes)
• It’s the age-old question: Should you add apostrophe + “s” to
singular words that already end in “s” (such as James, cactus,
or dress), or just an apostrophe?
• The answer is that both solutions are correct. It depends on
your style guide and your personal preference.
• Curtis’ teacher asked for his homework. (Correct)
• Curtis’s teacher asked for his homework. (Correct)
• The class’ pet bunny was missing. (Correct)
• The class’s pet bunny was missing. (Correct)
•The only exception is for words that are
the same in singular and plural forms,
such as scissors or Mercedes.
•Add only an apostrophe after these
words, since adding another “s” would
result in an incorrect pronunciation (such
as scissors’s becoming scissorses, which
is not a word).
• Use an Apostrophe When Two Nouns Own Something
• What happens when two nouns possess the same
thing? Add an apostrophe + “s” to only the second
noun if they both own the exact same item.
• Dave and Alice's car needs service. (Both Dave and
Alice own the car)
• Tim and Jane's trip was amazing. (Tim and Jane went
together on the trip)
• Darnell and Dylan's business is doing well. (Darnell and
Dylan own the same business)
• However, if each noun owns their own version of
the same item, then add an apostrophe + “s” to
each noun (and make their items plural).
• Dave’s and Alice's cars need service. (Dave and
Alice each own a different car)
• Tim’s and Jane's trips were amazing. (Tim and
Jane took separate trips)
• Darnell’s and Dylan's businesses are doing well.
(Darnell and Dylan each have a separate business)
• How To Use an Apostrophe To Omit Letters
• Another main function of apostrophes is to replace
missing letters in a word.
• These words are either contractions or shortened
versions of other words.
• Use an Apostrophe To Create Contractions
• Contractions are combinations of two other words in
informal writing. Most contractions combine the
words have, will, would, are, is, and not with other
words.
•​
•Contraction Words
•I've I have
•He'll He will
•They'd They would
•We're We are
•Andre's Andre is
•Isn't Is not
•Let's Let us
•Use an Apostrophe To Shorten Other Words
•When you shorten other words in written
dialect or casual writing, the apostrophe can
replace those missing letters as well.
Short Word Original
swimmin' swimming
'tis it is
'fraid afriad
• How To Use an Apostrophe for Plural Letters and Numbers
• You may also see apostrophes when a writer is describing
plural lowercase letters or numbers.
• This is the only situation where apostrophes can show plurals,
and it’s only to prevent confusion — though some style
guides, including APA style, do not advise using apostrophes
in this way.
I added too many a’s to the “Happy Birthday” sign.
Be sure to dot your i’s when writing in cursive.
How many 2’s are in 2022?
What About “Its” and “It’s”?
•One of the most common grammatical errors
involves mixing up its and it’s. Its (no
apostrophe) shows possession, and it’s (with
an apostrophe) is a contraction for it is.

The fish swims around its bowl. (Possessive)

The fish swims around because it’s hungry.
(Contraction)
•But wait — if its shows possession,
shouldn’t it have an apostrophe?
•No, because its is a possessive modifier and
pronoun, not a possessive noun. Possessive
pronouns such as his, hers, yours,
or ours also don’t include an apostrophe.
•But it’s, like all contractions, does have an
apostrophe.
•Quotation Marks (“ ”)
•The " " are called quotation marks (or double
quotation marks). Quotation marks indicate
the beginning and end of a quoted passage.
They can also show dialogue in fiction.
•Quoted passage - Nathan Hale’s last words
were, “I regret that I have but one life to live
for my country.”
•Dialogue - "Don't go outside," Katie said.
•The ' ' are called single quotation marks (or
single quotes). Single quotation marks show
quotes within a quotation, and they set off
quotes in headlines.
•Quotes within quotations - Marie told the
teacher, "Marc said to me 'Bill started the
fight,' and I believed him."
•Quotes in headlines - President Declares, ‘War
Is Over’
• Quotation marks are punctuation marks that mark
quotations or citations in a sentence. You’ll
typically see them as double quotation marks that
look like double apostrophes (“ ”), but they also
appear in single quotation mark form (‘ ’),
depending on their function in a sentence.
• Also known as inverted commas, speech
marks, quote marks, or just quotes, quotation
marks always appear in pairs. There’s never a time
when you use one quotation mark without the
other.
• Examples of Quotation Marks in a Sentence
• Quotation marks appear where the author needs to set
quoted words apart from the rest of the sentence.
• “How do you do?” said the gentleman.
• I’ve never heard the song “Blowin’ in the Wind” before.
• Benjamin Franklin once said: “There never was a good
war or a bad peace.”
• Our “misunderstanding” ended up causing hundreds of
dollars of damage.
•Use Quotation Marks To Quote Someone
•Any time you’re writing words that someone
else said, you need to put them between
quotation marks. It tells the reader, “I didn’t
write this part — someone else did.” This rule
applies in research papers with formal
citations, gossipy emails about what that guy
said, and everything in between.
• You can introduce a quote with your own words or even interrupt the
quote with your own words, as long as the quotation marks are
around any words you didn’t write yourself.
• In his book Walden, Henry David Thoreau writes, “Rather than love,
than money, than fame, give me truth.”
• "Four score and seven years ago," Lincoln famously began, "our
fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in
Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created
equal."
• My mother always told me: “Kindness is your most important
attribute.”
• Then Cody said “I’m already going to the dance with someone.”
• Use Quotation Marks in Dialogue
• Characters in stories like to talk. Quotation marks
around dialogue let an author separate a character’s
words from the rest of the narration, so readers can
visualize the conversation on the page.
• “No way!” exclaimed Cheryl. “I can’t believe you won!”
• “Did you know about this?” Max questioned.
• Percy smiled. “I love you too,” he whispered.
• “Hey,” said Kelly. “It’s nice to see you again.”
• Use Quotation Marks When Referring to Short Works
• When you’re writing about short works or parts of a longer work,
such as songs in an album, chapters in a book, or episodes of a
television show, put the titles in quotation marks. Longer works are
italicized, depending on the style guide you use (AP style puts
quotation marks around all titles).
• I recited Robert Frost’s poem “The Road Less Traveled” in my
graduation speech.
• My favorite song on the White Album is “Eleanor Rigby.”
• Did you read the article titled “Why Schools Need More Funding” in
the Los Angeles Times?
• Paula’s never seen the I Love Lucy episode “Lucy Does a TV
Commercial.”
• Use Quotation Marks To Show Non-Literal Meaning
• A more stylistic use of quotation marks can show an author’s skeptical
or derisive tone. Sometimes known as scare quotes or sneer quotes,
these quotation marks indicate that the word in question has a
different meaning than it normally does.
• (Use these sparingly; otherwise, your tone might be more sarcastic
than you mean it to be.)
• The last time you “borrowed” something from me, I never got it back.
• Oh yeah, you’re a “genius” all right.
• Joe is working on his "art" (if you consider sleeping all day and
spending my money to be art).
• Her “dress” was nothing more than a sewn-up potato sack.
• Use Quotation Marks To Introduce Uncommon Terms
• Quotation marks are helpful when introducing something
technical or uncommon. Use them the first time you mention
the new term, and then not again. Don't use quotation marks
around technical terms that are commonly known.
• We're big fans of "parallax". We like to offer a scrolling web
design that allows users to view our page like a story that's
unfolding. Now that we're parallax pros, we'll never go back
to a generic site design.
• Insert the new reed into the "chanter" on the bagpipes.
You'll want to gauge its level of ease by sampling a few notes
directly on the chanter before you reinsert it into the bag.
• Punctuation for a Quote
• Now that you know which words go inside quotation marks, it’s time
for the ultimate challenge: What punctuation goes inside quotation
marks? And does it matter where the quote falls in the sentence?
• Ending a Sentence With a Quote
• You can end your sentence with a quote or piece of dialogue. Any
punctuation that comes at the end of the quote (such as periods,
quotation marks, or question marks) stays inside the marks.
• Then he said, "How would you like to get some ice cream after the
movie?"
• My dad shouted, “Come here right now!”
• Liza whispered, “Let’s go.”
•No end punctuation is necessary after these
quotes because they already have end
punctuation. However, if the end punctuation
applies to the whole sentence instead of just
the quote, it goes outside the quotation
marks.
•Did you hear that Ron yelled “I quit”? (The
sentence is asking the question, not Ron)
•I love the song “Shake It Off”! (The sentence
is exclaiming, not the song title)
•Beginning a Sentence With a Quote
•When a sentence begins with a quote, place
the punctuation inside the quotation marks
before continuing the sentence. If there’s no
end punctuation, use a comma.
•"I would love to but I really ought to go
home," I replied.
•"Where are you going?" she asked.
•“Clean your room!” my mom demanded.
• Dashes, Colons, and Semicolons Go Outside Quotation
Marks
• If you have a sentence where another type of
punctuation mark (such as a dash, colon, or semicolon)
follows a quote, it goes outside the quotation mark.
• He said “I care about you” — but then he didn’t show
up for our date.
• There’s only one song I like more than “Unchained
Melody”: “Brown-Eyed Girl.”
• I don’t know “that weird guy who runs this place”; I’m
actually the boss here.
• Capitalize Complete Sentences in Quotes
• If your quoted text is a complete sentence (or
multiple sentences), capitalize the first letter,
regardless of where you put the quote within the
larger sentence.
• She said, "We went to the movies."
• “Have you met my cousin?” asked Marie.
• Pat said “Let’s go,” before noticing that everyone
was already gone.
•When the quote is a fragment or part of the
sentence it’s in, you don’t need to capitalize
it.
Let’s discuss your decision to “skip school and
just hang out.”
Will claimed he couldn’t commit the crime
because “he’s a good person.”
Emily Dickinson believed that the finality of
existence “is what makes life sweet.”
• Can You Use Quotation Marks for Emphasis?
• Style guides and editors are torn on whether quotation
marks are effective ways to emphasize text. Those who
support this usage argue that quotation marks make a
word or phrase more visible, just like italicizing or
underlining it.
• But those against quotation marks for emphasis say
that it’s too easy to misuse them in this way, especially
because quotation marks can also show sarcasm or
non-literal meaning. Just imagine someone saying these
statements with air quotes, and determine whether
they seem genuine or not.
• I’m “overjoyed” to see you. (Are you
emphasizing overjoyed, or are you actually
unhappy to see me?)
• Please review “all” of these documents before the
meeting. (Do you really mean all, or do the
quotation marks mean I only have to review some
of the documents?)
• Mark is the “best” soccer player on the team. (Is
he really the best, or is he actually the worst?)
•What About Single Quotation Marks?
•Now that you’ve got the quotation mark rules
down, here’s a reminder: Those are only the
rules for double quotation marks (“ ”) which
don’t include single quotation marks (‘ ’). In
American English, use single quotation marks:
•when adding a quote within a quote (Jane
asked “Have you heard the song ‘Samba Pa
Ti’ before?”
•when adding a quote within a headline
(President Says Economy Is Fine — ‘Better
Than Ever’)
•Also noteworthy are the British English rules
for quotation marks, which switch the use of
single and double quotation marks. When
quoting a person or writing dialogue in British
English, use single quotation marks, and when
adding a quote within a quote, use double
quotation marks.
• Tips for Remembering Quotation Mark Rules
• Think of quotation marks as oven mitts, and the words
between them as a very hot platter of cookies. You need an
oven mitt on either side or you’ll be burned. That goes for the
little punctuation cookies too — they’re hot!
• But how can you remember when punctuation goes outside
the quotation marks? If you were already eating a cookie
before holding this hot platter (i.e., the sentence already had
punctuation), that cookie doesn’t go on the hot platter. It can
go on a plate next to the platter (outside the quotation
marks).
• Ellipsis (...)
• The .... is called an ellipsis. An ellipsis indicates an omission of
words or sentences.
• Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting
parts of speeches will often employ ellipsis to avoid copying
lengthy text that is not needed.
• Omission of words - She began to count, "One, two, three,
four…" until she got to 10, then went to find him.
• Within a quotation - When Newton stated, "An object at rest
stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion..." he
developed the law of motion.
•An ellipsis (plural ellipses) is
a punctuation mark that consists of three
dots or periods (...) in writing. Also
known as suspension points or even dot-
dot-dot, ellipses appear in informal
writing, news stories, and fiction.
• You’ll see ellipses in a variety of different sentences, but
essentially, they always do the same thing: They replace
missing text, whether it’s a word, a sentence, or several
paragraphs.
• The witness described a “middle-aged man … who
drove a Dodge Stratus.” (Ellipsis replaces irrelevant
details)
• “My kitten … he’s gone …” sobbed the little girl.
(Ellipses show pauses in speaking)
• “Have you seen …” Hannah stopped speaking as Jake
walked in. (Ellipsis replaces missing words as dialogue
trails off)
• Use an Ellipsis for Omission in News Reports
• When news reports include a longer quote, parts of the quote may be
unnecessary to the story. An ellipsis can replace this unnecessary part of the
quote.
• For example, if a fire broke out and a fire chief gave the following quote, most
of the quote would likely be considered unnecessary.
• without an ellipsis - "We've determined positively, absolutely, beyond the
shadow of a doubt, drawing our conclusions from all the available data,
understanding the impact of the recent spate of arsons, that this fire was
accidental."
• with an ellipsis - "We've determined positively … that this fire was accidental."
• Readers get the same idea in a shorter amount of time with the second
sentence. The newspaper saves valuable space for more information, and the
readers don't need to spend time with unnecessary wording.
• Use an Ellipsis for Omission in Formal Writing
• The same rule applies to formal writing, such as academic papers and
published research, when a quote might be too long or clunky.
• For example, a discussion of search and seizure might invoke part of
the Fourth Amendment, but not all of it:
• without ellipses - "The right of the people to be secure in their
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but
upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and
particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or
things to be seized."
• with ellipses - "The right of the people to be secure … against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated …."
• Using Ellipses To Show Pauses in Dialogue
• In fiction, an ellipsis can demonstrate a pause in dialogue or a
character "trailing off" (stopping talking without finishing their
sentence).
• He stammered, "Please ... tell my son ... that I love him ..."
• My mother put the phone to her ear. "Hello? ... Yes, this is Kay ... no,
I'm not interested in a subscription ..."
• "Are you ... are you serious?"
• "I've been wondering ... and I hope you agree ... that we should be
married."
• Longer pauses show that the character is speaking in a drawn-out
way, while ellipses at the end of quotes show that the character has
trailed off for some reason.
• Ellipses in Texting and Social Media
• 21st-century ellipses may be even more significant than earlier versions. After
all, ellipses take on many more meanings in text conversations and social
media platforms, even beyond the dreaded waiting-to-reply ellipsis icon.
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• Adding an ellipsis to a standard reply could create a whole new emotional
response, since it feels like there’s a “but” waiting afterward (or something
even more sinister).
• I really like you.
• I really like you …
• Your wedding was beautiful!
• Your wedding was beautiful …
• I’m waiting outside.
• I’m waiting outside …
• You may also see an ellipsis after a question (Are you coming to the party, or …) to add a
slight tone of impatience or annoyance.
• And an ellipsis by itself could mean “I don’t get it” or “I’m speechless,” depending on the
comment it’s responding to.
• When Shouldn't You Use Ellipses?
• An ellipsis can be a very effective punctuation tool. However, when ellipses are overused or
used incorrectly, they can make writing feel plodding. Avoid using ellipses:
• to indicate a pause in narration (use a comma instead)
• instead of "um" in narration (create new, full sentences instead)
• to cut out large chunks of an important quotation (choose a more specific quotation
instead)
• to interrupt text (use an em dash instead)
• The main rule of ellipses is not to overuse them. When in doubt, find a different way to write
your sentence to avoid the ellipsis unless you know exactly why you're using it.
• Do You Put Spaces in an Ellipsis?
• Ellipses can appear with or without spaces. It all depends
on the style guide you’re using.
• MLA, Chicago, and APA manuals of style use spaces
between each dot [ . . . ] as well as on each side of the
ellipsis.
• AP style guide prefers no spaces between the dots [ … ]
but uses spaces on either side of the ellipsis.
• Many word processors will automatically format an
ellipsis character if you type three periods in a row.
However, if you use spaces, it won’t change the
• Are Ellipses Always Three Dots?
• One day, you may encounter a rare specimen: the four-dot ellipsis. Surely it’s a
typo. Don’t ellipses always have three dots, not four?
• That first dot isn’t part of the ellipsis — it’s the period for the complete
sentence before it. In styles that space out ellipses, that period can look like a
fourth dot.
• Patrick Henry said, “Power is the great evil with which we are contending. . . .
However, where is the check on the power of the judiciary?”
• As José Rizal says in Noli Me Tángere, “Your enemies hate you more than they
hate your ideas. . . . Once you are defeated let the humblest-looking among
you sponsor it and your enemies to humble you will approve it.”
• You only need to worry about including a period before an ellipsis if the
sentence before it is a full sentence, and you’re omitting part or all of the
sentence after it. The same rule applies for sentences that end in an
exclamation mark or question mark.