A

TERM PAPER

ON

THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGE, CULVERT, KERBS AND GUTTER

PREPARED BY

GROUP 2 MEMBERS

OF

COURSE CODE: BDG 502

COURSE TITLE: CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY II

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, ONDO STATE.

LECTURER IN CHARGE

DR. ALAKE

DATE: JULY, 2017

GROUP 2 MEMBERS

1. AKINYEMI VICTOR OLADIPUPO BDG/12/0022

2. AKWUBA AUGUSTINE C. BDG/12/0023

3. ALABI TOBI MICHEAL BDG/12/0024

4. ALAGBE IBUKUN TIMOTHY BDG/12/0025

5. ALEGBELEYE C. KOLADE BDG/12/0026

6. ANIFOWOSE OLUWOLE BABAJIDE BDG/12/0027

7. ANIYIKAYE SEUN DAYO BDG/12/0028

8. BAMITEKO SUNDAY OPEYEMI BDG/12/0029

9. BANKOLE MICHAEL SEUN BDG/12/0030

10. BASIL KINGSLEY BDG/12/0031

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

1.1 BRIDGES

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath

such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.

There are many different designs that each serve a particular purpose and apply to different

situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain

where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available

to build it. It is required of an ideal bridge to be;

 Economical

 Able to serve the intended functions including safety and convenience.

 Able to give aesthetics elegant look.

1.2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Bridges are designed to carry loads over an opening, and such loads includes the weight

automobiles, pedestrians for the road, and of locomotives and rolling stock for a railway bridge.

More so, in the design, careful attention is usually given to the service loads and the legal loads

for the structure. These loads involve considerations for vehicles weight and loads, self weight of

the bridge, weight of pedestrians, thermal effects, earthquake loads, wind loads, collision forces,

stream loads, and dynamic vertical loads, and many other.

When the average individual is asked to think of a bridge, some pretty impressive images

usually come to mind. The Golden Gate and Brooklyn bridges might strike you if you are an

American. Perhaps one would think of the Firth of Forth Bridge if you hailed from the United

Kingdom. For the historically minded, Pont du Gard is almost always a favorite choice. Without a
doubt, these are magnificent structures and volumes have been written on their history and the

engineering behind them; but what of the common highway bridge structure? Although you

probably feel a bump every time your automobile hits an expansion joint, most people and even

many engineer stake these average highway bridges for granted. The common highway bridge

structure, however, is one of the most integral components in any transportation network. It is also

one of the most exciting design projects a civil engineer can be engaged in. By common highway

bridges, we imply structures which typically consist of a slab-on-stringer configuration crossing

relatively short span lengths. The deck is usually a concrete slab which rests on a set of girders

composed of one of the following types:

 Steel rolled sections or plate girders

 Prestressed concrete beam

 Timber beams

There are a wide variety of other forms of bridge structures in use (suspension, cable-stayed, arch,

truss, concrete, or steel box girder, etc.), however, the backbone of the modern transportation

network is the slab-on stringer type structure.

A HIGHWAY BRIDGE SITE is a complicated place and a point where a suite of civil

engineering disciplines converges to form one of the most exciting challenges in the profession. A

scan of the associated figure shows that a bridge designer must be concerned with:

Structural Design for the superstructure and substructure elements.

Geotechnical Engineering for the pier and abutment foundations.

Hydraulic Engineering for proper bridge span length and drainage of bridge site.

Surveying and Mapping for the layout and grading of a proposed site, for the overpass and

underpass alignment and geometry.

Appurtenances and Site-Related Features: An appurtenance, in the context of this discussion,

is any part of the bridge or bridge site which is not a major structural component yet serves some

purpose in the overall functionality of the structure (e.g., guardrail). The bridge site, as an entity,

possesses many different components which, in one way or another, integrates with the structure.

However, it is important to consider the site investigation and planning for the bridge, as well

as properly prepared site selection and site layout together with all necessary documents required

for the construction. Details into the aforementioned are not discussed into details in this paper.

1.3 Terminology and Nomenclature

The component parts of a bridge can be divided into;

1. Superstructure: The superstructure comprises all the components of a bridge above the

supports. The basic superstructure components consist of the following:

 Wearing Surface: The wearing surface (course) is that portion of the deck cross

section which resists traffic wear. In some instances, this is a separate layer made

of bituminous material, while in some other cases it is an integral part of concrete

deck. The integral wearing surface is typically 1/2 to 2 in (13 to 51 mm). The

bituminous wearing course usually varies in thickness from 2 to 4 in (51 to 102

mm). The thickness, however, can sometimes be larger due to resurfacing of the

overpass roadway, which occurs throughout the life cycle of a bridge.

 Deck: The deck is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to

be bridged. In this example, the deck is a reinforced concrete slab. In an orthotropic

bridge, the deck is a stiffened steel plate. The main function of the deck is to

distribute loads transversely along the bridge cross section. The deck either rests on
or is integrated with a frame or other structural system designed to distribute loads

longitudinally along the length of the bridge.

 Primary Members. Primary members distribute loads longitudinally and are

usually designed principally to resist flexure and shear. The primary members

consist of rolled, wide flange beams. In some instances, the outside or fascia

primary members possess a larger depth and may have a cover plate welded to the

bottom of them to carry heavier loads. Beam type primary members such as this

are also called stringers or girders. These stringers could be steel wide flange

stringers, steel plate girders (i.e., steel plates welded together to form an I section),

pre-stressed concrete, glued laminated timber, or some other type of beam. Rather

than have the slab rest directly on the primary member, a small fillet or haunch can

be placed between the deck slab and the top flange of the stringer. The primary

function for the haunch is to adjust the geometry between the stringer and the

finished deck. It is also possible for the bridge superstructure to be formed in the

shape of a box (either rectangular or trapezoidal). Box girder bridges can be

constructed out of steel or pre-stressed concrete and are used in situations where

large span lengths are required and for horizontally curved bridges.

 Secondary Members: Secondary members are bracing between primary members

designed to resist cross-sectional deformation of the superstructure frame and help

distribute part of the vertical load between stringers. They are also used for the

stability of the structure during construction. In the channels are bolted to steel

connection plates, which are in turn welded to the wide flange stringers. Other types

of diaphragms are short depth, wide flange beams or crossed steel angles.
Secondary members, composed of crossed frames at the top or bottom flange of a

stringer, are used to resist lateral deformation.

2. Substructure: The substructure consists of all elements required to support the

superstructure and overpass roadway. The basic substructure components consist of the

following:

 Abutments: Abutments are earth-retaining structures which support the

superstructure and overpass roadway at the beginning and end of a bridge. Like a

retaining wall, the abutments resist the longitudinal forces of the earth underneath

the overpass roadway. In abutments are cantilever type retaining walls. Abutments

come in many sizes and shapes.

 Piers: Piers are structures which support the superstructure at intermediate points

between the end supports (abutments). Like abutments, piers come in a variety of

forms, some of which are illustrated in the sidebar. From an aesthetic standpoint,

piers are one of the most visible components of a highway bridge and can make the

difference between a visually pleasing structure and an unattractive one.

 Bearings: Bearings are mechanical systems which transmit the vertical and

horizontal loads of the superstructure to the substructure, and accommodate

movements between the superstructure and the substructure. Examples of bearings

are mechanical systems made of steel rollers acting on large steel plates or

rectangular pads made of neoprene. The use and functionality of bearings vary

greatly depending on the size and configuration of the bridge. Bearings allowing

both rotation and longitudinal translation are called expansion bearings, and those

which allow rotation only are called fixed bearings.

 Pedestals: A pedestal is a short column on an abutment or pier under a bearing

which directly supports a superstructure primary member. The term bridge seat is

also used to refer to the elevation at the top surface of the pedestal. Normally

pedestals are designed with different heights to obtain the required bearing

elevations.

 Backwall: A backwall, sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the

abutment acting as a retaining structure at each approach.

 Wingwall: A wingwall is a side wall to the abutment backwall or stem designed to

assist in confining earth behind the abutment. On many structures, wingwalls are

designed quite conservatively, which leads to a rather large wall on many bridges.

 Footing: As bearings transfer the superstructure loads to the substructure, so in turn

do the abutment and pier footings transfer loads from the substructure to the subsoil

or piles. A footing supported by soil without piles is called a spread footing. A

footing supported by piles, is known as a pile cap.

1.4 BRIDGES STRUCTURE TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and

shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces

to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a

suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In

other cases, the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss.
Types of Bridges based on Type of Super Structure

 Arch bridge

 Girder bridge

 Truss bridge

 Suspension bridge

 Beam bridge

 Cantilever bridge

Arch Bridge

Arch bridge is curve shaped bridge, in which horizontal thrust is developed and is restrained by

the abutments at each end of the bridge. There are many types of arch bridges are there. In some

cases, the arch may be under the deck slab also.

Girder Bridge

In case of Girder Bridge, the deck slab is supported by means of girders. The girder may be of

rolled steel girder or plate girder or box girder. Load coming from the deck are taken by girder and

transferred them to the piers and abutments.

Truss Bridge

Truss is member consisting connected elements to form triangular units. In case of truss bridge the

super structure is provided with trusses. Generally, trusses are made of steel. There are several

types of trusses are available.

Suspension Bridge

In case of Suspension bridge, deck slab is suspended with the help of cables and suspenders. These

will give good appearance. For long span bridges, this type of suspension is suitable.

Beam Bridge

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units and can be either

simply supported when the beams only connect across a single span, or continuous when the beams

are connected across two or more spans. When there are multiple spans, the intermediate supports

are known as piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar

simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges can range from small, wooden beams to large,

steel boxes. The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear and flexural load on the beam which

is transferred down its length to the substructures on either side. They are typically made of steel,

concrete or wood. Beam bridge spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long, as the flexural stresses

increase proportional to the square of the length (and deflection increases

proportional to the 4th power of the length). However, the main span of the Rio-Niteroi Bridge, a

box girder bridge, is 300 metres (980 ft). The world's longest beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain

Causeway in southern Louisiana in the United States, at 23.83 miles (38.35 km), with individual

spans of 56 feet. Beam bridges are the simplest and oldest type of bridge in use today, and are a

popular type.

Cantilever Bridge

Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported on only one end. Most

cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite sides of the supporting

piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are constructed

using much the same materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in the action

of the forces through the bridge.

Some cantilever bridges also have a smaller beam connecting the two cantilevers, for extra

strength. The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre (1,801 ft) Quebec Bridge in Quebec,

Canada.
Types of Bridges based on Materials

 Timber bridge

 Masonry bridge

 Steel bridge

 R.C.C bridge

 Pre stressed concrete bridge

Timber Bridge

Bridges constructed using timber are called timber bridges. These are generally constructed for

short spans or as temporary bridges. They are not useful for heavy loads.
Masonry Bridge

Masonry Bridge constructed by using bricks or stones. These are generally constructed for short

spans and in low depth canals.

Steel Bridge

Steel bridges are constructed using steel bars or trusses or steel cables. These are more durable and

bear heavy loads.

R.C.C Bridge

R.C.C bridges are constructed using reinforced cement concrete. These are more stable and

durable. They can bear heavy loads and are widely using nowadays.

Prestressed Concrete Bridge

If concrete material is placed under compression before applying the loads, then it is called as

prestressed concrete. To construct pre stressed concrete bridge, pre-stressed concrete blocks are

arranged as deck slab with the help of girders. These blocks are suitable for shorter span to longer

span bridges.
Types of Bridges based on Span

 Culvert bridge

 Minor bridge

 Major bridge

 Long span bridge

Culvert Bridge

When the bridge span length is below 6meters then it is called as Culvert Bridge.
Minor Bridge

If the bridge span length is in between 8 to 30 meters, then it is called minor bridge.

Major Bridge

For major bridge, the span is generally about 30 to 120 meters.

Long Span Bridge

When the span of bridge is more than 120 meters then it is termed as long span bridge.

Types of Bridges based on Level of Crossing

 Over bridge

 Under bridge

 Over Bridge

To pass over another route (railway or highway), a bridge is constructed to allow traffic. This is

called over bridge or fly over bridge.

Under Bridge

If over bridge is not possible, an underground type bridge is constructed to pass another route. This

is called under bridge.

Types of Bridges based on Function

 Foot bridge

 Highway bridge

 Rail way bridge

 Aqueduct bridge

 Road cum railway bridge

Foot Bridge

Foot Bridge is generally constructed for humans to cross the roads or rail route or any canal by

foot. Vehicles are not allowed in this bridge.

Highway Bridge

High way or road Way Bridge is used for road transportation. These are constructed over rivers or

another routes to allow road way traffic. Girder type bridges are used as highway bridges over

rivers or canals.
Railway Bridge

Rail bridges are constructed for rail transportation. Truss type bridges are preferred for railways

but how ever r.c.c bridges are also used.

Aqueduct Bridge

Aqueduct bridges are nothing but water carrying bridges which are constructed to0 transport water

from source to system.

Road cum Railway Bridge

This type of bridge is useful for both road way and railway transport. It may be of one floor or two

floors. If one floor is there then, rail and road way are arranged side by side. Otherwise roadway

on top deck and railway in bottom deck is preferred.

Types of Bridges based on Inter Span Relation

 Simple bridge

 Continuous bridge

 Cantilever bridge

Simple Bridge

Simple bridge is like simply supported beam type which consist two supports at its ends. For

shorter spans, simple bridges are suitable.

Continuous Bridge

If the bridge span is very long, then we have to build more supports in between end supports. This

type of bridge is termed as continuous bridge.

Cantilever Bridge

Cantilever type of bridge have only supported at one end and another end is free to space.

Generally, two cantilever portions are joined to make way to the vehicles or humans.
Types of Bridges based on Utility

 Temporary bridge

 Permanent bridge

Temporary Bridge

During construction of dams or bridges or during floods, temporary bridges are constructed at low

cost for temporary usage. These bridges are maintained at low cost. After construction of original

structure temporary bridges are dismantled. Generally timber is used to construct temporary

bridges.
Permanent Bridge

These bridges are constructed for long term use and maintained at high level. Steel or R.C.C

bridges are come under this category.

Types of Bridges based on Position of Floor

 Deck bridge

 Through bridge

 Semi-through bridge

Deck Bridge

In case of Deck Bridge, super structure or floor of bridge is positioned in between the high flood

level and formation level.

Through Bridge

In case of through bridge, Super structure of bridge is completely above the formation level.

Semi-Through Bridge

If the super structure of bridge is partly above and partly below the formation level, then it is called

as semi-through bridge.
Types of Bridges based on High Flood Level (HFL)

 Low level bridge

 High level bridge

Low Level Bridge

The super structure of bridge is generally below high flood level. So, whenever floods occurred

these are submersed in water. So, these are also called as submersible bridges. These are generally

constructed for unimportant routes with low cost.

High Level Bridge

High level bridge is non submersible against floods. It is well above the high flood level and

constructed in important routes.

Fixed or Movable Bridges

Most bridges are fixed bridges, meaning they have no moving parts and stay in one place until

they fail or are demolished. Temporary bridges, such as Bailey bridges, are designed to be

assembled, and taken apart, transported to a different site, and re-used. They are important in

military engineering, and are also used to carry traffic while an old bridge is being rebuilt. Movable

bridges are designed to move out of the way of boats or other kinds of traffic, which would

otherwise be too tall to fit. These are generally electrically powered.

Double-decked Bridges

Double-decked (or double-decker) bridges have two levels, such as the George Washington

Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen County, New Jersey, USA, as the world's busiest

bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually; truss work between the roadway levels provided
stiffness to the roadways and reduced movement of the upper level when the lower level was

installed three decades after the upper level. The Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge in

Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks, and on their lower decks there are two lanes and

a pair of tracks for MTR metro trains. Some double-decked bridges only use one level for street

traffic; the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile and

light rail traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at the

University of Minnesota). Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince Edward Viaduct has five lanes of motor

traffic, bicycle lanes, and sidewalks on its upper deck; and a pair of tracks for the Bloor–Danforth

subway line on its lower deck. The western span of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge also

has two levels.

Three-way bridges

A three-way bridge has three separate spans which meet near the center of the bridge. The bridge

appears as a "T" or "Y" when viewed from above. Three-way bridges are extremely rare. The

Tridge, Margaret Bridge, and Zanesville Y-Bridge are examples.

In addition, as has been previously mentioned, the majority of bridges present in our

infrastructure are of the slab-on-stringer configuration. There are, however, a wide variety of

structures in use for a variety of different physical applications. By physical applications we imply

man-made, natural, or climatological conditions which dictate the type of structure to be used at a

given crossing. These could be in the form of

 Length to be bridged from the start to the end of the structure

 Depth of channel or ravine to be crossed

 Underpass clearance required

 Extreme temperature conditions

 Precipitation or snowfall

 Curvature of overpass alignment

 Aesthetics of the surrounding environment

Slab-On-Stringer. In this type, the bridge superstructure consists of a concrete slab resting on a

set of stringers, which are connected together by diaphragms to form a frame. The stringers could

be steel beams, precast-prestressed concrete girders, or of other suitable materials. Traffic passes

over the top of the slab, which can be covered with a wearing surface, although sometimes the slab

itself is made thicker to create an integrated wearing surface (i.e., using a portion of the slab rather

than a separate layer to resist the wear of traffic).

Slab on stringer bridge

One-Way Slab. For a very short span [less than 30ft (9 m)] a one-way concrete slab supported on

either end by small abutments is an economical structure. Such a short span structure often gains

the tag of puddle crosser because of the diminutive size of the structure. For short to median spans,

[30 to 80ft (9 to 24 m)] prestressing steel is typically used. Circular voids in the slab are sometimes

used to reduce the dead load.

Steel and Concrete Box Girder. When bending and torsion are major concerns, a box girder type

structure offers an aesthetically pleasing, albeit expensive, solution. Since these types of structures

do not make use of standardized or prefabricated components, their role is usually restricted to

major highway bridges that can take advantage of their ability to meet relatively long span

requirements.

KCRC West Rail Viaducts, Hong Kong (example of steel and concrete girder)

Cable-Stayed. Although box girder bridges with span lengths of 760 feet (232 m) have been built,

a significant number of modern bridges with span lengths from 500 feet to 2800 feet (153 to 853

m) have been constructed as cable-stayed bridges. These types of bridges have begun to be built

in the United States only 40 years ago, but the response has been overwhelming. Low cost, ease

of construction, and aesthetics are the major reasons why this type of structure is now a popular

choice for medium and long span bridges.

William Dargan Bridge, Dublin, Ireland.

Suspension. Everyone immediately recognizes the suspension bridge as one of the consummate

marvels of civil engineering. When presented with spans of significant length over impressive

physical obstacles (e.g. the Mississippi River), the suspension bridge offers an elegant answer to a

monumental engineering task. For the majority of structures in use, however, their application is

relatively limited and their design relegated to the domain of a small group of engineers. Oddly

enough, despite this limited role, numerous quality texts are available on the subject and the reader

is referred to them for further discussion on these types of structures.

Steel and Concrete Arch. Like the cable stayed and suspension bridges described above, the arch

is most often used for major crossings like the Hell Gate and Sydney Harbor bridge. In this type,

the steel arches provide for an attractive looking structure while also eliminating the need for a

pier in the river. When the deck is suspended from the steel arch, the structure is called a through

arch. When the deck is supported on top of the arch, this is called a deck arch. An arch bridge

generates large reaction forces at its end supports. The horizontal component of these reaction

forces is either resisted by abutment foundations, or in the case of a tied arch, resisted by a tie

between arch supports.

Twin steel through arches cross the Mohawk River in upstate New York.

Truss. The truss bridge is encountered most often in historical engineering projects that require

preservation or rehabilitation of an existing structure. For the most part, the day of the truss as a

new bridge structure in and of itself is over, because truss members are typically fracture critical

members (i.e., there is no redundancy in the load path, so should one member fail, the whole

structure would collapse). Another major reason it becomes unpopular is that the construction and

maintenance costs of truss bridges are very high. However, the use of trusses as bridge components

in large structures is still prevalent. Trusses are also used as temporary bridges. The Figure above

shows a picture of American River Bridge near Sacramento, California.

DESIGN OF BRIDGE SUBSTRUCTURE

The substructure of a highway bridge consists of those components designed to support the

superstructure and highway overpass. This section deals with the three major components in a

highway bridge substructure: abutments, piers, and bearings.

ABUTMENTS

An abutment is a structure located at the end of a bridge which provides the basic functions of:

❏ Supporting the end of the first or last span

❏ Retaining earth underneath and adjacent to the approach roadway,

and, if necessary

❏ Supporting part of the approach roadway or approach slab

To provide this functionality, a variety of abutment forms are used. The style of abutment chosen

for a given bridge varies depending on the geometry of the site, size of the structure, and

preferences of the owner. A simplification would be to think of an abutment as a retaining wall

equipped with a bridge seat.

Types of Abutments

As mentioned above, most abutment types are variations on retaining wall configurations. With

the exception of a crib wall, most any retaining wall system, when equipped with a bridge seat and

designed to withstand the severe live loading conditions present in highway bridge structures, can

be used as an abutment. Another difference between a conventional retaining wall system and a

bridge abutment is that the latter is typically equipped with adjoining, flared walls known as

wingwalls.

1. Gravity Abutment. A gravity abutment resists horizontal earth pressure with its own dead

weight. By nature, this leads to abutments which are rather heavy. Gravity abutments are most

often constructed using concrete; however, stone masonry is also sometimes used. As described

above, a gravity abutment is composed of a backwall and flared wingwalls which rest on top of a

footing.

2. U Abutment. When the wingwalls of a gravity abutment are placed at right angles to the

backwall, the abutment is known as a U abutment. The name “U abutment” comes from the shape

the abutment has when viewed in plan. The wingwalls are typically cast monolithically with the

abutment backwall and cantilevered vertically from the footing. Some wingwalls may have portion
cantilevered horizontally as well. Because there is a tendency for the wingwalls to overturn, their

footings are cast monolithically with the abutment footing.

3. Cantilever Abutment. A cantilever abutment is virtually identical to a cantilever retaining wall

(i.e., a wall or stem extending up from a footing) except that a cantilever abutment is designed to

accommodate larger vertical loads and is equipped with a bridge seat.

4. Full Height Abutment. A full height abutment is a cantilever abutment which extends from the

underpass grade line (either roadway or water body) to the grade line of the overpass roadway

above.

5. Stub Abutment. Stub abutments are relatively short abutments which are placed at the top of

an embankment or slope. Unless sufficient rock exists at the site, stub abutments generally are

supported on piles which extend through the embankment.

6. Semi-Stub Abutment. As its name would imply, a semi-stub abutment is in between the size

of a full height and stub abutment. A semistub abutment is founded at an intermediate location

along the embankment. This type of abutments are also called semi-cantilever abutments.

7. Counterfort Abutment. A counterfort abutment, similar to a counterfort retaining wall, utilizes

a stem and footing which is braced with thin vertical slabs, known as counterforts, which are

spaced at intervals

8. Spill-through Abutment. A spill-through abutment utilizes two or more vertical columns or

buttresses which have a cap beam on top of them. The cap beam is in turn used to support the

bridge seat upon which the superstructure rests. The fill extends from the bottom of the cap beam

and is allowed to spill through the open spaces between the vertical columns so that only a portion

of the embankment is retained by the abutment.

9. Pile Bent Abutment. Similar in nature to a spill-through abutment, a pile bent abutment consists

of a single cap beam, acting as a bridge seat, supported by one or two rows of piles. Batter piles

are used to prevent sliding.

4.1.2 Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory of Abutment Design

An abutment, like a retaining wall, must be designed to satisfy two basic design requirements.

These requirements are, safety against possible failure by:

❏ Overturning and excessive settlement

❏ Sliding

For an abutment, the structure must be designed to resist both earth pressures and applied loads

from the superstructure. Many factors influence the design process, including the type of soil

present, drainage, and seismic loading. The principal force acting on an abutment is the active

earth pressure. The triangular area defined by the sloping line proceeding from the heel of the

footing/stem to the top of backfill is known as the failure wedge.

Coulomb theory is based on the following assumptions:

❏ The soil is isotropic and homogeneous

❏ The soil possesses both internal friction and cohesion

❏ The rupture surface is a plane surface

❏ The friction forces are distributed uniformly along the plane rupture

surface

❏ The failure wedge is a rigid body

❏ As the failure wedge moves along the wall friction forces are

developed
❏ A unit length of wall is considered over an infinitely long body

One of the main deficiencies with the Coulomb earth pressure theory is that it assumes an ideal

soil and that the rupture surface is defined by a plane. In reality, however, the failure surface is

more accurately defined by a surface possessing a slight curvature. Coulomb himself recognized

that the rupture surface was curved, but decided to replace the curve with a plane as an

approximation.

PIERS

The development of bridge piers parallels the growth of the modern highway system. Previously,

the use of bridge piers was confined to structures crossing rivers or railways. With the development

of massive transportation networks, the need for land piers to facilitate grade-separated highways

increased dramatically. A pier is a substructure which provides the basic function of supporting

spans at intermediate points between end supports (abutments). Piers are predominately

constructed using concrete, although steel and, to a lesser degree, timber are also used. The

concrete is generally conventionally reinforced. Prestressed concrete, however, is sometimes used

as a pier material for special structures.

The basic design functions of a highway bridge pier can be summarized by the following list. In

general, a pier is designed to:

❏ Carry its own weight

❏ Sustain superstructure dead loads, live loads, and lateral loads

❏ Transmit all loads to the foundation

Types of Piers

1. Hammerhead. A hammerhead pier utilizes one or more columns with a pier cap in the

shape of a hammer. Hammerhead piers are constructed out of conventionally reinforced

concrete. The supporting columns can be either rectangular (or other polygonal shape) or

circular in shape and extend down to a supporting foundation.

A two column, concrete hammerhead pier under construction.

2. Column Bent. A column bent pier, as its name would imply, consists of a cap beam and

supporting columns in a frame-type structure. Column bent piers represent one of the most popular

forms of piers in use in highway bridges. This popularity is an outgrowth of the extensive use of

column bent piers during the nascent development of the U.S. Interstate system.

The column bent pier is supported on either spread footing or pile foundations and is made of

conventionally reinforced concrete. Like hammerhead piers, the supporting columns can be either

circular or rectangular in cross section, although the former is by far more prevalent.

Pile Bent. The pile bent pier is a variation on the column bent pier with the supporting columns

and footing replaced with individual supporting piles. The end piles are generally equipped with a

batter in the transverse direction. In addition to concrete, timber is also a popular material for this

type of pier.
4. Solid Wall. A solid wall pier (also known as a continuous wall pier) as its name would imply,

consists of a solid wall which extends up from a foundation consisting of a footing or piles. The

top of the wall is equipped with individual pedestals upon which the superstructure rests. For

aesthetic reasons, the sides of the wall are often tapered (i.e., the wall is wider at the top than at

the base) to create a more pleasing and less imposing support structure. With regard to the latter

issue, it is not desirable to utilize solid wall piers on excessively wide superstructures.

Incorporation of solid wall piers under very wide superstructures can lead to a “tunnel effect” for

motorists passing under the structure and may require the placement of a special lighting system

under the structure. Solid wall piers are often used at water crossings since they can be constructed

to proportions that are both slender and streamlined. These features lend themselves well toward

providing a minimal resistance to flood flows.

5. Integral. An integral pier has a pier cap to which the superstructure’s primary members are

rigidly connected. This type of pier is not altogether common and is generally confined to special

structures, particularly when tight vertical clearance constraints pose a problem.

example of integral pier

Behavior and Loading of Piers

When viewed in section, a pier comprises a stem or column which is rigidly attached to a base. In

such a configuration, a bridge pier behaves either as a cantilever beam or a pin-ended strut

depending on the connection with the footing and superstructure. If a pier is cantilevered from the

footing, it will generally require a much wider foundation in order to offer resistance to overturning

moments. When a pier is pinned at the foundation, the footing usually can be designed with a

relatively narrow base since axial to near axial loads are generated on the foundation. Of particular

concern when designing a pier are the horizontal loads which result from live load transmitted

from the superstructure, wind loads, any stream flow loads which may be present, and seismic

loading conditions. The wind loads, live load centrifugal force, and seismic loads can also

contribute transverse loads to be applied to the pier.

The magnitude of these horizontal loads can be reduced through the incorporation of expansion

bearings at pier support points. Additional horizontal loads, however, can be contributed by

friction and temperature expansion in the expansion bearings. Wind loads acting on the pier as

well as possible collision from marine vessels should also be accounted for.

Design Criteria

Like the design of any structural component, the design of a pier is conducted to fulfill basic

strength and safety criteria. In general, the design of a highway bridge pier should address:

 Safety against overturning

 Safety against sliding

 Safety against bearing failure of the soil

 Safety against excessive or differential settlement

BEARINGS

Bearings are mechanical systems which transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure.

In a way, bearings can be thought of as the interface between the superstructure and the

substructure. In addition to transmitting vertical loads to the substructure component (i.e., pier or

abutment) a bearing also provides for movement due to thermal expansion and contraction as well

as rotational movement associated with deflection of primary members. The importance of

bearings cannot be understated. Bearings which become frozen due to corrosion, clogged with

debris, or fail to function as originally designed can induce high stresses and potentially lead to

failure of an individual span or an entire structure.

Forces Acting on a Bearing

As mentioned above, bridge bearings are designed to accommodate the transmittal of forces and

movement of the structure. The forces applied to a bridge bearing can be identified as:

 Reactions

 Longitudinal forces

 Transverse forces

 Uplift forces

Reactions acting on a bearing are produced by the end reaction of a primary member acting directly

on the center of the bearing/structure interface.

Sliding type bearing

DESIGN OF BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE

superstructure can be thought of as the conduit which carries a roadway over a crossing. Like any

other bridge component, the superstructure is comprised of many elements. In the bridge design

profession, no other component elicits so much discussion, and even downright controversy, as to

the type of elements to be utilized in construction. The structural and geometric complexities of

the superstructure component make it one of the most challenging design problems in a bridge

engineering project.

SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPES

The type of superstructure chosen for a bridge can be based on a variety of factors ranging from

maintenance considerations to personal preference. Specifically, some of the commonly used

criteria in selecting the type of superstructure to be used are:

 Material function and availability

 Construction cost

 Speed of construction and constructability

 Design complexity

 Maintenance costs and life expectancy

 Environmental concerns

 Aesthetics

Steel Superstructures

The two principal materials utilized in superstructure construction are steel and concrete. When

compared to concrete, steel has the advantage of lighter weight and more rapid construction. Steel

also lends itself well to prefabrication at the factory which reduces the amount of field labor for

operations such as bolting, welding, etc. Recent advancements in fabrication methods and

materials, especially with the introduction of weathering steel, has made steel much more

competitive with concrete. Element assembly and welding automation and the use of stay-in-place

forms are just two examples of how steel has improved to meet the challenge of the concrete

bridge.

1. Rolled Beam. The rolled beam is a steel girder which has been formed by hot-rolling. The most

common type of rolled beam used as a primary member in highway bridges is the wide-flange

variety. The wide flange differs from its I-beam cousin in that its flanges are parallel rather than

tapered. When the term I-beam is used throughout the text, it implies a beam with an I-type cross

section, not the American Standard I-beam (S shape) cross section discussed in the sidebar.

2. Rolled Beam with Cover Plate. To maintain an economy of material, rolled beams are

sometimes equipped with a rectangular plate, or cover plate, at the bottom flange. The cover plate
increases the ability of the stringer to resist flexure without having to use a larger size rolled beam

or plate girder. As we will see, however, the cover plate also increases the potential for fatigue

cracks by introducing welds and stress concentrations at the ends of the plate.

3. Plate Girder. A plate girder, like a rolled beam, has an I-type cross section. Rather than being

hot-rolled, however, the girder is constructed from steel plate elements which are connected

together with welds, bolts, or rivets. For modern highway bridges, shop welding is the most

predominant method. Since the designer is specifying the section properties of the stringer (i.e.,

flange width and thickness, web depth, etc.) a greater economy of materials results. To further

reduce the amount of steel used, plate girders can be varied in depth, or haunched, to accommodate

regions of low and high moment and/or shear. Plate girders gain an advantage over rolled beams

as span lengths become large.

Concrete Superstructures

Before prestressed concrete was accepted by the design community, most highway bridge

superstructures were constructed with the types of steel elements described above. Concrete

bridges were generally relegated to short, single-span structures. By the middle of the last century,

however, prestressed concrete structures began to gain acceptance and the number of highway

bridges constructed with concrete superstructures increased dramatically. In 2003, 47% of all new

bridges built in the U.S. are prestressed concrete bridges. Like steel, concrete superstructure

elements come in a variety of configurations, which are detailed below.

1. Prestressed Concrete Girder. A general axiom for concrete performance is that it handles

compression very well but performs poorly under tension. For steel bars, the converse holds true.

The combination of steel with concrete, with one material taking up the deficiencies of the other,
is the basic principal behind reinforced concrete. Prestressed concrete takes this characteristic

feature one step further by application of a tensile force to reinforcing tendons. This has the effect

of increasing internal compression in the concrete beam where tension is anticipated under loading,

and thus reducing or eliminating stresses due to tension once the beam is loaded. The prestressing

force may be applied after the concrete is cast in situ (i.e., poured in the field) or before the beam

is precast. When the force is applied to the reinforcing tendons before the concrete is poured, the

beam is said to be pre-tensioned. If the force is applied after the concrete has cured, the beam is

called post-tensioned. In post-tensioning, the tendons are encased in tubes to prevent bonding with

the surrounding concrete. After curing, jacking devices are used to apply the tensile force. To allow

the beam to act as a transformed section in resisting loads (i.e., transforming the concrete and steel

into a single equivalent section) the space inside ducts where the tendons are placed (for post-

tensioned beams) must be grouted before any live loads are placed on the girder (see AASHTO

Specification sidebar). Prestressed concrete girders come in a variety of cross-section geometries.

The pre-tensioning strands are dependent on the length of span and type of loading the structure is

subjected to.

3. Concrete Slab. A slab bridge is one in which the structural deck slab itself represents the

superstructure (i.e., there are no supporting primary and secondary members). Conventionally

reinforced concrete slab bridges are common for short spans up to 40 ft (12 m) in span length.

When longer spans and correspondingly deeper slabs are required, voids in the slab are introduced

to decrease the weight of the superstructure. Voids can be formed using any one of a variety of

materials ranging from cardboard to polystyrene tubes. Most voided slab bridges are

posttensioned. The slab bridge has the advantage of being able to accommodate skew crossings.
The advancement of prestressed concrete superstructure elements, along with the development of

entire modular slab units has made this type of bridge unattractive to the modern bridge engineer.

4. Adjacent Prestressed Slab. Adjacent prestressed concrete slab units can be used for short spans

up to 60ft (18m). A 3 to 4 inch (75 to 100mm) concrete overlay with reinforcement is usually cast

over the slab units. Slab units are transversely post-tensioned prior to placement of overlay to form

a single bridge deck. The advantage of this type of bridges is the rapid construction and low costs,

which make it very popular for short span bridges.

5. Concrete Rigid Frame. A concrete rigid frame, like the steel rigid frame, incorporates the

superstructure and substructure into a single integrated unit. A conventional rigid frame has a deck

slab integrated with abutment walls. This type of structure is usually for very short spans. A box

culvert can be considered as a concrete rigid frame structure.

Secondary Members

Secondary members act as bracing for primary members. In general, secondary members are not

load bearing elements but are designed to prevent cross-sectional deformation of the superstructure

frame. In addition to this, secondary members provide for vertical load distribution between

stringers by permitting the superstructure to work together as a unit. Longitudinal spacing of

secondary members varies depending on the type of primary member and the length of the span.

Specific spacing values for various types of diaphragm type secondary members are listed below.

The type of secondary members used varies depending on the type of structure and preference of

the designer. Secondary members come in three general classes: diaphragms, lateral bracing, and

portal/sway bracing. Listed below are these three major classes of secondary members and their

types and function.

1. Diaphragms. A diaphragm is a secondary member attached between stringers, in the vertical

plane, which acts to stiffen the primary member and help distribute vertical loads. For steel

superstructures comprised of rolled beam or plate girder primary members, a rolled beam

diaphragm can be used. This rolled beam is usually of the channel or wide flange type cross

section. Channel type rolled sections are designated in the AISC Steel Construction Manual by

either the C (American Standard Channels) or MC (Miscellaneous Channels) designations. For

rolled beam primary members, the diaphragm should be at least one-third to one-half the depth of

the primary member. Diaphragms for plate girders should be one-half to three quarters the girder

depth. When the primary member in a steel superstructure is exceedingly deep [approximately 48

in (1.2 m) or larger] or when curved girders are used, a cross frame style diaphragm is desirable.

Cross frames are typically composed of steel angles in a cross (X) or vee (V) configuration.

2. Lateral Bracing. Bracing located at either the top flange or bottom flange of a stringer to

prevent lateral deformation is called lateral bracing. The bracing is similar in form to a cross-frame

(i.e., laid out in an X-type configuration) but is laid out along the length of the stringer (in the

horizontal plane), rather than its depth. Lateral bracing is not required at stringer flanges attached

to a rigid element, such as a concrete deck or between box girders. In general, spans less than 125

ft (38.1 m) are not required to have lateral bracing, provided they have a system of diaphragms or

cross frames installed. Lateral bracing, however, can also add stability to the superstructure during

construction and, for large spans, may be desirable from this standpoint.

3. Portal and Sway Bracing. Portal and sway bracing are transverse bracing elements used in

truss bridges. Both portal and sway bracing are located at the top series of truss members called

the top chord. Portal bracing differs from sway bracing in that it is located at the portal (i.e.,

entrance) of a through-truss. Portal bracing is designed to accommodate the total end reaction of
the lateral system located at the top chord of the truss, and transfer it to the substructure

components. Sway bracing is located at intermediate panel points of the top chord in either a cross

or knee brace configuration to provide lateral support for the truss top chords. Deck trusses require

sway bracing at the truss end and intermediate posts to ensure truss stability during construction.

DECK JOINT TYPES

Deck joints can play a critical role in the overall performance of a structure. The type of joint

selected for a structure is generally dependent on the type and magnitude of motion the joint is

required to accommodate. Deck joints can provide for longitudinal and transverse movement as

well as rotation caused by thermal expansion/contraction and loading conditions. In addition to

this, deck joints act as a sealant that protects substructure elements from deicing agents and

excessive moisture.

A modular joint (example of deck joint) provided to prevent the effect of thermal expansion.
CULVERTS CONSTRUCTION

Introduction

A culvert is any structure not classified as a bridge that provides an opening under a

roadway, and other type of access or utility. Culverts are important hydraulic structures used to

convey water across a road corridor or in one of a range of other situations. Culverts must be

designed to convey this flow in an acceptable way, considering the hydraulic conditions and the

required performance (level of flood immunity) of the road.

A culvert is defined as the following:

A structure that is usually designed hydraulically to take advantage of submergence to increase

hydraulic capacity.

A structure used to convey surface runoff through embankments.

A structure, as distinguished from bridges, that is usually covered with embankment and is

composed of structural material around the entire perimeter, although some are supported on

spread footings with the streambed serving as the bottom of the culvert.

A structure that is 20 feet or less in centerline span width between extreme ends of openings for

multiple boxes. However, a structure designed hydraulically as a culvert is treated in this Chapter,

regardless of its span.

Use of a culvert

A culvert is used primarily to convey water through embankments or other type of flow

obstructions. It is also used as a passage for pedestrian, stock, wildlife, and fish as well as for land

access and to carry utilities. This chapter focuses on drainage applications of culverts.
Various terms used in culvert design and their definitions

Backfill: The backfill is the material used to refill the trench after the pipe and the embedment

have been placed.

Barrel Roughness: Barrel roughness is a function of the material used to fabricate the barrel.

Typical materials include concrete, plastic, and corrugated metal.

Barrel Area: Barrel area is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flow.

Barrel Length: Barrel length is the total culvert length from the entrance to the exit of the culvert.

Bedding: The bedding is the material placed at the bottom of the trench on which the pipe is laid.

Bottom of Pipe: Bottom of pipe is the point along the pipe vertical axis which is a wall thickness

below the invert.

Control Section: The control section is the location where there is a unique relationship between

the flow rate and the upstream water surface elevation.

Cover: The cover is the depth of backfill over the top of the pipe.

Critical Flow: A state of flow where the specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge. Also,

it is the state of flow where the velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic depth or where the

ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces is equal to unity (Froude number equal to 1).

Critical Depth: Critical depth is the depth at the critical flow. For a given discharge and cross

section geometry, there is only one critical depth.

Critical Slope: A slope that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth.

Crown: The crown is the inside top of the culvert.

Embedment: The pipe embedment comprises the soil that is placed under and around the pipe

immediately above the bedding to support the load on the pipe. It includes the haunch fill, the

shoulder fill, and the initial cover.

Energy Grade Line: The energy grade line represents the total energy at any point along the

culvert barrel. The total energy at any section is the sum of flow depth, velocity head (V2/2g), and

all energy losses.

Flexible Pipe: Flexible pipe is a structure that transmits the load on the pipe to the soils at the

sides of the pipe. Examples of flexible pipes are plastic and thin-walled metal pipes.

Flowline: The flowline is the line running longitudinally with the channel connecting all the lowest

points in a series of two or more channel cross sections.

Foundation: The foundation is the in-place or borrow material beneath the bottom of pipe or layer

of bedding material. The foundation material should be removed and replaced if unsuitable.

Free Outlet: A free outlet has a tailwater equal to or lower than critical depth. For culverts having

free outlets, lowering of the tailwater has no effect on the discharge or the backwater profile

upstream of the tailwater.

Haunches: The haunches of the pipe are the outside areas between the springline and the bottom

of pipe.

Headwater: The headwater is the depth of the upstream water surface measured from the flowline

at the culvert entrance.

Hydraulic Grade Line: The hydraulic grade line represents the depth to which water would rise

in vertical tubes connected to the sides of the culvert barrel.

Improved Inlet: An improved inlet has an entrance geometry which decreases the flow

constriction at the inlet and thus increases the capacity of culverts flowing under inlet control

conditions.

Invert: The invert is the inside bottom of the culvert.

Normal Flow: Normal flow occurs in a channel reach when the discharge, velocity and depth of

flow do not change throughout the reach. The water surface profile and channel bottom slope will

be parallel. This type of flow can exist in a culvert operating on a steep slope provided the culvert

is sufficiently long.

Normal Depth: Normal depth is the depth of water at a steady, uniform, constant velocity and

flow at a given channel reach.

Rigid Pipe: Rigid pipe is a structure that transmits the backfill load on the pipe through the pipe

walls to the foundation beneath the pipe. Examples of rigid pipes are reinforced concrete and thick-

walled metal pipes.

Slope: Steep slope occurs where the critical depth is greater than the normal depth. Mild slope

occurs where critical depth is less than normal depth.

Spring-line: The springline is the horizontal line at the midpoint of the vertical axis of the pipe.

Subcritical Slope: A slope less than the critical slope which causes a slower flow of subcritical

state for a given discharge.

Submerged Condition: A submerged outlet occurs where the tallwater elevation is higher than

the crown of the culvert. A submerged inlet occurs where the headwater is greater than 1.2 times

the culvert diameter or barrel height.

Supercritical Slope: A slope greater than the critical slope which causes a faster flow of

supercritical state for a given discharge.

Tailwater: The depth of water downstream of the culvert measured from the outlet flowline.

Backwater calculations from a downstream control, a normal depth approximation, or field

observations are used to define the tailwater elevation.

Top of Pipe: Top of pipe is the point along the pipe vertical axis which is a wall thickness above

the crown.

Trench: A trench is a cut or an excavation made in the ground for the placement of culvert and

required bedding, embedment, backfill and cover materials.

Classification of culverts

 Culverts can be classified based on;

 Geometry;

 Construction material; and

 Type of flow control.

Geometry

The geometric factors used in culvert classification are:

 The barrel shapes; and

 Inlet types.

Barrel Shapes

Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available. The most commonly used shapes include circular,

rectangular, elliptical, pipe-arch, and arch. The shape selection is based on the cost of construction,

the limitation on upstream water surface elevation, roadway embankment height, and hydraulic

performance.

Inlet Types

A number of different inlet configurations are utilized on culvert barrels. These include both

prefabricated and constructed-in-place installations. Commonly used inlet configurations include

projecting culvert barrels, cast-in-place concrete headwalls, precast or prefabricated end sections,
and culvert ends mitered to conform to the fill slope. Structural stability, aesthetics, erosion

control, and fill retention are considerations in the selection of various inlet configurations.

The hydraulic capacity of a culvert may be improved by appropriate inlet selection. Since

the natural channel is usually wider than the culvert barrel, the culvert inlet edge represents a flow

contraction and may be the primary flow control. The provision of a more gradual flow transition

will lessen the energy loss and thus create a more hydraulically efficient inlet condition. Beveled

edges are therefore more efficient than square edges. Side-tapered and slope-tapered inlets,

commonly referred to as improved inlets, further reduce the flow contraction losses. Depressed

inlets, such as slope-tapered inlets, increase the effective head on the flow control section, thereby

further increasing the culvert efficiency.

Culvert Construction Materials

The most common culvert materials are:

Concrete (reinforced and non-reinforced);

Corrugated aluminum;

Corrugated steel;

Plastic (corrugated or non-corrugated); and

High density polyethylene (HDPE).

Materials used in constructing culverts result in different structural and performance properties.

These properties are:

 Durability;

 Structural strength;

 Hydraulic roughness;

 Embedment conditions;
 Abrasion and corrosion resistance; and

 Water tightness requirements.

Durability

Durability (service life) is defined by the number of years a pipe lasts until it becomes structurally

or functionally unfit for the intended purpose. The estimated minimum service life under normal

conditions for all types of culvert pipes listed in the Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge

Construction shall be 50 years. This service life covers pipes used for highway drainage system

including cross culverts, siphons and side drains.

Structural Strength

Structural design of the culvert barrel must provide adequate strength to resist the moments,

thrusts, and shears determined through structural analysis. The prism load (dead load), dynamic

load (traffic load), the type of pipe material and pavements (flexible or rigid), and the properties

of in-situ soil, backfill, embedment, bedding, and foundation materials should be determined

before an adequate structural analysis is performed.

Hydraulic Roughness

The hydraulic roughness represents the hydraulic resistance to flow by culverts. The Manning

equation is commonly used to calculate the barrel friction losses in culvert design. The hydraulic

resistance coefficients for corrugated metal conduits are based on the size and shape of the

corrugations, spacing of the corrugations, type of joints, bolt or rivet roughness, method of

manufacture, size of conduit flow velocity and aging.

Embedment Conditions

For rigid pipe, the embedment distributes the load over the foundation. For flexible pipe, the

embedment resists the deflection of the pipe due to load. The flat surface makes compaction
difficult at the very bottom of large structures. Trenches should be wide enough to permit

compacting the remainder of the embedment under the haunches of the structure.

Abrasion and Corrosion Resistance

Abrasion is the erosion of culvert material primarily due to the natural movement of bedload in

the stream.

Water tightness Requirements

Water tightness pertains to the tightness of the fit of the installed pipes as to be impermeable to

water. Piping caused by seepage along a culvert removes fill material to form a hollow similar to

a pipe. Fine soil particles are washed out freely along the hollow and the erosion inside the fill

may ultimately cause failure of the culvert or the embankment. Piping may also occur through

open joints into the culvert barrel. Therefore, it is important that culvert joints be as watertight as

practical.

Types of Flow Control

Culvert classification based on the flow control type categorizes culverts into two basic groups:

1. Inlet control culverts; and

2. Outlet control culverts.

The basis for this classification is the location of the control section. The hydraulic capacity of a

culvert depends upon a different combination of factors for each type of control.

An accurate theoretical analysis of culvert flow is extremely complex and will require the

following:

 Analysis of non-uniform flow with regions of both gradually varying and rapidly varying

flow;
 Determination of how the flow type changes as the flow rate and tailwater elevations

change;

 Application of backwater and drawdown calculations, energy and momentum balance;

 Application of the results of hydraulic model studies; and

 Determination if hydraulic jump occurs and its location.

Inlet Control

Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of conveying more flow than the inlet will

accept. The control section of a culvert operating under inlet control is located just inside the

entrance. Critical depth occurs at or near this location, and the flow region immediately

downstream is supercritical. Hydraulic characteristics downstream of the inlet control section do

not affect the culvert capacity. The upstream water surface elevation and the inlet geometry

represent the major flow controls. The inlet geometry includes the barrel shape, cross-sectional

area, and the inlet edge.

For unsubmerged region of flow, headwater elevation is below the inlet crown and the entrance

operates as a weir.

 A weir is a flow control section where the upstream water surface elevation can be

predicted for a given flow rate.

 The relationship between flow and water surface elevation must be determined by model

tests of the weir geometry or by measuring prototype discharges.

 These tests are then used to develop equations

For submerged region of flow, headwater elevation is above the inlet, the culvert operates as an

orifice.
 An orifice is an opening, submerged on the upstream side and flowing freely on the

downstream side, which functions as a control section.

 The relationship between flow and headwater can be defined based on results from model

tests.

The transition zone is located between the unsubmerged and the submerged flow conditions

where the flow is poorly defined. This zone is approximated by plotting the unsubmerged and

submerged flow equations and by connecting them with a line tangent to both curves.

Outlet Control

Outlet control flow occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as much flow as the

inlet opening will accept. The control section for outlet control flow in a culvert is located at the

barrel exit or further downstream. The culvert may outfall into a pond, lake, gulch, creek, river,

and other drainage ways. In an outlet control condition, the water surface elevations or tailwater

on these waterways are high enough to cause backwater to a distance upstream of the culvert inlet

and therefore control the flow.

Design criteria

Listed below by categories are the design criteria that shall be considered for all culvert designs.

Site and Structure Selection Criteria

Culvert Location

The Region will normally submit field culvert reports specifying the culvert location with

supporting survey and topography. The survey to be transmitted to the Hydraulics Unit shall be in

accordance with the requirements of the Survey Manual. Cross culverts shall be located as close

to the natural drainage waterway as possible. The combining of flows from several channels into

a common channel to use only one cross culvert is discouraged. However, if such concentration is
necessary, care must be taken to avoid severe erosion or deposition of silt at the culvert outlet. The

same applies to concentrating sheet flow from wide or undefined waterways. Flow should not be

diverted to another watershed without an evaluation of the legal and physical consequences.

Culvert Alignment

From the standpoint of hydraulic efficiency, durability and maintenance, abrupt changes in flow

direction are undesirable. The maximum angle of bend at any point along a culvert horizontal or

vertical alignment should be 22o30'. This angle of bend must be referenced to an alignment taken

along the side of the culvert nearest to the center of curvature. Any angle of bend greater than this

value should be divided into smaller angles and the miters spaced at a minimum interval of 1.2

times the total diameter or span of the culvert. As an alternative to mitering and if facility of

construction dictates, the culvert can be curved using a minimum radius of curvature equal to 3

times the diameter or span. Similar to mitering, curving should be taken along the side of the

culvert nearest to the center of the curvature.

Structure Type Selection

Culverts are used:

 Where bridges are not hydraulically required;

 Where debris and ice are tolerable; and

 Where more economical than a bridge.

Bridges are used:

 Where culverts cannot be used;

 Where more economical than a culvert;

 To satisfy land-use requirements;

 To mitigate environmental harm caused by a culvert;

 To avoid floodway ((or irrigation canal)) encroachments; and

 To accommodate ice and large debris.

Length, Slope, and Flowline

The culvert length and slope shall be chosen to approximate existing topography, and to the degree

practicable.

 The culvert invert shall be aligned with the flowline and the skew angle of the stream; and

 The culvert entrance shall match the geometry of the roadway embankment.

 The designer should not select the culvert flowline until upstream and downstream channel

flowline elevations are known.

 The ground lines of a structure cross section may not represent the channel bottom causing

the designer to erroneously set the culvert flowline on the banks of the channel.

 The channel flowline may be determined from field survey data or a contour map. The field

survey data shall include channel cross sections as prescribed in the Survey Manual.

Ice Buildup

Ice buildup shall be mitigated as necessary by:

 Assessing the flood damage potential resulting from a plugged culvert,

 Increasing the culvert height 1 ft above the total of the maximum observed ice buildup plus

any winter flow depth; and

 Increasing the culvert width to encompass the observed channel’s static ice width plus 10%

where appropriate to prevent property damage.

Debris Control

Debris control shall be designed using Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9, "Debris-Control

Structures" (4) and shall be considered:

 Where experience or physical evidence indicates the watercourse will transport a heavy

volume of controllable debris,

 For culverts located in mountainous or steep regions,

 For culverts that are under high fills, and

 Where clean-out access is limited. However, access must be available to clean out the

debris control device.

The designer should seek information concerning the type and the amount of debris to be expected

during a major flow. Since it is nearly impossible to calculate the volume by visual observation of

the basin, history from previous flows in the proximity of the site is most reliable. The designer

may attempt to retain the debris upstream of the entrance or intentionally pass it through the

culvert.

It is not feasible to retain small debris such as silt, small stones, brush, or trash upstream

of a culvert. Generally, it is not even feasible to retain larger debris such as large boulders and

trees. Debris control devices are often unsightly and expensive and they can require considerable

maintenance after each flood occurrence. If the storage capacity of the debris trap is too small for

a major storm, water may be diverted away from the culvert entrance causing more damage than

naturally. When the debris is passed through the culvert, the size of the culvert must be adequate

to prevent much ponding at the entrance. If debris is to be retained upstream, a debris control

structure is necessary.
The center web wall in a concrete box culvert can collect excessive debris. If excessive debris is

expected, a single span culvert is favored. Cost comparisons should be made among the single

span and larger double or triple cell concrete box culverts. The use of an upstream sloping web

wall is effective in reducing plugging by floating debris. Excessive silt generally will not be

deposited in a culvert provided the inlet and the outlet are on or above the flowline of the channel.

Exceptions may occur if the culvert is so wide that the velocity in the culvert is less than the natural

channel, or if the culvert constricts a supercritical channel.

KERB COSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

A kerb can be explained as a concrete which is mostly made in a mold which is mostly used at the

edge where a raised sidewalk (pavement in British English) or road median/central reservation

meets a street or other roadway.

Function

Kerbs may fulfill any or several of a number of functions. They separate the road from the

roadside, and discourage drivers from parking or driving on sidewalks and lawns. They also

provide structural support to the pavement edge. Kerbs can be used to channel runoff water from

rain or melted snow and ice into storm drains. There is also an aesthetic aspect, in that kerbs look

formal and "finished". Since kerbs add to the cost of a road, they are generally limited to urban

and suburban areas, and are rarely found in rural areas except where certain drainage conditions

(such as mountains or culverts) make them necessary. Kerbs are not universally used, however,

even in urban settings.

Safety

In low-speed environments, kerbs are effective at channeling motor vehicle traffic. On higher

speed roads, kerbs should not be used because they can destabilize vehicles that strike them. A

high-speed vehicle that hits a kerb may actually turn towards the sidewalk, rather than be directed

away from it. A vehicle that strikes a kerb can be tripped into a rollover crash or vaulted into the

air. The vehicle could be vaulted over a traffic barrier into the object the barrier is intended to

shield. This is a reason why they are rarely used on rural or high speed roads. Where kerb is used

with a traffic barrier, the barrier should either be close to or well behind the kerb, to reduce the

chances of a vehicle going over the barrier. Depending on the area and the distance between the
travel lane and the edge of pavement, an edge line can be used to indicate the outside (shoulder)

edge of the road. Retroreflective road marking material can also be applied to the curb itself to

make it more conspicuous.

Types of kerb

There are a number of types of kerb, categorized by shape, material, height, and whether the kerb

is combined with a gutter. Most kerb is constructed separately from the pavement, and the gutter

is formed at the joint between the roadway and the kerb. Combined kerb and gutter has a concrete

kerb and gutter cast together in one piece. "Integral kerb" is curbing constructed integrally as a

part of a concrete pavement.

Shape

Kerbs often have a vertical or nearly-vertical face, also called "barrier", "non-mountable", or

"insurmountable kerb". Vertical-faced kerb is used to discourage motor vehicle drivers from

leaving the roadway. The square (90°-edge) or close-to-square type is still almost always used in

towns and cities, as it is a straight step down and thus less likely to be tripped-over by pedestrians.

By contrast, a slope-faced kerb allows motor vehicles to cross it at low speed. Slope-faced kerb is

most often used on major suburban thoroughfares. At crosswalks and other pedestrian crossings,

narrow dropped curb cut are used to allow small wheeled vehicles such as wheelchairs, children's

tricycles, prams, and strollers to cross. This makes it easier to traverse for some pedestrians, and

especially for those in wheelchairs. Wide kerb cuts are also used to allow motor vehicles to cross

sidewalks at low speed, typically for driveways. This machine slip casts a concrete kerb with

integral gutter

In Great Britain, "high containment kerbs" are used at locations with pedestrians, fuel station

pumps, and other areas that need greater protection from vehicle traffic. These are 14 inches (36
cm) high - much higher than standard kerb, with a sloped lower portion and a concave face. These

are also known as "Trief" kerbs. Rounded kerbs are most often used at driveways, and continuously

along suburban residential streets where there are many driveways and the sidewalk has a grassy

setback from the street. This type of kerbing starts out nearly flat like the road, curves up in a

concave manner to a gentle slope, then curves back in a convex manner to nearly flat.

Material

Kerbs are constructed of many materials, including asphalt, stone or masonry blocks, but most

often are made of Portland cement concrete. The type of material may depend on the type of paving

material used for the road and the desired function or need. For example, a Portland concrete kerbs

used with an asphalt concrete road surface provides a highly visible barrier at the edge of the road

surface. Other types of kerb material include stone slabs, cobblestone, and manufactured pavers.

Concrete kerb may be constructed by setting forms by hand, filling them, letting them set up, and

then removing the forms. When large quantities of curb are to be constructed, it is often more

efficient to use a slip form casting machine. Kerbs can also be precast at a central location and

trucked to the construction site. Asphalt kerbs is usually made with a paving machine. It can be

cheaper if it is formed at the same time that a road is paved, but is less durable than concrete kerb.

Stone kerb, often made from granite, is durable and resistant to de-icing salt. It is also chosen for

aesthetic reasons. In areas where granite is available, it may be cheaper than concrete kerb. One

disadvantage of granite kerb is that it can cut a tire sidewall if it is rough-faced. Belgian block

curbs are made by placing blocks over a concrete slip. Then, more concrete is wedged in between

the blocks to hold them together. These blocks can be vertical, or angled in order to create a

mountable kerb.

Height
When designing a kerbed roadway, engineers specify the "reveal" or "lip". The reveal is the height

of the section that is visible (revealed) above the road surface. Typical reveals are in the 4 to 8

inches (100 to 200 mm) range. Kerbs at handicapped kerb cuts should have no reveal, although

Americans with Disabilities Act guidelines permit up to 0.25 inches (6.4 mm) of vertical reveal.

Most kerb extends down into the ground below the pavement surface, to improve their stability

over time. The total height, including the buried portion, is often 16 inches (410 mm).
GUTTER CONSTRUCTION

A gutter is a depression running parallel to a road designed to collect rainwater flowing

along the street and divert it into a storm drain. A gutter alleviates water buildup on a street,

allowing pedestrians to pass without walking through puddles and reducing the risk of

hydroplaning by road vehicles. It is also prepared channel in a surface, especially at the side of a

road adjacent to a curb, intended for the drainage of water. When a curbstone is present, a gutter

may be formed by the convergence of the road surface and the vertical face of the sidewalk;

otherwise, a dedicated gutter surface made of concrete may be present.

Depending on local regulations, a gutter usually discharges in a storm drain whose final discharge

falls into a detention pond (in order to remove some pollutants by sedimentation) or into a body of

water.

Gutters are concrete or asphalt structures used to collect surface runoff from paved streets, parking

lots, or other impervious surfaces and convey it to a storm drain system or appropriate treatment

and/or infiltration system. A typical gutter system will concentrate runoff volumes, therefore

gutters should only be installed when necessary to convey runoff to a suitable infiltration system

or area, when such infiltration cannot be accommodated on-site. Gutters are suitable for the

collection and conveyance of runoff from paved surfaces.

Runoff from impervious surfaces can be treated and infiltrated adjacent to roadways by

implementing curb cuts into the curb and gutter system, delivering it to prepared spreading zones

such as vegetated filter strips.

Advantages

1. Prevents the discharge of storm water runoff from impervious surfaces to unsuitable

roadside shoulders and adjacent slopes and therefore preventing erosion of these surfaces.

2. Protects erosion control structures.

Disadvantages
1. Concentrates the volume of runoff and increases the erosive potential of runoff. This

potential disadvantage can be mitigated by installing curb cuts.

2. Limits potential infiltration, unless curb cuts are incorporated.

3. Requires reliable periodic sweeping.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following guidelines are water quality design considerations for culverts.

 Refer to applicable drainage design manuals within the responsible jurisdiction for

requirements associated with structural integrity, drainage design, public safety, and other

factors.

 Gutters should be designed by a licensed professional civil engineer.

 Incorporate low impact development into the design of a curb and gutter system by

installing curb cuts where feasible. Runoff will exit through the curb cut into an adjacent

surface-spreading system, such as a vegetated swale which will provide a reduction of

flows and facilitate infiltration.

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

 Gutters should be inspected annually after spring snowmelt for accumulated litter, debris,

and sediment, before the period of erosive summer thunderstorms.

 Remove pine needles, leaves, pinecones, sediment, and other large debris when visual

inspection identifies the need. Also inspect systems for damage or signs of deterioration

from weather, road maintenance equipment, and snowplow equipment. Repair or replace

damaged sections as soon as possible.

 Employ a regular street sweeping program to keep the curb and gutter free of accumulated

sediment.