LSVSS501: SURVEYING OF CIVIL STRUCRURES

Perform Surveying of Civil Structures

LO1.PLAN OF WORK

1.1. Describing Structure elements

1.1.1.Introduction to the road

ROADS: A road is a way or route on land between two places that are paved
or improved to permit travel by transportation means such as cars, motor
vehicles, and horses

The path over which vehicles and other traffic may lawfully pass is called
road. It includes pathway, other related structures like culverts, bridges and
land required for future widening. The entire area required and reserved for
road along its alignment is called right of Way.

a. Road classification

there are many basis of classification such as function, material in which the
surfacing3 is constructed from, and mode of road construction.

A functional classification of arterial

Street roads (Rural Roads): These are the lowest level in the road
hierarchy. They are only sufficient to provide appropriate access to the rural
agricultural, population and commercial small centers served.

Collector roads (Secondary Roads): They have the function of linking

traffic to/from rural areas, either direct to adjacent urban centers or to the
arterial road.

Arterial roads (Primary Roads): These are the main roads connecting
national and international centers.

Based on Road pavement

There are two types of road pavement:

a) Flexible pavement

b) Rigid pavement
Flexible pavement, usually asphalt, is laid with no reinforcemen. The black
top pavement including water and gravel bound macadam fall in this
category.

Rigid pavement: is laid in slabs with steel reinforcement and they are
made of cement concrete either plan, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.

Roads Based on Materials

 Earthen roads
 Gravel roads
 Murrum roads
 Kankar roads
 WBM roads
 Bituminous roads
 Concrete roads

ROAD ALIGNMENT

The position of the center line of the highway in the ground is called highway
alignment.

b. TYPES OF ROAD ALIGNMENT

Highway alignment includes:

 Horizontal alignment and

 Vertical alignment.

Horizontal Alignment includes the straight path, curves or deviation in

horizontal direction.

Vertical Alignment includes vertical curves and gradient on the ground.

But it is difficult to change the alignment once the road is constructed, so
care has to be taken in finalizing the alignment.

c. Factor Controlling Road Alignment

1. Class & Purpose

The alignment of the road is affected by class and purpose.

National and state highways between two stations must be aligned straight
as much as possible whereas, in the case of other types of roads, a deviation
may be allowed where it is found necessary.

2. Obligatory Points

Obligatory points define the alignment through which road should be passed
or not.

The roads are usually built for the development of the areas. Therefore, road
alignment must necessarily pass through important towns, groups of
villages, and places of religious, social, political, and commercial importance

Road alignment should not be passed through historical & cultural

places.

3. Type of Vehicular Traffic

In the case of fast-moving traffic, the road alignment must be straight as far
as possible. In the case of low traffic, the alignment may even have sharp
turns.

4. Gradient

Road alignment should be selected, so longitudinal slopes are not steeper

than the ruling gradient. To achieve this, the alignment might need a
deviation from the straight line.

5. Horizontal Curves

In the case of national and state highways, the radius of the horizontal curve
must not be less than 230 m. Otherwise, the alignment must be improved.
6. Sight Distance

The alignment of roads must be decided such that more and clear sight
distance is available for drivers of the vehicles.

7. Obstructions

Obstruction also affects alignment selection. For example, the alignment

should be improved to avoid marshy land, ponds, wells, graveyards,
historical, monumental, and religious sites, etc.

8. Economic Factor

Road construction becomes economical when the road alignment is straight.

So, straight alignments should be given priority.

9. Availability of Construction Materials

Construction material should be easily available. The use of abundant

materials leads to low construction costs

e. Result of Improper Road Alignment

Improper road alignment leads to the following:

a. Increase in the rate of accidents.

b. Increase in construction and maintenance costs.

c. Increase in the vehicle operating cost. It also leads to the discomfort of the
users.

d. Decrease in durability and strength of the road.

f. Steps in Design of Road Alignment

Before a highway alignment is finalised in a new highway project,

engineering surveys are to be carried out. These engineering surveys may
be completed in the following four stages:

a) Map Study
b) Reconnaissance Survey
c) Preliminary Surveys
d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys

Map Study
It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map
of the area is available. The main features like rivers, hills valleys, etc. are
also shown on these maps.

This helps to know the position of natural features like ponds, rivers, lakes,
hills, etc. This also helps to learn about different alternative alignments.

Reconnaissance Survey

The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the

reconnaissance survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits the
site and examines the general characteristics of the area before deciding the
most feasible routes for detailed studies.

Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are given

below:
a) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and
other obstructions alone the route which are not available in the map
b) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves
of alternate alignments.
c) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and
natural ground water level along the probable routes.
d) Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of
geological features
e) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries
C. Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

1. To analyze the different alternatives to the road alignment.
2. To estimate the cutting and filling required in the construction.
3. To survey the alignments proposed by the reconnaissance survey.
4. To finalize the best alignment among different alternatives.
D. Detailed Survey
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all
drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should
be taken at all staked points.
• Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work
calculations and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.

• The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of

50 to 100 m in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up
areas and 20 m in hilly terrain.

• The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves

and where there is abrupt change in cross slopes.
• All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail up to
considerable distances on either side.
• All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using
conventional signs. Adequate hydrological details are also collected and
recorded.
• A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile

g. Interpretation of Topographic map

What is a topographic map?

A map is a graphical representation, at an established scale, of a part of the

earth's surface, A topographic map is a detailed and accurate illustration of
man-made and natural features on the ground such as roads, railways,
power transmission lines, contours, elevations, rivers, lakes and geographical
names.

Topographic maps show contours, elevation, forest cover, marsh, pipelines,

power transmission lines, buildings and various types of boundary lines such
as international, provincial and administrative, and many others.

What information is on a topographic map?

Topographic maps identify numerous ground features, which can be grouped

into the following categories:

Relief: mountains, valleys, slopes, depressions as defined by contours.

Hydrography: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, rapids, falls

Vegetation: wooded areas Transportation: roads, trails, railways, bridges,

airports/airfield, seaplane anchorages

Culture: buildings, urban development, power transmission line, pipelines,

towers
Boundaries: international, provincial/territorial, administrative,
recreational, geographical

Toponymy: place names, water feature names, landform names, boundary

names.

What are contour lines?

Contour lines connect a series of points of equal elevation and are used to
illustrate relief on a map.

They show the height of ground above mean sea level (MSL) either in metres
or feet, and can be drawn at any desired interval.

For example, numerous contour lines that are close to one another indicate
hilly or mountainous terrain; when further apart they indicate a gentler
slope; and when far apart they indicate flat terrain.

Contour Interval

Interval between two successive contours. It is also known as vertical

interval, usually written as V. I. Generally, it is constant for a given map.

A numerical value placed upon a contour line to denote its elevation relative
to a given datum, usually mean sea level is called Contour Value.

The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is termed as the
horizontal equivalent.

The contour interval depends upon the following factors:

(i) The nature of the ground: In flat and uniformly sloping country, the
contour interval is small, but in broken and mountainous region, the contour
interval should be large otherwise the contours will come too close to each
other.

(ii) The purpose and extent of the survey: Contours interval is small if
the area to be surveyed is small and the maps are required to be used for
the design work or for determining the quantities of earth work etc., while
wider interval shall have to be kept for large areas and comparatively less
important works.
(iii) The scale of the map: The contour interval should be in the inverse
ratio to the scale of i.e. the smaller the scale, the greater the contour
interval.

(iv) Time and expense of field and office work: The smaller the interval,
the greater is the amount of field -work and plotting-work.

Purposes of Contouring Contour

survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a

road, a railway, a canal, a dam, a building etc.

1. For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or

suitable site.

2. To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.

3. To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of

earthwork both in cutting and filling should be minimum.

4. For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or

mountainous.

5. To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression,

hill, steep or small slopes.

h. Characteristics of Contours

1. All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

2. Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and
steep-slope where they run close together.
3. A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced
and

4. A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.

5. A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill , if the higher
values are inside
6. A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a depression if the
higher values are outside

7. Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.

If the higher values are inside the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a
Ridge.

If the higher values are outside the bend, it represents a Valley.

Based on the shape of contours, landforms such as valleys and ridges can be
recognised
8. Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on map except in the
case of an overhanging cliff

•If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical
cliff In this case, several contours coincide and the horizontal equivalent
becomes zero.

• If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or

a cave.
9. Depression between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by four
sets of contours .

i. Uses of contours maps:

The following are some of the important uses of contour maps:

The suitable site can be selected for construction activities.

Reservoir capacity can be determined.
Alignment for roads, canals, transmission lines are done
efficiently with the help of contour map.
Nature of ground surface may be determined.
Estimating the quantities of earthwork.
The nature of ground i.e. flat, uniformly, sloping, undulating or
hilly etc.
It is possible to select the most suitable and economical sites for
work such as the location of roads, railways, canals, pipelines,
dams, reservoirs etc. by using contour map.
Estimating of the volume of reservoir storage water, volume of
earthwork in cutting and embankment can be done by using
contour map.

j. Map scale:

The scale is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance
on the ground.

The map scale is usually located in the legend box of a map, which explains
the symbols and provides other important information about the map.

A map scale can be printed (written) in a variety of ways :

 A ratio or Representative Fraction (RF): indicate how many units

on the earth’s surface are equal to one unit on the map. It can be
expressed as “1/100,000” or “1:100,000”.
 A word statement (Engineering scale): Gives a written
description of map distance, such as “1Cm=1Km” to indicate that “One
centimeter equals to thousand centimeters”.
 A graphical scale: It is simply line marked with distance on the
ground which the map user can use along with a ruler to determine
scale on the map.

Map scales are also known as large scale (which has larger fraction, e.g.:
1/25,000) or small scale (which has smaller fraction, e.g.: 1/7,500,000).

k. How to measure distances on a map?

Use a ruler to measure the distance between the two places. If the line is
quite curved, use a string to determine the length and then measure the
string. If the scale is a representative fraction, multiply the measured
distance of the ruler or string by the denominator, giving distance in the
ruler units. Congratulation!

Contour gradient tracing

A contour plan or map is very much useful in locating the route of highway or
any other communication line.

Let, on the following sketch, be required to locate a route from “A” to “B” at
any acceptable gradient, say for example 5%, having a map scale of 1 in
2000 comprise of 2m contour interval.

To join two successive contours, the route should have the horizontal
equivalent of

This length of 40m at the scale of 1 in 2000 is represented by 2cm between

two successive contours.

l. CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD & ITS ELEMENTS

Carriage way : The Width of pavement way on which vehicles travel is
called carriage way.

It may be cement concrete road or bituminous pavement.

Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the width of the vehicle

and the minimum side clearance for safety.

Lane: Is a part of carriageway (roadway) within a road marked out for use by
a single line of vehicles in such a way as to control and guide drivers for the
purpose of reducing traffic conflicts.
.

sideslope.

The slope of earthwork in Filling(embankment) or cutting is called

sideslope.

Shoulder

Shoulder: Is a lateral surface located on either sides of carriageway,

reserved only for pedestrians, and in some cases is designed as part of
carriageway.

As per IRC, the min. width of shoulder should be 2.5m.

The colour should be different from that of the pavement so as to be distinct.

Building line

The distance from the centre line of road on either side, within which
construction of building is not permitted is called building line.

Purposes :

For future widening of road

To reduce the chance of accidents
To relieve residents from noise pollution
To prevent disturbance to the traffic by nearbyresidents

Borrow pits

The pits dug along the road alignment for using excavated earth in
construction of embankment are known as borrow pits.

Borrow pit should be dug atleast 5m from toe of embankment.

Kerbs

The boundaries between pavement and shoulders or footpath are known as

kerbs.

Camber
 Camber or cross slope is the slope provided to the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off rain water from the road surface.
 It depends on the pavement surface and amount of rainfall.
 It is expressed as a percentage.

Shape of the cross slope

• Parabolic shape(fast moving vehicle)
• Straight line
• Combination of parabolic and straight line

Purposes of camber

To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quicklyas

possible.
To prevent entry of water into bituminous pavement layers.
To prevert entry of surface water into subgrade soil through pavement.
To make pavement surface attractive.

m. STUDY OF THEORETICAL ROUTE ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

GENERAL CONSIDERATION IN CHOOSING THE ROUTE LOCATION:

Introduction

A route may have three location:

 Valley location
 Cross-country location
 Ridge line location
a) In the case of valley location, the route follows the valleys and so:
 It has few excessive grades (slopes).
 There is often danger of washouts and floods.
 A number of bridges may be required, to cross streams or rivers
that found in this valley.
b) In the case of cross-country location, the route is located in
opposition to the drainage and so:
 The route crosses the bridges very often.
 It will have steep grades.
 The construction costs along such a line may also be excessive.
c) Locations along Ridge line are:
 Relatively free from drainage problems and major drainage
structures(bridges).
 Also, steep grades are encountered when the location drops into
valleys or when the ridge is regained.

Geometric Design of Highways

Highway geometric design involves the design of geometric elements of a

highway and fixation of standards with respect to various components

Some major elements of road geometry are:

• Horizontal alignment

• Vertical alignment

• Sight distances

• Cross -section etc.

Criteria that govern the geometric design

 Functional classification of the road

 Design traffic volume and composition
 Nature of terrain
 Traffic capacity
 Design speed
 Density and character of adjoining land use
 Economic & Environmental Considerations
 Road users characteristics
 Vehicle size and performance
 Level service to be provided
 Available fund
 Safety, etc

Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment of a road is usually a series of straights (tangents)

and circular curves which may or may not be connected by transition curves.

Curve Surveying

In the practical life, curves are generally used on highways & railways where
it is necessary to change the direction of motion.

Types of Curve
Horizontal circular curves

Curves are generally used on highways where it is necessary to change the

direction of motion. Horizontal curve/curvature is a curve or succession of
curves, normally circular, in plan.

A curve may be Circular, transition and is always connect two straight

directions (tangents).

Types of Circular Curve

Simple Curve: A simple curve consist of a single arc connecting two

straights or tangents.

COMPOUND CURVE: A compound curve consist of two arcs of different radii

curving in the same direction and lying on the same side of their common
tangent , their centers being on the same side of the curve.
REVERSE CURVE: A reverse curve is composed of two arcs of equal or
different radii bending or curving in opposite direction with common tangent
at their junction, their centers being in opposite sides of the curve.

Definition and Notation of Simple Curve

1. Length of tangent or Tangent Distance (T): Is the distance between
the Point of the Curve (T1) or the Point of Tangency (T2) and the Vertex
(Point of Intersection).

2. Back tangent: Also called “First tangent” is the tangent (AT1)

previous to the curve.

3. Forward tangent: Also called “Second tangent” is the tangent (T2B)

following the curve.

4. Vertex (V) or Point of intersection (PI): If the back and forward

tangents are produced, they will meet in a point called Vertex or Point of
Intersection.

5. Point of curvature (T1): Is the beginning of the curve, where the

alignment changes from a tangent to a curve.

6. Point of tangency (T2): It is the end of the curve, where the alignment
changes from a curve to a tangent.

7. Intersection angle (α): or External deflection angle between two

tangents. Is the angle between “AV” produced and “VB”.

8. Deflection angle: Deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle
at T1, between the back tangent and the chord from T1 to point on the
curve.

9. External or Apex distance (E): It is the distance from the mid-point of

the curve to the vertex (V).

10. Length of the curve: It is the total length of the curve from T1 to T2.

11. Long chord: It is the chord joining T1 and T2.

12. Midi-chord: It is a half the long chord.

15. Mid-ordinate: It is the ordinate from the mid-point of the long chord to
the mid-point of the curve.
CALCULATION OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE ELEMENTS
EXERCISES 1.

Two horizontal tangents meet at central angle of 172 grades. Calculate all
necessary data to connect two tangents with the 500m radius of curvature.

Minimum radius of curvature:

When vehicles negotiate a circular curve, a sideways frictional force is

developed between the tyres and road surface. This inertial force must be
balanced by centripetal forces derived from the applied superelevation. The
relationship between the radius, speed and frictional forces required to keep
the vehicle in its path are given by:

Where

V = design speed in km/h

e = superelevation

f = road surface friction

The maximum or minimum design speed can be derived from this relation
according to whether the minimum or maximum radius of curvature is
known: Hence
Superelevation: (The Cant)

When a road pavement is sloped upwards the outside of a curve, it is said to

be banked or super-elevated.

Thus, super-elevation or cant is the distance by which the outer end of the
road is raised above the inner one. When a vehicle moves on a curve, the
sudden impact of centrifugal force coupled with the inertia of the vehicle
would cause the vehicle to sway outwards, and if this exceeds a certain
value, the vehicle may overturn. In order to resist this force, it is usual to
super-elevate the roadway cross section.

Vehicle moving around a circular curve is subjected to two main forces

1- Outward centrifugal force

2- Inward radial force ( due to the frictional effect between tires and
roadway.

P = Centrifugal force

W = Weight of the vehicle

Q = Inclination of the road pavement

T = Resultant force

CG= Centre of gravitation of vehicle