A.

Chemical Basis of Life

All life shares a common ancestry, reflected in the chemical makeup of living organisms. This consistency
is the foundation for much of biology, and understanding it is critical for fields like psychology that
investigate brain function and behavior. Understanding the function of a component within a biological
system offers valuable insights into the structure and organization of the entire system.

1. Matter and Elements

• Matter is composed of elements, which are substances that cannot be broken down into other
substances by chemical reactions.

• Essential elements, such as oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, make up 96% of living matter.
These elements are crucial for all life processes.

• Trace elements, like iron and zinc, are needed only in small amounts but are vital for processes
like oxygen transport (iron in hemoglobin).

2. Atoms and Subatomic Particles

• Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties of an element. Each atom is made
up of:

o Protons (positive charge)

o Electrons (negative charge)

o Neutrons (no charge)

• These particles come together in the atomic nucleus (protons and neutrons), with electrons
orbiting around it.

• Isotopes are forms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. They are used in medical imaging and fossil dating.

3. Molecules and Compounds

• A molecule consists of two or more atoms bonded together. For example, oxygen molecules (O2)
consist of two oxygen atoms.

• A compound contains more than one type of atom. For example, water (H2O) is a compound
made of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

4. Water: The Solvent of Life

Water is essential for life because it participates in almost every biological reaction:

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

• The solvent is the dissolving agent (e.g., water), and the solute is the substance being dissolved
(e.g., salt).
• Water is an excellent solvent due to its polarity—it has regions of partial positive and negative
charges, allowing it to dissolve many substances.

Key Properties of Water:

• Cohesion: Water molecules stick to each other, aiding water transport in plants.

• Adhesion: Water clings to other substances, helping it travel up plant stems.

• Surface tension: This allows insects, like water striders, to walk on water.

• High specific heat: Water absorbs a lot of heat before its temperature increases. This stabilizes
climates and body temperatures, crucial for maintaining conditions for life processes.

5. Chemical Compounds in Cells

Chemical compounds inside cells can be categorized as inorganic and organic:

• Inorganic compounds lack carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., water, salts).

• Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen and are central to life (e.g., carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, nucleic acids).

• Monomers are small organic molecules such as monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, and
nucleotides.

• Polymers are grouped of monomers that act together to produce a great variety of larger
molecules known as macromolecules. The major macromolecules which are important in living
organisms are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

6. Biomolecules

A. Carbohydrates:

• Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

• Includes:

o Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose).

o Disaccharides (two monosaccharides, e.g., sucrose).

o Polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides, e.g., starch, glycogen).

o Glucose is a primary energy source, and storage molecules like starch (plants) and
glycogen (animals) store energy for later use.

B. Lipids:

• Lipids are hydrophobic (don’t mix with water) and include fats, phospholipids, steroids, and
carotenoids.

o Triglycerides: Fat storage molecules made of glycerol and fatty acids.

o Phospholipids: Essential for forming cell membranes.

o Steroids: Include hormones like testosterone and estrogen.

o Carotenoids: Pigments that help in photosynthesis and vision (e.g., vitamin A).

C. Proteins:

• Proteins are polymers made of amino acids.

o Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds.

o Proteins have various functions: structural, enzymes, and transport molecules like
hemoglobin.

o The structure of a protein determines its function and is organized into primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels.

o Proteins are vital for muscle function, hormone activity (like insulin), and immune
responses.

D. Nucleic Acids:

• DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that store and transmit genetic information.

o DNA holds instructions for making proteins, and RNA helps carry out these instructions.

o DNA is double-stranded, and RNA is single-stranded, with nucleotides as building blocks.

B. The Cell as the Unit of Life

Cells are the smallest units of life, ranging from single-celled organisms (e.g., bacteria) to complex
multicellular organisms (e.g., humans). Cells vary, but they share basic structures and functions.

Microscopy:

• Cells are too small to be seen without magnification. The light microscope and electron
microscope are essential tools for studying cells.

o Light microscopes are useful for viewing larger organelles.

o Electron microscopes allow us to see smaller structures like ribosomes or DNA.

Types of Cells:

• Prokaryotic cells: Simpler cells (e.g., bacteria) that lack a nucleus.

• Eukaryotic cells: More complex cells with a nucleus and various organelles (e.g., plant and animal
cells).

Basic Cell Structures:

1. Plasma membrane: A barrier that controls what enters and exits the cell.

2. Cytoplasm: The fluid that fills the cell and contains organelles.

3. Nucleus: Contains DNA and controls cell functions.

Cell Organelles:

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth ER synthesizes lipids; rough ER has ribosomes that help in
protein production.

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

• Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, generating energy (ATP).

• Lysosomes: Contain enzymes that digest cellular waste.

• Vacuoles: Storage structures, larger in plant cells for water storage.

Cytoskeleton:

• The cell’s internal framework, giving it shape and aiding movement.

o Microtubules help with cell division and movement of organelles.

o Microfilaments support cell shape and enable movement.

o Intermediate filaments provide structural stability.

Extracellular Structures:

• Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Provides support and helps cells communicate, important in tissues
like the brain.

• Intercellular junctions: Allow cells to communicate and adhere to each other, crucial in tissues
that work together (e.g., in the brain, heart, and skin).

Plasma Membrane and Membrane Proteins

The plasma membrane is a vital component of the cell that acts as a protective barrier, regulating the entry
and exit of substances, thereby maintaining homeostasis. The structure and function of the plasma
membrane are heavily dependent on its proteins, which are integral to many cellular processes.

Types of Membrane Proteins

1. Peripheral Proteins: These proteins are located on the outer surface of the membrane. They do
not penetrate the hydrophobic core and serve to support and regulate membrane activities.

2. Integral Proteins: These penetrate the hydrophobic core of the membrane and include:

o Transmembrane Proteins: Span the entire membrane, facilitating communication and

transport between the cell's internal and external environments.

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Membrane proteins perform several key functions, including:

1. Transport: Moving molecules across the membrane.

2. Enzymatic Activity: Catalyzing reactions on the membrane's surface.

3. Signal Transduction: Acting as receptors for signaling molecules.

4. Cell-Cell Recognition: Identifying cells through surface molecules.

5. Intercellular Joining: Facilitating connections between adjacent cells.

6. Attachment to the Cytoskeleton and Extracellular Matrix: Maintaining the cell’s shape and
providing stability.

Membrane Carbohydrates

• Glycolipids: Carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids.

• Glycoproteins: Carbohydrates bonded to proteins. These molecules help cells distinguish each
other and play a role in cell recognition.

Selective Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it allows some substances to pass more easily
than others. This selective permeability is due to its structure, known as the fluid mosaic model, which
consists of phospholipids and proteins embedded in a fluid-like lipid bilayer.

• Nonpolar Molecules: Like hydrocarbons, can easily pass through the membrane because of their
hydrophobic nature.

• Polar Molecules: Such as polysaccharides or proteins, cannot pass easily and require specific
mechanisms for transport.

Types of Transport

1. Passive Transport: Movement of substances across the membrane without energy input. This
includes:

o Diffusion: Substances move from areas of high concentration to low concentration.

o Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane from lower solute concentration to higher
solute concentration. It results in:

▪ Isotonic Solutions: No net movement of water.

▪ Hypotonic Solutions: Water enters the cell, potentially causing it to burst.

▪ Hypertonic Solutions: Water leaves the cell, causing it to shrivel.

2. Facilitated Diffusion: Passive movement of molecules across the membrane with the help of
channel and carrier proteins (e.g., Aquaporins for water transport).

3. Active Transport: Movement of molecules against the concentration gradient, requiring energy
(e.g., the sodium-potassium pump in animals and the proton pump in plants).

Bulk Transport

Larger molecules, such as polysaccharides and proteins, are transported via bulk transport, which requires
energy:
1. Exocytosis: Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell.

2. Endocytosis: The cell takes in large molecules by forming vesicles:

o Phagocytosis ("cell eating"): The cell engulfs large particles.

o Pinocytosis ("cell drinking"): The cell ingests extracellular fluid.

o Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Specific molecules (ligands) bind to receptors, triggering

vesicle formation.

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is the process by which cells grow, replicate their DNA, and divide. This cycle includes
interphase and the mitotic phase.

Interphase

Interphase is the stage between cell divisions, consisting of three phases:

1. G1 Phase (First Gap): The cell grows and performs normal functions.

2. S Phase (Synthesis): DNA is replicated, producing two sister chromatids joined at the centromere.

3. G2 Phase (Second Gap): Preparation for cell division, including organelle replication and the
production of proteins for the mitotic spindle.

Mitosis

Mitosis ensures that each daughter cell receives the same genetic material as the parent cell. The process
is divided into four phases:

1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plate.

3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

4. Telophase: The nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes, and the cell prepares
for cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).

• Cytokinesis: In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms, resulting in two separate daughter cells.

Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction, producing haploid cells (gametes) that contain half the
number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell. When gametes (sperm and egg) fuse during
fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed, which develops into a new organism.

Phases of Meiosis

Meiosis involves two rounds of division, Meiosis I and Meiosis II, resulting in four haploid daughter cells:

1. Meiosis I: Reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid and includes:
o Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair and undergo crossing over, exchanging
genetic material. Prophase I is subdivided into five stages: leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis.

o Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.

o Anaphase I: Homologs separate and move to opposite poles.

o Telophase I: Two haploid cells are formed after cytokinesis.

2. Meiosis II: Similar to mitosis, but with half the number of chromosomes. It includes:

o Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, and cytokinesis, resulting in four
haploid cells.

Genetic Variation and Evolution

Meiosis introduces genetic variation through:

• Crossing Over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase
I.

• Independent Assortment: Random separation of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I.

• Random Fertilization: The fusion of gametes, which produces a unique combination of genetic
material.

These mechanisms ensure genetic diversity, contributing to evolution and the adaptability of species.
TISSUES OVERVIEW
• Tissues are groups of cells that work together and have a similar structure and function.
• There are four main types of tissues in the body:
1. Epithelial tissue (covering)
2. Connective tissue (support)
3. Nervous tissue (control)
4. Muscle tissue (movement)
The study of these tissues and their structure is called histology.
Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium)
• Location: Found in areas that cover the body, line organs, or make up glands.
• Functions: Provides defense, absorbs nutrients, filters substances, and secretes materials
(like sweat or enzymes).
Key Features of Epithelial Tissue:
• Closely packed cells: Epithelial cells are tightly joined together to form sheets.
• Apical surface: The top part of the tissue, which faces the body’s surface or the inside of
an organ.
• Basement membrane: The lower surface of the tissue that anchors it to the underlying
tissue.
• Avascular: Epithelial tissue doesn’t have its own blood supply, so it relies on nearby tissues
for nutrients.
• Regenerates easily: If it’s damaged, epithelial tissue can repair itself quickly, as long as it’s
well-nourished.
Classification of Epithelial Tissue:
1. By the number of layers:
o Simple epithelium: One layer of cells (thin, good for absorption or filtration).
o Stratified epithelium: Two or more layers of cells (thicker, better for protection).
2. By cell shape:
o Squamous: Flat, scale-like cells (like fish scales).
o Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells (like dice).
o Columnar: Tall, column-shaped cells (like bricks standing on end).

Example:
• Skin: The outer layer of your skin is made of stratified squamous epithelium, which
provides protection.
• Lining of the digestive tract: It has simple columnar epithelium, which helps absorb
nutrients from food.
Simple Epithelia
Simple epithelia are made of one layer of cells, which makes them thin and better suited for
activities like absorption, secretion, and filtration rather than protection.
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium:
o Location: Found in the lungs, capillaries, and body cavities.
o Function: It helps with diffusion (like allowing oxygen to pass through lung tissues)
and filtration (such as filtering blood in capillaries).
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:
o Location: Found in glands (like sweat glands), kidney tubules, and covering the
ovaries.
o Function: Helps with secretion (like producing sweat or hormones) and absorption
(like in the kidneys). Some types have cilia (tiny hair-like structures) that help move
things like mucus or eggs.
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium:
o Location: Lines the digestive tract (from stomach to anus).
o Function: Involved in secretion (especially mucus to lubricate the digestive tract)
and absorption of nutrients from food. It also helps move mucus or reproductive
cells with its ciliated type.
4. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:
o Location: Found in the respiratory tract.
o Function: Even though it looks like it has many layers, it’s only one. It’s involved in
secretion and absorption, and the cilia help sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs.

Stratified Epithelia
Stratified epithelia have multiple layers of cells, making them better for protection.
1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium:
o Location: Found in areas with high friction, like the skin, mouth, and esophagus.
o Function: Provides protection in these high-wear areas.
2. Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium:
o Location: Rare, but found in the ducts of large glands.
o Function: Mainly involved in protection.
3. Transitional Epithelium:

o Location: Found in organs that need to stretch, like the bladder.

o Function: Can stretch when needed (like when the bladder is full) and return to
normal shape afterward.

Glandular Epithelium
Glandular epithelium is responsible for producing secretions, like hormones, sweat, or digestive
juices.
1. Endocrine Glands:
o Function: These glands produce hormones that are released directly into the
bloodstream (e.g., thyroid, pituitary glands).
2. Exocrine Glands:
o Function: These glands release their products through ducts onto the body’s
surface or into organs (e.g., sweat glands, liver, and pancreas).

Example:
• Skin’s protective role: The stratified squamous epithelium in the skin helps protect the
body from injury and pathogens, which can be related to stress responses like sweating
or blushing.
• Respiratory health: The pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the lungs helps remove
harmful particles, which is important when considering stress-related breathing issues or
how respiratory problems can affect mental well-being.
Connective Tissue Overview
Connective tissue is the most common type of tissue in the body. Its main functions are to
protect, support, and connect other tissues and organs. It’s found everywhere, from bones to
blood.
Key Characteristics:
1. Blood supply varies:
o Some connective tissues have a good blood supply (well-vascularized), like bones.

o Others have less blood supply, like tendons and ligaments.

o Some are avascular (no blood supply), like cartilage.
2. Extracellular Matrix:
o Connective tissue has an extracellular matrix—a non-living material that
surrounds its living cells.
o This matrix helps the tissue handle pressure, stretching, and even abrasion.
The matrix consists of two main parts:
• Ground Substance: Made mostly of water, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides
(sugars).
• Fibers: Connective tissue produces three types of fibers:
1. Collagen (white): Strong and thick, good at withstanding tension.
2. Elastic (yellow): Stretchy and able to return to its original shape.
3. Reticular fibers: Fine fibers that form a supportive framework inside organs like
the spleen.

Types of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues vary in strength and structure. Here's a breakdown from the strongest to the
most fluid:
1. Bone (Osseous Tissue):
o Function: Protects and supports the body, like how the skull protects the brain.
o Structure: Hard, made of calcium salts, collagen fibers, and bone cells (osteocytes).
2. Cartilage:
o Less rigid than bone, more flexible.
o Types:
1. Hyaline Cartilage: Most common, provides support and flexibility. Found
in the larynx (voice box) and fetal skeleton.
2. Elastic Cartilage: Found in the external ear, it allows for more flexibility.
3. Fibrocartilage: Found in the spine, acts as a cushion between vertebrae.
3. Dense Connective Tissue:

o Function: Forms tendons (connect muscles to bones) and ligaments (connect

bones to other bones).
o Made mostly of collagen fibers, it’s tough and strong, like ropes.
o Also found in the dermis (lower layers of the skin).
4. Loose Connective Tissue:
o Softer, with fewer fibers than dense connective tissue.
o Types:
▪ Areolar Tissue: Acts like a packing material that holds organs in place. It
also absorbs excess fluid, especially during inflammation (causing edema,
or swelling).
▪ Adipose Tissue (Fat): Stores energy, insulates the body, and protects
organs.
▪ Reticular Tissue: Forms a delicate network that supports free blood cells in
places like the spleen and bone marrow.
5. Blood (Vascular Tissue):
o Function: Acts as a transport system, carrying nutrients, waste, and gases
throughout the body.
o It’s surrounded by a fluid called blood plasma, and fibers in the blood help with
clotting.

Example:
• Stress and Bone Health: Chronic stress can lead to bone weakness due to the impact of
hormones like cortisol, showing the connection between psychological health and
physical support systems.
• Blood’s Role in Stress: During stress, the vascular system is activated, transporting stress
hormones like adrenaline, which affects the heart and other organs. Understanding how
blood transports these signals is key in psychology.
Muscle Tissues

Muscle tissues are designed to contract, which allows the body to move. There are three types
of muscle tissues:
1. Skeletal Muscle:
o Location: Attached to bones.
o Control: Voluntary—we consciously control this muscle (e.g., moving your arm).
o Appearance: Cells are long, cylindrical, have multiple nuclei, and are striped
(striated).
o Function: Responsible for body movements and facial expressions.
o Example: Lifting weights or smiling.
2. Cardiac Muscle:
o Location: Found only in the heart.
o Control: Involuntary—you can’t control your heart beating.
o Appearance: Cells are striated, with one nucleus per cell, and connected by
intercalated discs. These discs allow the heart cells to work together efficiently.
o Function: Helps the heart pump blood throughout the body.
o Example: Your heart beating faster during exercise or stress.
3. Smooth Muscle:
o Location: Found in the walls of hollow organs like the stomach, intestines, and
blood vessels.
o Control: Involuntary—you don’t consciously control it.
o Appearance: Cells are spindle-shaped (pointed at the ends), have no striations,
and have one nucleus per cell.
o Function: Moves substances through organs. For example, it pushes food through
the intestines in a wavelike motion called peristalsis.
o Example: The slow contraction of muscles in your digestive system after eating.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is crucial for sending messages between different parts of the body. It consists of
two main parts:
1. Neurons:

o Function: Neurons send electrical signals (impulses) that allow the body to react
to stimuli, communicate, and control different functions.
o Location: Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
o Example: A neuron sends a signal to move your hand away from a hot surface.
2. Neuroglia (Supporting Cells):
o Function: These cells protect, support, and nourish neurons, ensuring they can
function properly.
o Example: They help neurons in the brain remain healthy so you can think,
remember, and process information.

Tissue Repair
When tissues are damaged, the body has ways to repair itself. There are two main types of tissue
repair:
1. Regeneration:
o The damaged tissue is replaced by the same type of cells.
o Example: Skin regenerates easily after a minor cut.
2. Fibrosis:
o The tissue is replaced by scar tissue, which is dense and fibrous.
o Example: Deep wounds or damage to the heart muscle after a heart attack often
result in scar tissue.
• Healing Process:
1. Clotting: Blood proteins form a clot in the injured area to stop bleeding.
2. New Tissue Growth: Granulation tissue forms, which helps grow new blood
vessels and collagen fibers.
3. Surface Healing: Eventually, the surface epithelium regenerates, and the scab falls
off.

Examples:
• Stress and heart health: Since cardiac muscle is involuntary, it’s crucial in managing
stress. When you're stressed, your heart beats faster. Long-term stress can damage this
muscle.
• Muscle memory: Skeletal muscle can learn repetitive tasks (e.g., learning to ride a bike or
play a musical instrument), which ties into psychology and learning theories.