CHEMICALS OF LIFE

The Building Blocks of Molecules

1. Atoms

An atom is the smallest component of an element that retains all of the chemical properties of that
element. For example, one hydrogen atom has all of the properties of the element hydrogen, such as
it exists as a gas at room temperature, and it bonds with oxygen to create a water molecule.
Hydrogen atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the properties of
hydrogen. If a hydrogen atom were broken down into subatomic particles, it would no longer have
the properties of hydrogen.

Atoms are made up of protons and neutrons located within the nucleus, and electrons surrounding
the nucleus.

2. Chemical Bonds

Not all elements have enough electrons to fill their outermost shells, but an atom is at its most stable
when all of the electron positions in the outermost shell are filled. Because of these vacancies in the
outermost shells, we see the formation of chemical bonds, or interactions between two or more of
the same or different elements that result in the formation of molecules. To achieve greater stability,
atoms will tend to completely fill their outer shells and will bond with other elements to accomplish
this goal by sharing electrons, accepting electrons from another atom, or donating electrons to
another atom. Because the outermost shells of the elements with low atomic numbers (up to
calcium, with atomic number 20) can hold eight electrons, this is referred to as the octet rule. An
element can donate, accept, or share electrons with other elements to fill its outer shell and satisfy
the octet rule.

When an atom does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons, it is called an ion. Because
the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons, each ion has a net charge. Positive
ions are formed by losing electrons and are called cations. Negative ions are formed by gaining
electrons and are called anions.

 Ionic Bonds

There are four types of chemical bonds or interactions: ionic, covalent, hydrogen bonds, and van der
Waals interactions. Ionic and covalent bonds are strong interactions that require a larger energy
input to break apart. When an element donates an electron from its outer shell, as in the sodium
atom example above, a positive ion is formed. The element accepting the electron is now negatively
charged. Because positive and negative charges attract, these ions stay together and form an ionic
bond, or a bond between ions.

 Covalent Bonds

Another type of strong chemical bond between two or more atoms is a covalent bond. These bonds
form when an electron is shared between two elements and are the strongest and most common
form of chemical bond in living organisms. Covalent bonds form between the elements that make up
the biological molecules in our cells. Unlike ionic bonds, covalent bonds do not dissociate in water.
 Hydrogen Bonds

Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that require considerable energy to break. However, not
all bonds between elements are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form. These are
attractions that occur between positive and negative charges that do not require much energy to
break. Two weak bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions.
These bonds give rise to the unique properties of water and the unique structures of DNA and
proteins.

3. Water
 Water Is Polar

The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar covalent bonds. The shared
electrons spend more time associated with the oxygen atom than they do with hydrogen atoms.
There is no overall charge to a water molecule, but there is a slight positive charge on each hydrogen
atom and a slight negative charge on the oxygen atom.

 Water Stabilizes Temperature

The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat energy more slowly than many
other substances. Temperature is a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of molecules. As the
motion increases, energy is higher and thus temperature is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of
energy before its temperature rises. Increased energy disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water
molecules.

 Water Is an Excellent Solvent

Because water is polar, with slight positive and negative charges, ionic compounds and polar
molecules can readily dissolve in it. Water is, therefore, what is referred to as a solvent—a substance
capable of dissolving another substance. The charged particles will form hydrogen bonds with a
surrounding layer of water molecules. This is referred to as a sphere of hydration and serves to keep
the particles separated or dispersed in the water.

 Water Is Cohesive

Have you ever filled up a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops?
Before it overflows, the water actually forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water
can stay above the glass because of the property of cohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are
attracted to each other (because of hydrogen bonding), keeping the molecules together at the liquid-
air (gas) interface, although there is no more room in the glass.

 Buffers, pH, Acids, and Bases

The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or basicity. You have probably used litmus paper,
paper that has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye so it can be used as a pH indicator, to
test how much acid or base (basicity) exists in a solution.

4. Biomolecules
The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called
biomolecules (also called biological macromolecules). There are four major classes of bioomolecules
(carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell
and performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell’s
mass. Biomolecules are organic, meaning that they contain carbon (with some exceptions, like
carbon dioxide). In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and
additional minor elements.

 Carbon

It is often said that life is “carbon-based.” This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon
atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules
found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but
carbon certainly qualifies as the “foundation” element for molecules in living things. It is’the bonding
properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.

 Carbon Bonding

Carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with
other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH4), in which four
hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom.

 Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biomolecules with which most consumers are somewhat familiar. To lose weight,
some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in contrast, often “carb-load” before important
competitions to ensure that they have sufficient energy to compete at a high level. Carbohydrates
are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of
carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple
sugar. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants.

 Lipids

Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature. Lipids are
hydrophobic (“water-fearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules. This is
because they are hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen
bonds. Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the
form of lipids called fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals .
For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature.
Lipids are also the building blocks of steroid hormones (ex- estrogen, testosterone, cortisol) and are
an important constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, phospholipids, and
steroids.
 Proteins

Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse
range of functions of all biomolecules. Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or
protective; they may serve in transport, storage, or membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes.
Each cell in a living system may contain thousands of different proteins, each with a unique function.
Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. They are all, however, polymers of amino acids,
arranged in a linear sequence.

 Nucleic Acid

Nucleic acids are key biomolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell
and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.

The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA
is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to
multicellular mammals.