UNIT II: LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ANIMAL COMPLEXITY

Learning Objectives:
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
1. identify the macromolecules present in the living organisms;
2. define the cell and its function, enumerate the different cellular components and distinguish
the different cell structures in plants and animals;
3. discuss the functions of extracellular matrix constituents in animal cells;
4. explain the different transport mechanism in the plasma membrane; 5. describe the cell cycle
and what emerges during each stage of the cycle; and
6. differentiate the types of animal tissues and give the function of each kind.

A. Chemical Basis of Life

Common descent from an ancient ancestor is reflected by the unusual consistency of chemical
constituents and metabolism in living organisms.
▪ Matter is comprised of elements, a substance that cannot be separated into different
substances by a chemical reaction.
▪ Essential elements are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen and these make up 96% of
living matter. Trace elements are required by an organism in only minute quantities such as iron and
zinc.

The arrangement of the atoms determines the element’s properties

▪ Atom is the littlest unit of matter that keeps the properties of an element. Subatomic particles
are smaller atoms present in each element.
▪ Each proton has one unit of positive charge, each electron has one unit of a negative charge,
and a neutron is electrically neutral. Protons and neutrons are tightly packed together in an atomic
nucleus, at the center of an atom.
▪ Unlike forms of the same element which have a similar number of protons but a different
number of neutrons is called isotopes. These are used to date fossils or as medical tracers.
▪ A molecule consists of two or more atoms linked together by chemical bonds, for example,
two atoms of oxygen combined chemically.
▪ Compound is a substance whose molecules contain more than one kind of an atom. For
example, water is a chemical compound consisting of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen
(H2O).

Water: The Solvent of Life

Water is one of the most biologically important compounds in living organisms. Water is
involved in plant metabolism, is the source of oxygen in the air we breathe, and its hydrogen atoms
are incorporated into the many organic compounds present in the bodies of living organisms.
Without water, organisms cannot remain biologically active.
▪ Solution is liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
▪ Solvent is the dissolving agent of a solution and the substance that is dissolved is the solute.
Water is an excellent solvent due to its polar molecules, that is, they have partial positive and partial
negative charges. Water performs an important role in facilitating chemical reactions.

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▪ The other properties of water include cohesion (responsible for the transport of the water
column in plants) and adhesion molecules (clinging of one substance to another, contributes too, as
water stick to to the wall of the vessels).
▪ Surface tension, a degree of required to elasticity or disruption of the surface of a liquid, is
connected to cohesion. An example is strider can walk across the surface of a small pond.
▪ The high specific heat of water is the amount of energy required to increase the temperature
of water by one degree Celsius is huge. So much energy is needed to raise the temperature of water,
oceans, and other bodies of water tend to maintain a relatively constant temperature. The high water
content of living organisms enables them to have constant internal body temperature conducive to
the occurrence of many biological reactions which normally have a narrow temperature range.

Chemical Compounds in Living Cells

▪ Inorganic compounds do not have the elements carbon and hydrogen in chemical composition
such as water, mineral salts, inorganic acids, and bases.
▪ Organic compounds are chemical compounds present in living organisms that contain carbon
which is considered the central component of organic compounds because it can form bonds with a
great variety of atoms.
▪ Monomers are small organic molecules such as monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, and
nucleotides.
▪ Polymers are grouped of monomers that act together to produce a great variety of larger
molecules known as macromolecules. The major macromolecules which are important in living
organisms are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

A. Carbohydrates, it is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The types of
carbohydrates are monosaccharides (the simplest carbohydrates), disaccharide (consist of two
monosaccharides), and polysaccharide (contain many monosaccharides)
▪ Glucose a simple sugar from which larger carbohydrate molecules are formed. When two
monosaccharide molecules are joined together chemically, a double sugar disaccharide and water
are formed, a process is called dehydration synthesis.
▪ Polysaccharides have structural and storage roles such as starch (plants) and glycogen
(animals). Starch and glycogen are storage compounds of energy that could easily be broken down
into glucose monomers.
▪ In some animal cells, carbohydrates in combination with proteins
(glycoproteins) serve as recognition sites on the membrane of certain cells.

B. Lipids are biomolecules that contain fatty acids or a steroid nucleus and insoluble in water but
readily soluble in organic solvents. The lipids that contain fatty acids are waxes, fats and oils, glycerol
phospholipids, and prostaglandin. While steroids are types of lipids that do not contain fatty acids.
Lipid molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and oxygen atoms are characteristics of the
hydrophilic (waterloving) functional group, lipids with less oxygen are not soluble in water and are,
therefore, hydrophobic (water-fearing). Among the lipids with biological importance are
triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, carotenoids, and waxes.
▪ Triglycerides are made up of glycerol contains three-carbon alcohol with three – OH groups,
and fatty acid, a long chain of hydrocarbon tails with a carboxyl group (– COOH) at one end. Saturated
fatty acids are known as fats has high melting points that make them solid at room temperatures such
as butter and cheese. Unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points are liquids at room
temperature are also called oils, prevalent in plants such as olive and coconut.

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▪ Phospholipids, have one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphorus-containing region which is
polar (hydrophilic), which interacts readily with water. In biological membranes, phospholipids have
their polar region (heads) lines up at their exterior parts exposed to water, while the nonpolar ends
(tails) tightly form the interior of the membrane.
▪ Prostaglandins, produced by injured tissues and are involved in pain, fever, and inflammation
but are not produced when anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin inhibit their synthesis.
▪ Steroids have multiple rings that are carbons, some are important constituents of
membranes, others are hormones such as testosterone that regulate the sexual development of
males, and estrogen and progesterone, both regulating sexual development in females.
▪ Carotenoids are a family of light-absorbing pigments in plants and animals. Betacarotene is
one of the pigments that trap light energy in leaves. In humans, it is broken down into vitamin A
molecule, from which we make the pigment rhodopsin, which is required for vision.

C. Proteins are polymers that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur and
are formed from small monomers called amino acids. Most amino acids contain an amino group (–
NH2) written on the left and a carboxyl (–COOH) group bonded to the alpha carbon on the right side.
▪ Peptide bonds are the covalent bonds that joined amino acids. A dipeptide consists of two
amino acid molecules, while a polypeptide has many amino acid molecules, which comprise a protein
molecule.
▪ The polypeptide chains that make up protein are folded or twisted to form a three-
dimensional shape. This conformation determines the function of protein.
▪ Four different levels of an organization can be distinguished in the protein molecule –
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
▪ There are 20 different kinds of amino acids used to make proteins in the cell. A large number
of different kinds of proteins can be formed because of the many ways amino acids can be arranged.
By changing the sequence of just one amino acid on a chain, the protein molecule is changed. Much
of the work of the cell is concerned with the production of proteins. Since proteins are involved in
most of the body’s function and life processes. The sequence of amino acids is determined by
deoxyribonucleic acids.

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D. Nucleic acids are formed from monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of (1) a
five-carbon sugar pentose (2) a phosphate group, and (3) nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base.
▪ Two kinds of pentose sugar are ribose and deoxyribose.
▪ The bases are 1) purines, consisting of adenine and guanine, and 2) pyrimidines, consisting of
cytosine, thymine, and uracil. Based on the nitrogen base, there are five different kinds of nucleotides.
▪ The nucleotides are linked together as polynucleotides by their sugars and phosphates
forming the sides of the backbone, and the bases (attached to sugars) projecting from the chain.
These polynucleotides are now called nucleic acids.
▪ The pentose sugar in the DNA is deoxyribose while ribose in RNA which is differed by one
oxygen atom.
▪ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules are double-stranded with the two antiparallel
polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonding between their nitrogen bases.
▪ Ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules are single-stranded with different types such as the
messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA.
▪ Nucleic acids are the compounds that pass hereditary information from one generation to
another, making possible the continuity of life. The genes or genetic material are found in DNA and
nucleic acids carry the information from genes to certain structures in the cytoplasm which direct
the synthesis of proteins

B. The Cell as a Units of Life

In the hierarchy of a biological organization, the cell is the
simplest organization of matter that exhibits the properties of life.
Some organisms are single-celled or unicellular; others are
multicellular or colonial.

Microscopy
Cells that are too small to be seen with the naked eye are
viewed with the help of the microscope. Using a light microscope (LM),
detectable light is distributed through the specimen and then through
the glass lenses which bend the light so that the specimen image is
magnified by the way it is projected into the eye or a camera.
▪ The quality of an image depends on: (1) Magnification, the ratio
of an object's image size to its real size, effectively to about 1,000 times
the actual size of the specimen. (2) The measurement of image
clearness is called resolution. (3) The change in brightness between the light and dark areas of an
image is the contrast. Staining is one of the methods for enhancing the contrast of the specimen.
▪ To overcome the resolution barrier of light microscopy in studying organelles electron
microscope was developed. Electron microscope (EM) concentrates on a beam of electrons over the
sample or on its surface.
▪ Modern electron microscopes can theoretically achieve a resolution of about 0.002 nm
however they cannot clearly determine structures smaller than across 2 nm. Two types of EM are
scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope which are shown in the figure
below.

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Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that sort their functions
Cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes (“before nucleus”) are independent,
single-celled organisms, and the DNA is localized in a region but is not bound by a membrane such
as the domain bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotes (“true nucleus”) have cells with a membrane-bound
nucleus containing DNA, observed in domain eukaryote. Eukaryotic cells contain many other
structures called organelles that perform specific functions and they have three basic parts:
1. The plasma membrane is the border
outside of the cell which serves as an
impermeable barrier that controls the passage of
material into and out of the cell. It separates the
internal metabolic events from the environment
and allows them to proceed in organized,
controlled ways, and it has specific receptors for
external molecules that alter the cell’s function.
2. Cytoplasm is located outside the nucleus
and the semi-fluid portion is called cytosol where
the various organelles are suspended.
3. The nucleus is the cell control center that
contains the chromosomes and is separated from
the cytoplasm by its nuclear envelope. The semi-
fluid material inside the nucleus is the
nucleoplasm. And the nucleolus is the preassembly
for ribosomes.
▪ Some reasons why most cells are small are: (1) The ratio of the volume of the cell’s nucleus
to the volume of its cytoplasm must not be so small that the nucleus cannot control the cytoplasm.
(2) Cell volume works to limit cell size. As the radius of a cell lengthens, cell volume increases more
rapidly than the cell surface area. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the cell becomes too small for
a suitable exchange of nutrients and wastes when the cell volume becomes too large.

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▪ Most of the organelles are present in both plants and animals such as the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. Chloroplasts are present only in cells of
photosynthetic eukaryotes while lysosomes are located only in animal cells.
▪ Regulation of proteins and perform metabolic functions in the cells are the main role of
endomembrane system which comprise of the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membranes.
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in many eukaryotic cells is accounted for more than half of
the total membrane, located in the nuclear envelope, and has two distinct regions: the region with
no ribosome is called the smooth ER while portions with ribosomes scattering on its surface is called
rough ER.
• The Golgi apparatus is the region where the ER products are modified, production of
macromolecules, and sort and packages materials into transport vesicles. Cisternae is the flattened
membranous sacs in the Golgi apparatus.
• A lysosome contains hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules. It can engulf
another cell by phagocytosis then forms a food vacuole, and digests the molecules. Autophagy is
performed by lysosome with the use of enzymes to reprocess the cell’s organelles and
macromolecules.
• Vacuoles are diverse maintenance compartments. A plant cell may have one central big
vacuole to hold organic compounds and water while animal cells can have several small vacuoles
for transport and storage.
• Vesicle is the site of intracellular digestion, storage, or transport.
▪ The cytoskeleton is a system of fibers ranging all over the cytoplasm. This structure helps in
organelles anchorage, maintains the shape of the cell, arranges the activities and structures of the
cell, and assists in the process of motility. It is comprised of three kinds of molecular structures:
o Microtubules are the thickest, an example is a centriole that forms the basal body of cilia and
flagella and vital in mitotic spindle formation.
o Microfilaments, or actin filaments, are the thinnest components that give structural support
and assists in cell movement.
o Intermediate filaments are network of fibers with thicknesses in a medium range.

Extracellular connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities

Materials secretions and synthesis outside the plasma membrane are performed by most
cells. Some of the extracellular structures involved in this process are the extracellular matrix (ECM)
of animal cells, cell walls of plants, and intercellular junctions. In this section, the focus of discussions
is the ECM of animal cells.

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▪ Animal cells are enclosed by an extracellular matrix (ECM) that functions for support,
adhesion, movement, and regulation. ECM is made up of glycoproteins including collagen,
proteoglycans, and fibronectin. Integrins are receptor proteins located in the plasma membrane
from where ECM proteins bind.
▪ Direct contact between neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems that are
regularly interacting, adhere, and communicate is facilitated by intercellular junctions. Several types
of intercellular junctions are:
o Plasmodesmata are passages that make a hole in plant cell walls, from where water and small
solutes can transfer from cell to cell.
o Tight junctions, prevent leakage of the extracellular fluid of neighboring cells plasma
membranes by pressing together.
o Desmosomes or anchoring junctions that attach cells together into strong sheets.
o Gap junctions or communicating junctions that offer cytoplasmic channels between
neighboring cells.

Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles to function. For example,
coordinating components of the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and plasma membrane help macrophages
to destroy bacteria.

C. Structure and Function of Plasma Membrane Membrane Proteins and Their

Functions
Most of the membrane’s specific functions are determined by proteins. Those proteins that
are fixed to the surface of the membrane are called peripheral proteins. Some proteins that enter the
hydrophobic core are called integral proteins and one of the examples is transmembrane proteins
which extend the membrane. Six major functions of membrane proteins are shown figure below.

▪ Cells distinguish each other by binding to surface molecules on the plasma membrane which
are usually carbohydrates. Carbohydrates present in membrane may differ among individuals and
cell types of individuals, and among various species.
o Glycolipids are membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids. Glycoproteins if
membrane carbohydrates bind to proteins.

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Membrane structure results in selective permeability
The plasma membrane allows some substances to pass easily than the other a property
called selective permeability. This structure is composed of phospholipids that contain hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions and describe in an arrangement called the fluid mosaic model, which is a
collection of proteins implanted in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer. Nonpolar molecules like
hydrocarbons can pass through the lipid while polar molecules like polysaccharides or proteins do
not cross the membrane easily.
▪ Transport proteins like channel proteins allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the
membrane, which certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel.
o Carrier protein is specific for the substance it moves, it binds to molecules and
there is shape modification to transport them across the membrane.
▪ The diffusion of a substance across a membrane without the use of energy is called passive
transport. The affinity for molecules to scatter out uniformly into the available space is called
diffusion.
o The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from the region of lower
solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration is called osmosis.
– Tonicity is the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water such as isotonic,
hypotonic, and hypertonic solution.

▪ Transport of a molecule with the help of channel proteins across the plasma membrane is
facilitated diffusion. For instance, Aquaporin, for facilitated diffusion of water while those channels
that open or close in response to a stimulus is called ion channels.
▪ Movement of solutes or molecules against the concentration gradient and with the use of
energy is called active transport, an example is carrier proteins.
o For animals, the major electrogenic pump is the sodium-potassium pump while
the for plants, fungi, and bacteria is the proton pump.

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o Cotransport occurs when the active transport of a solute indirectly drives the transport of
another solute and this is commonly observed in plants, where the gradient of hydrogen ions
generated by proton pumps to drive the active transport of sugar into the cell.
Bulk transport across the plasma membrane
Bulk transport requires energy in order to pass through inside the plasma membrane such
as the transport of large molecules of polysaccharides and proteins with the help of vesicles.
▪ Exocytosis, vesicles move towards the membrane, attached with it, and discharge their
contents or products like secretory cells.
▪ Endocytosis, cells engulf large molecules and forming vesicles in the plasma membrane and
it has three types.
o Phagocytosis is known as cellular eating since cell consumes a particle in a vacuole then it fuses
with a lysosome to break down the particle.
o Pinocytosis is called cellular drinking where molecules are obtained when fluid coming from the
outside of the membrane is absorbed into tiny vesicles.
o Receptor-mediated endocytosis, attachment of specific ligands to receptors which initiates vesicle
formation.

D. The Cell Cycle

The growth of a multicellular organism is not
only due to the increase in the size of cells increase
in the number of cellular units. Cell division
accomplishes the increase in the number of cells
and it is a process by which a cell divides to form
two new cells, either to produce identical cells or
to make cells with half of the original number of
chromosomes.
▪ The cell division is an integral part
of the cell cycle (interval
between one cell division and the next). Actual
nuclear division, or mitosis, occupies only
about 5% to 10% of the cell cycle; the rest of
the cell’s time is spent in interphase, the stage
between nuclear divisions.
▪ Interphase occurs before
mitosis and meiosis and it has three subphases:
o G1 or first growth or gap phase, signifies the initial growth phase of the cell.
o Synthesis phase involves DNA replication which is vital to make sure that each
daughter cell gets the same genetic material as is existent in the parent cell and the result is a pair
of sister chromatids.
– Each chromatid attaches to its other copy, or sister, at a point of constriction called a
centromere, specific DNA sequence of about 220 nucleotides and has a specific location on any
given chromosome. Bound to each centromere is a disk of a protein called a kinetochore, which
eventually is an attachment site for the microtubules of the mitotic spindle.
– The complete genetic information of an organism is
called a genome. Chromosomes of eukaryotic cells constitute the chromatin, DNA molecules,
and proteins that shrinks during cell division.

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o The G2 or second growth or gap phase organizes the cell for division which includes replication
of the organelles, production of microtubules and protein that will make up the mitotic spindle
fibers, and chromosome condensation.

▪ Eukaryotic cell division consists of mitosis (the division of the nucleus), cytokinesis (the
division of the cytoplasm), and meiosis (sex cells are produced after a reduction in chromosome
number).
▪ The cell cycle consists of the interphase (G1, S, and G2 phases) and the mitotic phase (mitosis
and cytokinesis).
1. Mitosis produces cells with the same information, identical daughter cells with the same
amount of DNA. It is a process of reproduction in unicellular organisms while means of growth and
replacement in a multicellular organism. It is consisting of four distinct phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
o Prophase: A spindle fiber starts to form, the nucleolus disappears, nuclear envelope
disintegrates, centrosome starting to move apart the opposite poles of the cell, and
condensed chromosomes are visible
o Metaphase: A microtubule that regulates chromosome movement during mitosis is the
mitotic spindle, which arises from the centrosomes and includes spindle microtubules and
asters, and some are attached to the kinetochores of chromosomes that move the
chromosomes to the metaphase plate.
o Anaphase: Separation of sister chromatids is visible which moves along the kinetochore
microtubules in the direction of opposite ends of the cell.
o Telophase: Spindle fiber degenerates, nucleolus and nuclear enveloped reorganize, and two
identical daughter nuclei are formed.
o Formation of cleave furrow is the distinctive process of cytokinesis in animal cells producing
two daughter cells.
o Bacterial chromosome duplicates and the two daughter chromosomes divide is a process
called binary fission.

The regulation of cell cycle

Cell cycle control by STOP and GO chemical signal at critical points. Critical cellular
processes are specified if have been ended correctly though the release of signals.
▪ G1 checkpoint is the most critical point or the restriction point. If the cell receives the “go
signal” it divides, it does not cell exits the cycle and switches to G0 phase or non-dividing state.
▪ G2 checkpoint confirms that duplication of DNA in S phase has been accomplished.
▪ M checkpoint ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the mitotic spindle by a
kinetochore.
▪ Regulation of cell cycle control involves the activation molecule or the Cyclins and the go-
ahead signals that are released by cyclin-dependent kinases at the G1 and G2 checkpoints.
▪ Growth factors stimulate other cells to divide. In density-dependent inhibition, crowded cells
stop dividing. Attachment of most animal’s cells to a substratum is needed for the cells to divide.
▪ Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms and can form tumors.
Malignant tumors attack neighboring tissues and can proliferate and transfer which may form
secondary tumors.

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2. Meiosis. Living organisms are distinguished by their ability to reproduce their kind. Genes
are the segments of DNA that are transferred from parents to offspring by inheriting the
chromosomes and we receive one set of chromosomes from our mother and one set from our father.
▪ Production of genetically identical offspring by one parent is a process of mitosis and called
asexual reproduction.
▪ When two parents give rise to offspring which inherited a unique combination of genes from
both parents is called sexual reproduction.
▪ Homologous chromosomes are the two chromosomes composing a pair, have the same
characteristics, or called autosomes.
▪ Sex chromosomes are distinct from each other in their characteristics, represented as X and
Y, and determine the sex of the individual, XX being female, XY being male.
▪ A cell that has two sets of each of its chromosomes is called diploid, for instance, a human has
46 chromosomes in somatic cells but in gametes containing only one set of chromosomes are
haploid cells.
▪ The ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes by meiosis during the sexual maturity of an
organism. During fertilization, sperm and egg cells fuse forming a diploid zygote. The zygote
progresses into an adult organism.
▪ Sexual life cycles differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization and the three main types are:
o During gamete formation meiosis of animal, cell occurs. Gametes are the only haploid cells.
o Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation of generation where it includes both diploid and
haploid multicellular stages.
o Most fungi and some protists, meiosis produces haploid cells that give rise to a haploid
multicellular adult organism.

Meiosis is the reduction of chromosome number

There are two sets of divisions in meiosis and these are meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I
(Interphase, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I) reduces the number of
chromosomes from diploid to haploid. Meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and
telophase II) produces four haploid daughter cells. These two divisions result in four daughter cells
(rather than the two daughter cells of mitosis), each with only half as many chromosomes as the
parent cell—one set, rather than two. Meiosis and mitosis can be distinguished from mitosis by
three events in Meiosis I:
▪ Synapsis and crossing over: During prophase I there is physical connections and genetic
information exchange between homologous chromosomes.
▪ Tetrads on the metaphase plate: The metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the metaphase plates. And independent assortment also
occurs in this phase where chromosomes separate randomly causing genetic recombination.
▪ Separation of homologs: The anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs move toward opposite
poles of the cell. And in anaphase II of meiosis, the sister chromatids separate.
▪ After telophase I and cytokinesis (a division of cytoplasm) two haploid daughter cells are
formed.
▪ Meiosis II is similar to mitosis except that cells contain a half number of chromosomes.
▪ Rearranging of genetic material in meiosis creates genetic variation which contributes to
evolution. Origins of genetic variation among offspring occur in species that produce sexually.
▪ In random fertilization, the fusion of gametes will produce a zygote with any of about 64
trillion diploid combinations.

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E. Animal Tissues
Cells that are grouped together and similar in structure and function is called tissues. The
four primary tissue types—epithelium or epithelial (covering), connective tissue (support), nervous
tissue (control), and muscle (movement). The study of structures and arrangements of tissues is
called histology.
1. Epithelial tissues or epithelium locations are body linings, body coverings, and glandular
tissue of the body. These are for defense, absorption, filtration, and secretion.
▪ Sheets are formed when cells are closely fit
together. The free surface of the tissues is the apical
surface and the lower surface of the epithelium is
found on a basement membrane.
Avascular means no blood supply. Regenerate
easily if well nourished.
▪ Classification of Epithelial based on the
number of cell layers: Simple is composed of one
layer or only one cell thick. Stratified if it is two or
more than one layer of cells thick.
▪ Classification of Epithelial based on shapes of
cells: Squamous cells are flattened like fish scales,
cuboidal cells ware cube-shaped like dice, and columnar cells, shaped like columns.

▪ Simple Epithelia are usually very thin so protection is not one of their specialties instead
they function in absorption, secretion, and filtration.
o Simple squamous epithelium form membranes, lines body cavities, lines lungs
and capillaries and involves diffusion, filtration, or secretion in membranes.
o Simple cuboidal epithelium commonly found in glands and their ducts, forms wall of kidney tubules,
covers the ovaries and have roles in secretion and absorption; mucus or reproductive cells are
propelled by ciliated types of this tissue.
o Simple columnar epithelium cells that fit closely together. Goblet cells, which and often observed
production of a lubricating mucus and lines the entire length of the digestive tract from the stomach
to the anus. Mucosae or mucous membranes line body cavities open to the body exterior. They aid
secretion and absorption and drives mucus or reproductive cells by ciliated types.
o Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a single layer, but some cells are shorter
than others and often look like a double layer of cells. Location is in the respiratory tract, where it is
ciliated and functions in absorption or secretion.

▪ Stratified epithelia are significantly tougher than the simple epithelia and the primary
function is to protect.
o Stratified squamous epithelium is the most common, usually consists of several layers of cells, and
squamous at the free edge while cuboidal or columnar near to the basement membrane. Location is
in the esophagus, mouth, and outer portion of the skin where there is friction.
o Stratified cuboidal epithelium two layers and functions in protection.
o Stratified columnar epithelium surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape
and functions in protection. Both types are rare in the human body and found mainly in ducts of
large glands.
o Transitional epithelium composed of highly modified stratified squamous epithelium. The amount
of stretching usually determines the shape of cells, and these are involving in stretching and the

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ability to return to normal shape. Location is lines of the organs in the urinary bladder, the ureters,
and part of the urethra.
o Glandular epithelium. A gland consists of one or more cells responsible for secreting a particular
product, called secretions, that contain protein molecules in an aqueous fluid. Two major types of
glands:
– Endocrine glands or ductless glands since they lose their connection to the duct. The secretion
of hormones distributes directly into the blood vessels that intertwine through the glands. Examples
are thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary.
– Exocrine glands maintain their ducts and their secretions unfilled through the ducts toward
the epithelial surface. This includes the sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas, are both internal
and external.

2. Connective Tissue is the most abundant and widely disseminated tissue that connects body
parts and found everywhere in the body. Protection, support, and binding of tissues are the main
functions.
▪ Variations in blood supply; (1) some tissue types are well- vascularized means they have a good
blood supply; (2) some have a poor blood supply like tendons and ligaments or (3) are avascular
like cartilages. These tissues have varying amounts of a non-living substance that surrounds living
cells.
▪ Extracellular Matrix enables connective tissue to bear weight, form a soft packing tissue around
other organs, and to endure stretching and other abuses, such as abrasion, that no other tissue could
endure. It has two main elements:
o Ground substance is composed typically of water along with adhesion proteins
and polysaccharides molecules.
o Fibers are produced by the cells with three types; (a) collagen (white) fibers with high tensile
strength, (b) elastic (yellow) fibers with the ability to be stretched and then recoil, and (c) reticular
fibers which are fine collagen fibers that form the internal skeleton of soft organs like spleen.
▪ Types of connective tissues: Remember that all connective tissues consist of living cells
surrounded by a matrix. Their major differences reflect the numbers of fibers in the matrix, specific
cell types, and fiber types. From utmost inflexible to weakest or most fluid, the major connective
tissue classes are bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, and blood.
▪ Bone or osseous tissue constitutes the hard matrix of calcium salts, a great number of
collagen fibers, and bone cells in lacunae. Protect and support the body because of its rocklike
hardness similar to the skull that protects the brain.
▪ Cartilage is less hard and more flexible than bone and its major cell type is chondrocytes or
the cartilage cells. Different types of cartilage are (1) Hyaline cartilage is the most common type,
composed of abundant collagen fibers and rubbery matrix, and more elastic skeletal element than
bone. It can be found in the larynx and entire fetal skeleton before birth. (2) Elastic cartilage
provides elasticity and supports the external ear. (3) Fibrocartilage forms cushion-like discs
between vertebrae and vastly compressible.
▪ Dense connective tissues or dense fibrous tissue, collagen fibers are the main matrix
element. Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers and it forms strong, a rope-like structure such as
tendons, bind skeletal muscles to bones, and ligaments, join bones to bones at joints. It also found in
the lower layers of the skin or the dermis, where tissues are arranged in sheets.
▪ Loose connective tissues are softer, with more cells, and possess lesser fibers compared to
other connective tissue except for blood. Areolar (areola or small open space) tissue is the most
widely distributed connective tissue. It is soft, pliable tissuelike “cobwebs”, serves as s a packing

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tissue, and helps to hold the internal organs together in their proper positions. It contains all fiber
types and can soak up excess fluid like a sponge when the body region is inflamed (causes edema).
Several types of phagocytes wander through this tissue, scavenging bacteria, dead cells, and
destroying other debris.
▪ Adipose tissue or fat tissue, many cells contain large lipid deposits. and this tissue insulates
the body, protects some organs, and serves as a site of fuel storage.
▪ Reticular connective tissue is a subtle system of intertwined fibers. It is limited in certain
sites such as it forms stroma (internal supporting network) that can support many free blood cells
in lymphoid organs such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.
▪ Blood or vascular tissue is surrounded by a fluid matrix called blood plasma. Fibers of blood
are visible during clotting. Functions as the transport vehicle for materials such as wasters,
nutrients, and respiratory gases.

3. Muscle Tissues are highly specialized to contract or to produce movement and these include
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
▪ Skeletal muscle or muscle fibers are elongated to provide a long axis for contraction. It is
attached to the skeleton where tissue is packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs. This is
under voluntary control (consciously) and forms the flesh of the body known as the muscular
system. Gross body movements or facial expressions are formed by contraction of this muscle to the
bones or skin. These are striated, multinucleate (more than one nucleus), and long, cylindrical cells.
▪ Cardiac muscle is under involuntary control (cannot control consciously) and found only in
the heart which pumps blood and drives blood through blood vessels. These are striated, one
nucleus per cell and cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated discs, which
contain gap junctions that allow ions to pass freely from cell to cell. This muscle draws the cardiac
cells into a functional syncytium causing fast conduction of the exciting electrical impulse across the
heart.
▪ Smooth (visceral) muscle is under involuntary control, contract more slowly, and is found
in walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels. No visible striations, one
nucleus per cell, and spindle-shaped cells (pointed at each end). Peristalsis is a wavelike motion that
keeps food moving through the small intestine, which is the usual activity of this type of muscle.

4. Nervous tissue is comprising of neurons and nerve support cells and the function is to send
impulses to one part of the body to another which makes their major functional characteristics are
irritability and conductivity. Supporting cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, and support neurons
in the structures of the nervous system such as the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

▪ Tissue Repair: Renewal is the change of damaged tissue by a similar kind of cells. Fibrosis is
repaired by dense or fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue). Types of tissue damage and the severity
of the injury will determine if the tissue needs regeneration or fibrosis. Some of the body
mechanisms in terms of repairing damaged tissues are (1) permeability of the capillaries to clotting
proteins and allows them to migrate into the bloodstream area to initiate clot wall formation in the
damaged area, and these takes place when there is inflammation. (2) Granulation tissue forms the
growth of new capillaries and rebuilds collagen fibers. (3) Regeneration of surface epithelium is the
scab detaches.
o Epithelial tissue, fibrous connective tissues, and bone can restore easily while skeletal muscle
regenerates poorly.

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o Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord are changed mostly with scar
tissue
o All three primary germ layers can create epithelial tissue, mesoderm gives rise to muscle and
connective tissue, and ectoderm in nervous tissue. As we grow older most of the tissues decline
in mass and viability.

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