Module 2 - Occupational Safety…cont.

(Fire, Electrical Safety and Machine Safety)

Learning Content:
c. Fire
• principles of fire occurrence and extinguishment using the fire triangle mode
• five principles of fire prevention and control
d. Electrical Safety
• basic terms in electricity
• danger of electric shock
• practical measures in preventing electric shock accidents
e. Machine Safety
• principles of machine guarding
• areas where machine guards are needed
• types of machine guards
• lock-out and tag-out

Learning Outcomes:
• Describe principles of fire occurrence and extinguishment using the fire
triangle mode
• Enumerate five principles of fire prevention and control
• Define the basic terms in electricity
• Describe the danger of electric shock
• Identify the practical measures in preventing electric shock accidents
• Recognize the principles of machine guarding
• Identify areas where machine guards are needed
• Enumerate the types of machine guards
• Differentiate a lock-out from tag-out

This module aims to introduce the chemistry and behavior of fire and principles of
fire prevention and control. It also includes practical measures that you can follow to
ensure electrical safety and aims to introduce the principles of machine safety as a tool to
eliminate industrial injuries and accidents.

c. Fire
− is a chemical reaction that gives off light and heat.
− is a chemical reaction between a flammable or combustible material and oxygen.
This process converts the flammable or combustible materials and oxygen into
energy. Other by-products of fire include light, smoke and other gases. Many of
these gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen bromide,
hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc. are toxic
to humans.
The Fire Triangle and the Fire Tetrahedron

Fire Triangle
- or combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the necessary
ingredients for most fires.

The fire triangle and the pyramid of fire illustrate the elements necessary for fire to
start and the methods of extinguishment. Each side represents an essential ingredient for
fire. The three elements are Fuel, Oxygen and Heat. When a fire starts, a fourth element,
which is the chemical reaction itself, is necessary for flame propagation. The four-sided
figure is called the Fire Tetrahedron.

• Fuel
− a material used to produce heat or power by burning
− any material that will burn

Do you know the difference between a flammable and combustible substance?

Flammable substance
− are substances that will ignite and continue to burn when they are brought
into contact with an ignition source.
− is a substance having a flashpoint below 100 °F (37.8 °C) and vapor pressure
not exceeding 20 psia at 100 °F. Examples of flammable substances with their
flashpoint are shown below:

Flashpoint
Flammable substances °F °C
Gasoline -45 -42.8
Ether -49 -45
Acetone 0 -17.8
Alcohol 55 12.8

Combustible substance
− a substance which burns in air and tends to produce heat and light
− is a substance having a flashpoint at or above 100 °F (37.8 °C).

Flashpoint
Combustible substances °F °C
Fuel Oil 100 37.8
Kerosene 100 37.8
Quenching Oil 365 185.0
Mineral Oil 380 193.3
Flashpoint - the lowest temperature at which fuel begins to give off flammable
vapors and form an ignitable mixture in air.

Which is more dangerous: a substance with low flashpoint or a substance with a high
flashpoint?

Answer: The lower the flashpoint, the more dangerous a substance is.

• Oxygen
From our definition of FIRE, we need oxygen which combines with fuel while
burning. Normally, the air has 21% oxygen and 78% while nitrogen.

• Heat – completes the chemistry of fire

Even if found together, fuel and oxygen will not burn. An example is a piece of
paper. This fuel is exposed to oxygen in the air but will not burn. Why? Because we
need to introduce the third element which is Heat.

It is when we heat up the piece of paper sufficiently that it will start to burn.

What we form with these three elements is called the Fire Triangle. This model shows
us that to have fire we need three elements. And if these elements are combined
at the right proportion, we will have fire.

I. How to extinguish a fire?

The fire triangle demonstrates the principles of extinguishing fire. If we remove any of
the three legs of the triangle, we will be able to extinguish the fire.

A. Removing fuel
Taking away fuel from a fire is difficult and often times dangerous. However,
there are examples that can be employed in controlling fire such as:

- LPG tank flame at the nozzle of the valve is best extinguished by

shutting off the valve. When there is no fuel supply the flame will die
out.
- Flammable liquid storage tanks can be arranged so that contents
can be pumped to an empty tank in case of fire.
- Fire lanes cut in forests prevents conflagration
- Grasses and undergrowth are burned ahead of an advancing bush
fire so that when the main fire reaches these burnt areas, there is no
more fuel to feed the fire.

B. Removing oxygen
Oxygen cannot be eliminated completely so what one can do is:
1. Separate it from the fire through smothering the burning area with a
non-combustible material – this is called “suffocating the fire.”

Examples:
- If there are oil spills, you can cover it with wet blanket
or you can throw sand or soil on it.
- Covering with foam
- Smothering it with inert gas

2. Reduce the concentration of oxygen below the concentration

necessary to support combustion. This is accomplished by
discharging carbon dioxide or other inert gases into the fire.

Example:
Light candle and cover with glass until the candle dies

Light candle with inverted glass on top of the candle, then

lower the glass until the middle of the candle as illustrated
below. Flame will also be extinguished as in the first example.

From the above illustrations, extinguishment using the oxygen

side of the triangle can be accomplished by totally
eliminating oxygen or by reducing the concentration of
oxygen below the level that will support combustion.

C. Removing heat
If we reduce the heat below the kindling point or flashpoint, we stop the release
of combustible vapors and gases and extinguish the fire. To achieve this, it is
necessary to remove the heat at a greater rate than the total heat that is being
evolved from the fire. The most common agent used is water or incorporated
in foam.
Example:
- After cooking barbeque we normally put off the charcoal using
water applied directly to the flame.

D. Interrupting the chain reaction

In order for fire to propagate continuously, there must be uninhibited and
continuous chain reaction. Speed up the process and an explosion results.
Interrupt the chain reaction by inhibiting the oxidation process and the
production of flammable vapors that react with oxygen, then we extinguish the
fire.
Example:
- Use of dry chemicals extinguishes fire with this principle.

In summary, control of fires can be accomplished by removing one of the sides of the
triangle and/or inhibiting the chain reaction.
II. Classification of fires
There are four classes of fires, categorized according to the kind of material
that is burning. For the first three classes of fires, there are two sets of color-coded
icons commonly used. One or both kinds of icons appear on most fire extinguishers
to indicate the kinds of fire against which the unit is intended to be used.
There is only one icon used to indicate the fourth (class D) kind of fire. Class D
fires involve uncommon materials and occur in fairly specialized situations. Note that
any given fire can fall into more than one class; a fire that involves both burning
paper and kitchen grease would be a Class AB fire.
Knowing the classification of fires is important for the speedy extinguishment
and safety of the fire fighters. Using the wrong extinguishing medium may cause the
fire to spread and endanger the fire fighters.

Classes of fire
• Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.
• Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
• Class C - fires involving gases.
• Class D - fires involving metals.
• Class E (K) - fires involving live electrical apparatus.

Class A fires are those fueled by materials that, when

they burn, leave a residue in the form of ash, such as
paper, wood, cloth, rubber, and certain plastics.

Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gasses, such

as gasoline, paint thinner, kitchen grease, propane, and
acetylene.

Fires that involve energized electrical wiring or

equipment (motors, computers, panel boxes) are Class
C fires. Note that if the electricity to the equipment is cut,
a Class C fire becomes one of the other three types of
fires.

Class D fires involve combustible metals such as

magnesium, sodium, titanium, and certain
organometallic compounds such as alkyl lithium and
Grignard reagents.

Fire that involves combustible cooking fuels such as

vegetable or animal oils and fats.
III. Principles of fire prevention and control

A. Prevent the outbreak of fire

We prevent fire by preventing the combination of the three elements
at the right proportion. Ordinarily, oxygen is the most difficult of the three factors
to control, since it is in the air and is a necessity of life. But fuel and heat can be
controlled. Therefore, the simplest control measures will have to do with fuel
and heat. Actually, control in this sense merely means keeping them
separated.

It will be good to examine the hazards from which most fires originate. These
are sometimes described as causes of fire.

Common causes of fires:

Electricity

Hazards of electricity involve electrocution and fire. Usually, fire is

caused by overheating, arcs and sparks.

• Control
- conduct regular inspection and maintenance of electrical
installation
- employ trained and licensed electrician
- follow Philippine Electrical Code and Occupational Safety
and Health Standards

Arcs and sparks normally happen when one opens or closes a

circuit. The danger arises when arcs and sparks occur in a
flammable or explosive atmosphere which could result to
explosion.

To control arcs and sparks, use explosion proof equipment or

intrinsically safe devices.
Mechanical heat
Heated surfaces on furnaces, flues, heating devices and light bulbs
can cause fires if flammable or combustible materials are close
enough to absorb sufficient heat to cause combustion. Care should
be taken to ensure that all such devices are properly installed,
especially with respect to clearance and barrier materials.

Friction sparks
Friction generates heat. Excessive heat generated by friction
causes a very high percentage of industrial fires. Fire usually results
from:
• overheated power-transmission bearings and shafting from poor
lubrication and excessive dust
• jamming of work material during production
• incorrect tension adjustment of belt-driven machinery. If the belt
is too tight or too loose, excessive friction could develop

• Control
▪ Preventive maintenance program to keep bearings well
oiled and do not run hot. And keep accumulation of
flammable dust or lint on them to a minimum.
▪ Keep oil holes of bearings covered to prevent dust and
gritty substances from entering the bearings.

Open flames
Carelessly discarded cigarettes, pipe embers, and cigars are a major
source of fire. Prohibit smoking, especially in woodworking shops,
textile mills, four mills, grain elevators, and places where flammable
liquids or combustible products are manufactured, stored or used.

• Control
▪ providing a "No Smoking Area" at specified times where
supervision can be maintained.
▪ marking areas where exposure is severe with conspicuous
“No Smoking” signs, prohibiting employees from even
carrying matches, lighters and smoking material of any
kind

Spontaneous heat (auto-ignition)

Spontaneous ignition results from a chemical reaction where there is
a slow generation of heat from oxidation of organic compounds
that, under certain conditions, is accelerated until the ignition
temperature of the fuel is reached.

Welding and cutting sparks

Hazardous sparks such as globules of molten, burning metal or hot
slag are produced by both welding and cutting operations. Sparks
from cutting, particularly oxy-fuel gas cutting, are generally more
hazardous than those from welding because the sparks are more
numerous and travel greater distances.

• Control time for welding and cutting:

▪ Move combustibles a safe distance away - 35 ft.
horizontally or
▪ Move work to a safe distance
▪ Protect the exposed combustibles with suitable fire
resistant guards and provide a trained fire watcher with
extinguishing equipment readily available
▪ Cover openings in walls, floors or ducts should be if within
35 ft of the work.
▪ Implement "Hot Work Permit System"

Generation of static charge

Static Electricity is electricity at rest. It is formed by the contact
and separation of dissimilar materials.
Examples that produce static electricity:
• flow of fluid through a pipe
• agitation and mixing
• splash filing
Static spark created may cause ignition of flammable
vapors, dust and fibers. Also, a worker could be injured
through accidental reaction caused by static spark shock.

• Control
Bonding and grounding are key control measures for fire
related to static electricity. Bonding is done to eliminate a
difference in static charge potential between objects. The
purpose of grounding is to eliminate the difference in static
charge potential between an object and ground. Bonding
and grounding are effective only when the bonded objects
are conductive.

Highly flammable or combustible materials – Take care that the following

materials are not stored with machinery or near any type of electrical or heat
source.
Highly flammable materials may include:
• Hay and straw
• Bedding material (especially sawdust and shredded newspaper)
• Cobwebs, dust, and grain dust
• Horse blankets
• Paint
• Fertilizer
• Pesticides and herbicides

Accelerants
− are substances that increase the speed at which a fire spread.
− are highly flammable or combustible, but not all highly flammable or
combustible materials are accelerants.
− must be stored in approved containers and properly labeled as such
(plastic milk bottles do not qualify as approved containers for storing
chemicals).

An updated list of all chemicals in the workplace should be maintained.

The list should include the name of the chemical, date purchased, the
quantity of the chemical, and the place of storage on the farm. This list
should be kept in a safe, handy place such as an office (not in the
building where the products are stored). In case of a fire, the list should
be given to the fireperson in charge to aid the fire department in
knowing what potential toxic fumes or explosions may result and how
best to contain the situation.

Common accelerants include:

• Gasoline
• Kerosene
• Oil
• Aerosol cans

Ignition sources - is something that can cause an accelerant or flammable

material to ignite or smolder.

Examples of ignition sources are:

• Cigarettes and matches
• Sparks from welding machines and machinery (trucks, tractors,
mowers)
• Motors
• Heaters
• Electrical appliances
• Electrical fixtures and wires
• Batteries
• Chemicals which may react with each other or with water or
dampness

B. Provide for early detection of fire

Except for explosions, most fires start out as small ones. At the initial stage,
extinguishing a fire seldom presents much of a problem. Once the fire begins
to gain headway, it may develop into conflagration of disastrous proportions.
Fire can be more easily controlled if detected early. It is critical that fire be
extinguished in the first five minutes.

Detection serves to:

▪ warn the fire brigade to start extinguishing procedure
▪ warn occupants to escape

Means of detection include:

▪ human observer
▪ automatic sprinklers
▪ smoke, flame and heat detectors

a. Smoke detectors
▪ Monitor changes within the area
▪ Provide early warning
▪ Changing stages in the development of fire
▪ When smoke is produced

b. Heat detectors
▪ Fixed temperature types – which responds when the
detection element reaches a predetermined
temperature
▪ Rate-of-rise temperature – which respond to an
increase in heat at a rate greater than some
predetermined value.

c. Flame detectors
▪ Infra-red – sensing elements responsive to radiant
energy outside the range of human vision; useful in
detecting fire in large areas, e.g. storage areas
▪ Ultra-violet – sensing elements responsive to radiant
energy outside the range of human vision

C. Prevent the spread of fire

Once a fire is discovered, it is of prime importance to confine it to the
smallest area possible - that is, to prevent its spread. This can be
accomplished by details of construction and by safe practices, but neither is
sufficient alone. An understanding of the means by which heat is transmitted
will be of value in taking the necessary steps to prevent the spread of fire.

These are the three (3) methods of heat transfer and how it can be controlled

▪ Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule to molecule. Thermal

conductivity is important in terms of fire spread. A steel girder passing
through an otherwise fireproof wall may cause fire spread by conducted
heat.

▪ Convection is caused by movement of heated gasses produced by any

burning material or by heated air rising to the upper limits of the space in
which it is contained. During a fire in a building convection currents convey
combustion gases up through stairways or lift shafts, spreading the fire to
other parts of the building.
▪ Radiation is the transfer of heat in straight rays.

Control

Barriers are one means of control that will limit the area of a fire or at least
retard its spread. Examples are: firewalls, fire doors, shutters or louvers, fire
stops, baffles, fire dampers, fire windows, parapets, dikes and enclosures of
vertical openings

D. Provide for prompt extinguishment

In providing for prompt extinguishment, the two categories of fire
extinguishers should be kept in mind – permanent or “built-in” extinguishers
and portable fire extinguishers.

▪ Permanent or "built-in" fire extinguishers

Examples include:
- standpipe and hose
- automatic sprinkler system
- fire hydrant
- fire pump
- fire truck
- automatic extinguishing system

▪ Portable extinguishers
These are used extensively to lessen the danger from fire. After such a
system is installed, its proper maintenance and regular inspection is
suggested to ensure its usefulness when needed.

Portable fire extinguishers are also called first-aid fire extinguishers

since they are intended to be used for incipient fires. They contain a limited
supply of an extinguishing medium. These appliances are designed for use
on fires of specific classes.

• Requirements for effective use of fire extinguishers:

1. Of the approved type
- must have a seal of PS mark for locally made, and UL mark for
imported ones
2. The right type for each class of fire that may occur in the area
3. In sufficient quantity
- The number of fire extinguishers must be computed according to
the floor area, the degree of hazard of fire that may occur and
the class of fire.
4. Located where they are easily accessible for immediate use and
the location is kept accessible and clearly identified.
5. Mounting of fire extinguishers (Rule 1944.05 Portable
Extinguisher)
a. Extinguishers with a gross weight not exceeding 18 kg (40 lbs.)
should be installed not more than 5 ft (1.5 m) above the floor.
b. Extinguishers with a gross weight greater than 18 kg (40 lbs.)
except wheeled type extinguishers, should be installed not more
that 3.5 ft (1 m) above the floor
c. In no case must the clearance between the bottom of the
extinguishers and the floor be less than 4 inches.
6. Maintained in operating condition
• Inspection - a "quick check" that visually determines whether the
fire extinguisher is properly placed and will operate. Inspection
must be done at least monthly or more to be effective
Checkpoints during inspection should include:
- location
- free of obstruction
- opening instructions
- seal and tamper indications
- weight
- physical appearance
- pressure gauge
- maintenance tag
• Maintenance - as distinguished from inspection means a
complete and thorough examination of each extinguisher
Extinguishers should be subjected to maintenance not more than
one year apart or when specifically indicated by an inspection

The three basic items to be checked are:

- mechanical parts
- extinguishing agent
- expelling means
7. Operable by the area personnel who are properly trained to use
them effectively and promptly.

In the absence of modern fire extinguishers, the following can be used to stop
fire in its initial stage.
• For A fire - water is the best.
• For B fire - a metal cover, wet sack, towel, cloth, or blanket will do. Sand
and soil are very useful
• For C fire - the main switch is the first consideration. Pull it down to cut off
the current. What is useful on A & B can also be useful here.
Remember the PASS - word
P - pull the pin
A - aim low
S - squeeze the lever above the handle
S - sweep from side to side

E. Provide for prompt and orderly evacuation of personnel

Once a fire is discovered in a building, the first and foremost step is the
prompt evacuation of all personnel to a safe place. People should be trained
on orderly evacuation through fire drills. Exits that will empty the ordinary
structure in ample time to prevent loss of life or injury should be also a primary
concern.
Exit requirements for life safety in case of fire:
• at least two ways out remote from each other
• additional exits according to number of persons and relative fire
danger
• evacuation drills well planned, frequently practiced (at least twice a
year)
• exits are well-marked, clear, unobstructed and well lighted
• correct exit design
• regular exit drills
• makeshift fire escapes are often dangerous

IV. General fire safety precautions

• Smoking should never be permitted in any storage area, tack room or lounge.
“No-Smoking” signs should be posted in these areas and at all exterior
entrances. Butt cans should be provided as an incentive to extinguish all
cigarettes.
• Exit doors should be clearly marked.
• Aisles should be raked or swept clean at all times. Vacuum up cobwebs and
dust regularly. Wipe dust/dirt off light fixtures, outlet covers, switches and panel
boxes
• Weeds, twigs, and other trash should be kept mowed or picked up from
around the outside of the building.
• Paper storage should not be near lights, fans, electrical boxes, heaters or
outlets.
• Flammable substances should be kept elsewhere outside the building.
• Vehicles and machinery should be stored in a separate building.
• A fire hose and buckets should be available and kept for the purpose of
extinguishing class A fires rapidly.
• Practice fire drills should be held so employees and boarders are familiar with
their responsibilities should a real fire occur.

V. Lightning protection
• Buildings should be equipped with professionally installed lightning rods of
copper or aluminum. The system should be properly grounded.
• All pipes, water systems, electrical systems and telephone lines should also be
grounded.
• Contact a professional company for proper maintenance and installation.

Summary and Conclusions

Remember:
• The Fire Triangle demonstrates how fire starts and how it could be extinguished
• The principle of fire prevention and control programs involves prevention, prompt
action to extinguish the fire, and safe evacuation of occupants.
• With these principles in mind you can help
- Prevent fires in your workplace
- Safeguard your property
- Protect many lives
When should you fight a fire?

In the event of a fire, your personal safety is your most important concern. You are not
required to fight a fire. If all of the following conditions are met, then you may choose
to use a fire extinguisher against the fire. If any of the conditions is not met, or you have
even the slightest doubt about your personal safety, do not fight the fire.

Attempt to use a fire extinguisher if and only if...

• The fire alarm has been pulled and fire department has been called.
• The fire is small and contained.
• You know your escape route and can fight the fire with your back to the exit.
• You know what kind of extinguisher is required.
• The correct extinguisher is immediately at hand.
• You have been trained in how to use the extinguisher.

We hope you’ll be better equipped, after studying this module, to

keep fires from happening in your surroundings.

d. Electrical Safety
− is closely related to fire safety. Fires are often caused by electrical trouble, as we all
know, although we also know that electrical trouble can also mean other things like
electrocution and other such accidents.

Electricity
− is essential and considered as among the basic
needs of everybody.
− had made our houses into homes, changed the mode
of transportation from kalesas into taxis and Metro
Railway Transport Systems (MRTS), and improved shops
to malls and factories. It is hard to imagine if we had no
electricity until now. However, it is also among the
common causes of occupational accidents resulting to
injuries, death and property damage.

More than a thousand workers are killed each year by

electrical shock and thousands more are burned or
maimed.

More than 90% of the fatalities occurred when a person who was grounded
made contact with live wire or an energized equipment housing. Line to line
contact accounted for fewer than 10% of the deaths.

Electrical safety requires understanding of what electricity is, how electrical energy
is transferred and how the path through which electrical current travels can be
controlled.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Electricity can be defined as the flow of electrons along a
conductor. Electrons are negatively charged particles
distributed in orbits around the nuclei of atoms, which are
the smallest units of an element than can exist either alone
or in combination. In an atom, the negative charge of the
electrons is neutralized by the positive charge of particles
called protons, so that the atom is electrically neutral. If an
external force is applied so that the electrons are removed
from their orbit and directed to a given direction, electric
current is produced in that direction.

Elements of electricity

• Voltage. In order for electrons to move between two points, a potential

difference must exist. The potential difference between two points in a circuit
is measured in terms of volts. The higher the potential difference, the easier it is
for the electrons to move from one point to another, and the higher the electric
current.

• Resistance. The flow of electrons is also governed by the resistance offered by

the conducting materials. It is measured in Ohms

• Current. The current flow in a circuit is measure in terms of amperes. One

ampere, by definition, is the flow of 6.28 x 10 18 electrons per second past a
given point in a circuit. Sometimes it is necessary to use smaller units of
measurement for the current flow, the most commonly- used units being the
milliampere (0.001 ampere)

Electricity and water analogy

Water Flow is analogous to Electricity

Hydraulic Pressure is like Voltage. The greater the

hydraulic pressure, the greater the flow of water
through the pipe.

Pipe Resistance is similar Electrical Resistance. The

greater the resistance, the lesser the flow of water

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Ohm’s Law
The relationship between the elements of
electricity was introduced by Mr. Georg
Simon Ohm. It has been known as the
Ohm’s Law.

Electrical resistance

Table 8.1 Normal Resistance Values of Various Materials

Material Resistance
(Ohms)

Most metals >0 to 50

Dry wood 100,000
Wet wood 1,000
Dry Concrete on Grade 200,000 – 1,000,000
Wet Concrete on Grade 1,000 – 5,000
Leather Sole, dry, including foot 100,000 – 500,000
Leather Sole, damp, including foot 5,000 – 20,000
Rubber Gloves or soles > 20,000,000

Source: Electrical Safety Handbook

Table 8.2 Human Resistance to Electric Current

Body Area Resistance
(Ohms)

Human body, Internal (wet, ear to ear) 100

Human body , Internal (damp, hand to foot) 400 to 600
Human body (wet skin) 1,000
Human body (dry skin) 100,000 to 600,000

Source: Accident Prevention Manual

Hazards of electricity:
• Electric shock
• Burns
• Fire

Electric shock occurrence

Electrical shock is a common hazard encountered by people involved in the
installation, maintenance, and operation of electrical equipment. Electric
shock occurs once the worker’ body becomes part of an electrical circuit
Basic Occupational Health and Safety
when it comes in contact with a live internal conductor at the point of insulator
breakdown.

The more common sources of electric shock are refrigerators and electric fans.
Defective and poorly maintained electrical device will generate electrical
leak.

This leak passes all over the conductive materials of the device and if
someone touches the device he will receive electric shock.

Below are the common causes of electrical injuries/accidents:

(a) touching of live parts
(b) short circuit
(c) inadequate guarding
(d) overloading
(e) breaking of connections

Factors affecting electric shock

1. Amount of current that flows through the human body. The amount of current
that flows to the body depends on:
• Voltage of the circuit. According to Ohms Law, voltage is directly
proportional to the current. A higher voltage means a higher amount of
current.
• Insulating quality

2. The path the current takes through the body affects the degree of injury.

3. Duration of current flow. The longer the current flows through the body, the
more devastating the result can be. That is the reason why immediate action
should be taken to free co-workers when they are shocked or burned by
electricity.

Actions to Take
Shut off the electrical current if the victim is still in contact with the
energized circuit. While you do this, have someone else call for help. If you
cannot quickly get to the electrical disconnect to turn off the current, pry
the victim from the circuit with something that does not conduct electricity
such as a dry wood broom stick.

Do not touch the victim yourself if he or she is still in contact with an electrical
circuit! You will become a victim of electrical shock.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

4. Type of electric energy involved. There are two kinds of electrical
energy:
• Alternating current (AC) - the flow of electric charge whose
magnitude and direction changes periodically. This can cause a
person to maintain an involuntary grip on the live metal or conductor
and prolong the current flow.
• Direct current (DC) – the flow of electric charge that does not
change direction
5. Body condition. Personal sensitivity to electric shock varies with age,
sex, heart condition, etc.

An electrical current passing through the body can cause severe

injury or death by:

▪ Contracting the chest muscles, resulting in breathing difficulty

and death due to asphyxiation.
▪ Affecting the central nervous system, resulting in malfunction of
vital body function such as respiration
▪ Interference with the normal rhythm of the heart beat, resulting
in Ventricular Fibrillation which is defined as “very rapid
uncoordinated contractions of the ventricles of the heart
resulting in loss of synchronization between heartbeat and pulse
beat.” Once ventricular fibrillation occurs, it will continue and
death will ensue within a few minutes.
▪ Electricity may also affect the heart muscle, resulting in severe
heart muscle contraction and cessation of heart action.
▪ Heat generated when current overcomes tissue resistance may
cause destruction of the body tissues.

The severity of an electric shock is the product of the current value

and the time it flows through the body

Based on the research of Charles F. Dalziel, professor at the

University of California, the effects of alternating current (60Hz) on
the human body are generally accepted to be as follows:

▪ Let go current – the maximum current that a person can tolerate

when holding a conductor and can still free himself/herself by
muscular stimulation.
▪ Ventricular fibrillation – most death by electric shock are caused
by ventricular fibrillation. It is a condition wherein the heart will
not pulse regularly causing the heart to cease functioning. Once
this occurs, the victim will be dead in a few minutes even if the
electric source is interrupted.
▪ Even small amounts of current can cause minor shock sensations
and result to secondary accidents.
Source:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/electrical.html

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

There are four main types of injuries caused by electric currents –
electrocution (fatal), electric shock, burns, and falls. These injuries
can happen in various ways:
▪ direct contact with the electrical energy.
▪ when the electricity arcs (jumps) through a gas (such as air) to a
person who is grounded (that would provide an alternative route
to the ground for the electricity).
▪ thermal burns including flash burns from heat generated by an
electric arc, and flame burns from materials that catch fire from
heating or ignition by electric currents. High voltage contact
burns can burn internal tissues while leaving only very small injuries
on the outside of the skin.
▪ muscle contractions, or a startle reaction, can
cause a person to fall from a ladder, scaffold or
aerial bucket. The fall can cause serious injuries.

Electric shock prevention

(a) Use of grounding system
Grounding or earthing is any means of absorbing any leakage current
and making it flow directly to earth by using an electrical conductor. It
is a process of connecting metal parts/casing of the electrical
equipment to earth through grounding wires. The voltage exists on the
metal casing and earth resistance. Grounding means safety. There are
two types of grounding:
(1) System Grounding – means grounding the neutral point iron
terminal of electrical circuits on power transformer of electrical
system;
(2) Equipment Grounding – grounding of a non-charged metal part
of electrical equipment.

(b) Use Double Insulating Materials

Insulating materials have extremely high resistance values, virtually to
prevent flow of electric current through it. The principle of insulation is
used when work must to be carried out near un-insulated live parts.
Work on un-insulated parts are carried out by using protective devices
such as insulating stands, mats or screens, or rubber insulating gloves to
protect workers from electric shock.

(c) Use Appropriate Disconnecting Means

(1) Fuse
A fuse is essentially a strip of metal that melts at a pre-determined
value of current flow, and therefore cuts off the current to that circuit.
In the event of abnormal conditions such as faults or when excess
current flows, the fuse would blow and protect the circuit or
apparatus from further damage. In effective and safe operation, the
fuse should be placed in a live conductor and never in the neutral
conductor. Otherwise, even with the fuse blown or removed, parts of
the circuit such as switches or terminals will be affected. Over- fusing
means using a fuse rating higher than that of the circuit it is meant to
protect. This is dangerous because in the event of a fault, a current
Basic Occupational Health and Safety
may flow to earth without blowing the fuse, endangering workers
and the circuit or equipment concerned. It could also result in
overheating of the cable carrying the excessive current, with the risk
of fire.

(2) Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker has several advantages for excess current circuit
protection. The principle of the operation is that excess current flow
is detected electromagnetically and the mechanism of the breaker
automatically trips and cuts off electric supply to the circuit it
protects.

(3) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

Majority of electric shock injuries occur when the body acts as
conductor between line and earth. Protection against such shocks
is provided by the inclusion of a current sensitive earth leakage circuit
breaker (ELCB) in the supply line. ELCB may detect both over-current
and earth leakage currents and thereby give very good circuit
protection.

(d) Proper Maintenance of Portable Power Tools

The necessity to use flexible cables to supply electricity to the tools
introduces hazards. Such cables are often misused and abused
resulting in damaged insulation and broken or exposed conductors.
The tool itself could also become charged with electricity due to a
fault. Constant care and adequate maintenance and storage are
essential to safe use.

Causes of electrical fire

The more frequent causes of electrical fires may be listed under three general
classes namely,
• Arcs
− is produced when an electric circuit carrying a current is interrupted,
either intentionally – by a knife switch or accidentally – where a
contact at a terminal becomes loose.
• Sparks
− Hot sparks from burning combustible material and hot metal are
thrown about, and may set fire to other combustible materials.
• Overheating

Hazardous Locations
− are areas where explosive or flammable gases or vapors, combustible dust, or
ignitable fibers are present or likely to become present. Such materials can ignite as
a result of electrical causes only if two conditions co-exist:
1. The proportion of the flammable substance to oxygen must permit ignition
and the mixture must be present in a sufficient quantity to provide an
ignitable atmosphere in the vicinity of electrical equipment.
2. An electric arc, flame escaping from an ignited substance in an
enclosure, heat from an electric heater, or their source, must be present
at a temperature equal to or greater than the ignition point of the
flammable mixture.
Basic Occupational Health and Safety
Classification of Hazardous Locations
Class I – locations where flammable gases or vapors are present or likely
to become present.
Class II – applies to combustible dusts.
Class III – locations are those where easily ignitable dust such as textile fibers are
present but not likely to be suspended in the air in sufficient
concentration to produce an easily ignitable atmosphere.

Explosion Proof Apparatus - A device

enclosed in a case that is capable of:
• withstanding an explosion of a
specified gas or vapor that may occur
within it
• preventing the ignition of a specified
gas or vapor outside the enclosure that
may be caused by sparks, flashes or
explosion of the gas or vapor inside the
apparatus.

Source: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/electrical.html

Safe Practices and Procedures

The following are the simple rules when working with electricity:
1. Always assume that a circuit is energized.
2. Use the appropriate instrument for testing circuits.
3. Use protective devices (ELCB, fuse, rubber mats, etc.).
4. Use personal protective equipment (rubber gloves, boots, safety devices).
5. Inspect tools, power cords, and electrical fittings for
damage or wear prior to each use. Repair or replace
damaged equipment immediately.
6. Use warning signs and isolate dangerous areas.
7. Observe proper maintenance schedules of electrical equipment, loads and
wires.
8. Always tape cords to walls or floors when necessary. Nails and staples can
damage cords causing fire and shock hazards.
9. Use cords or equipment rated for the level of amperage or wattage that
you are using.
10. Always use the correct size fuse. Replacing a fuse with one of a larger size
can cause excessive currents in the wiring and possibly start a fire.
11. Conduct regular electrical inspections for the electrical circuit.
12. Be aware that unusually warm or hot outlets may be a sign that unsafe
wiring conditions exists. Unplug any cords to these outlets and do not use
until a qualified electrician has checked the wiring.
13. Place halogen lights away from combustible materials such as cloths or
curtains. Halogen lamps can become very hot and may be a fire hazard.
Risk of electric shock is greater in areas that are wet or damp. Install
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs) as they will interrupt the electrical
circuit before a current sufficient to cause death or serious injury occurs.
14. Make sure that exposed receptacle boxes are made of non-conductive
materials.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

15. Know where the breakers and boxes are located in case of an
emergency.
16. Label all circuit breakers and fuse boxes clearly. Each switch should be
positively identified as to what outlet or appliance it is for.
17. Do not use outlets or cords with exposed wiring.
18. Do not use power tools when protective guards are removed.
19. Do not block access to circuit breakers or fuse boxes.
20. Do not touch a person or electrical apparatus in the event of an
electrical accident. Always disconnect the current first.
21. Ensure that only qualified personnel work on any part of an electrical
circuit or equipment/apparatus.
22. Always replace a fuse with the same kind and rating. Never bridge a fuse
using metal wires or nails, etc.
23. Make sure that there is someone to look after you whenever you work
with any part of the electrical circuit.
24. Observe lock-out/tag-out (LOTO). Always lock safety switches and place
tags before working on a circuit. Before energizing a circuit, ensure all
personnel are clear of the circuit or the equipment concerned.
25. Ensure that temporary electrical installations do not create new hazards.
26. Always use ladders made of wood or other non-conductive materials
when working with or near electricity or power lines.
27. Adhere to strictly established regulations of the Philippine Electrical Code.

Tips for working with power tools:

• Switch tools OFF before connecting them to a power supply.
• Disconnect power supply before making adjustments.
• Ensure tools are properly grounded or double-insulated. The grounded
tool must have an approved 3-wire cord with a 3-prong plug. This plug
should be plugged in a properly grounded 3-pole outlet.
• Test all tools for effective grounding with a continuity tester or a ground
fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) before use.
• Do not bypass the switch and operate the tools by connecting and
disconnecting the power cord.
• Do not use electrical tools in wet conditions or damp locations unless
tool is connected to a GFCI.
• Do not clean tools with flammable or toxic solvents.
• Do not operate tools in an area containing explosive vapors or gases.

Tips for working with power cords:

• Keep power cords clear of tools during use.
• Suspend power cords over aisles or work areas to eliminate stumbling
or tripping hazards.
• Replace open front plugs with dead front plugs. Dead front plugs are
sealed and present less danger of shock or short circuit.
• Do not use light duty power cords.
• Do not carry electrical tools by the power cord.
• Do not tie power cords in tight knots. Knots can cause short circuits and
shocks. Loop the cords or use a twist lock plug.

A Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) - works by detecting any loss of electrical
current in a circuit. When a loss is detected, the GFCI turns the electricity off before
Basic Occupational Health and Safety
severe injuries or electrocution can occur. A painful shock may occur during the time
that it takes for the GFCI to cut off the electricity so it is important to use the GFCI as
an extra protective measure rather than a replacement for safe work practices.

Sample checklist for basic electrical safety:

Inspect Cords and Plugs
• Check power cords and plugs daily. Discard if worn or damaged. Have any cord
that feels more than comfortably warm checked by an electrician.

Eliminate Octopus Connections

• Do not plug several power cords into one outlet.
• Pull the plug, not the cord.
• Do not disconnect power supply by pulling or jerking the cord from the outlet.
Pulling the cord causes wear and may cause a shock.

Never Break OFF the Third Prong on a Plug

• Replace broken 3-prong plugs and make sure the third prong is properly
grounded.

Never Use Extension Cords as Permanent Wiring

• Use extension cords only to temporarily supply power to an area that does not
have a power outlet.
• Keep power cords away from heat, water and oil. They can damage the
insulation and cause a shock.
• Do not allow vehicles to pass over unprotected power cords. Cords should be
put in conduit or protected by placing planks alongside them.

Summary
Remember these simple safety rules to follow:

(a) do not guess

(b) use proper instruments
(c) always use safety device
(d) lock out and tag out (LOTO)
(e) never work alone
(f) use danger signs
(g) keep temporary electrical wiring safe
(h) strictly observe rules of Philippine Electrical Code (PEC)
(i) work with qualified men only
(j) ensure proper maintenance
(k) never bridge a fuse
(l) conduct periodic electrical inspection

You can visit these websites to get a more information on electricity:

http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter02.html
http://www.amasci.com/miscon/whatis.html

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

e. Machine Safety
Machine is a tool used to make work easier. It is basically an assemblage of parts that
transmit forces, motion and energy in a predetermined manner. Simple machines are
mechanical devices that change the direction or magnitude of a force. They are the
"building blocks" of which the more complicated machines or compound machines
are made.

The Industrial Revolution

It was only during the industrial revolution that modern machines were used
extensively. Prior to this, all operations were manually done. The start of the 18 th century
marked the start of the industrial revolution. Modern machines were conceptualized
and created. These enabled factories to produce goods faster, but at the same time
lead to poor working conditions and a lot of accidents, giving rise to a growing
concern for machine safety. Machine safety covers 4 basic areas: adjustment and
repair, servicing and maintenance, moving parts and point of operation.

Hazardous mechanical motions and actions

The important aspect of machine safety – the basic types of hazardous mechanical
motions and actions.

These include the movement of rotating members, reciprocating arms, moving belts,
meshing gears, cutting teeth, and any other part that impacts or shears. These different
types of hazardous mechanical motions and actions are present in varying combinations
in nearly all machines and recognizing them is the first step toward protecting workers from
the dangers they present.

Motions
- Rotating
- Reciprocating

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

- Transversing

Rotating shaft
and pulley with

Rotating
coupling
Rotating
pulley with
spokes and

Rotating
Rotating motion can be dangerous - even smooth, slowly rotating shafts can
catch clothing, and through mere skin contact force an arm or hand into a
dangerous position. Injuries due to contact with rotating parts can be severe.

Collars, couplings, cams, clutches, flywheels, shaft ends, spindles, meshing

gears, and horizontal or vertical shafting are some examples of common
rotating mechanisms which may be hazardous. The danger increases when
projections such as set screws, bolts, nicks, abrasions, and projecting keys or set
screws are exposed on rotating parts.

Nip Points
In-running nip point (or points where parts of the
hand, body or clothes can get caught in-
between) hazards, are caused by the rotating
parts of machinery. There are three main types
of in-running nips.
- Parts rotating in opposite directions
- Nip points between rotating and tangentially
moving parts. Some examples are: the point of
contact between a power transmission belt
and its pulley, a chain and a sprocket, and a
rack and pinion.

- Nip points between rotating and fixed parts

which create a shearing, crushing, or
abrading action. Examples are: spoked hand
wheels or flywheels, screw conveyors, or the
periphery of an abrasive wheel and an
incorrectly adjusted work rest.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Reciprocating
Reciprocating motions may be hazardous because during the back-and-forth
or up-and-down motion, a worker may be struck by or caught between a
moving and a stationary part.

Transversing

Transverse motion (movement in a straight, continuous line) creates a hazard

because a worker may be struck or caught in a pinch or shear point by the
moving part.

Mechanical Actions

Cutting

The danger of cutting action exists at the point of operation where finger, arm
and body injuries can occur and where flying chips or scrap material can strike
the head, particularly in the area of the eyes or face. Such hazards are present
at the point of operation in cutting wood, metal, or other materials.

Examples of mechanisms involving cutting hazards include band saws, circular

saws, boring or drilling machines, turning machines (lathes), or milling machines.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Punching

Punching action results when power is applied to a slide (ram) for the purpose
of blanking, drawing, or stamping metal or other materials. The danger of this
type of action occurs at the point of operation where stock is inserted, held,
and withdrawn by hand.

Typical machines used for punching operations are power presses

Shearing

Shearing action involves applying power to a slide or knife in order to trim or

shear metal or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of operation where
stock is actually inserted, held, and withdrawn.

Examples of machines used for shearing operations are mechanically,

hydraulically, or pneumatically powered shears.

Bending

Bending action results when power is applied to a slide in order to draw or

stamp metal or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of operation
where stock is inserted, held, and withdrawn.

Equipment that uses bending action includes power presses, press brakes,
and tubing benders.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Areas where machine guarding are necessary

Dangerous moving parts in three basic areas require safeguarding:

The point of operation: that point where work is performed on the material, such
as cutting, shaping, boring, or forming of stock.

Power transmission apparatus: all components of the mechanical system which

transmit energy to the part of the machine performing the work. These
components include flywheels, pulleys, belts, connecting rods, couplings,
cams, spindles, chains, cranks, and gears.

Other moving parts: all parts of the machine which moves while the machine
is working. These can include reciprocating, rotating, and transverse moving
parts, as well as feed mechanism and auxiliary parts of the machine.

In general, any machine part, function, or process which may cause injury
must be guarded.

Importance of machine safety

Why it is necessary to have safety program for machine operations? Because, we
know that machines can cause:
- severe accidents
- loss of trained and skilled employee/s
- loss of production
- damage to equipment
- incurring training cost for new employee/s
- overtime cost
- possible litigation
- accident investigation

Machines can also cause:

- lost time expense
- cost of machine down time
- cost of machine damage and repairs
- lost time due to time spent on accident investigation and
other statutory requirements
- loss of production

Types of machine guards Preventing access

Fixed enclosing guards
If the hazard is on a part of the machinery which does not require access, it
should be permanently guarded with fixed enclosing guards.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Preventing dangerous motions
When frequent access is required, physical guarding at the hazard is
sometimes too restrictive for part loading or adjustment. In this situation, a
device is required to prevent dangerous motion while allowing unrestricted
access by sensing the presence of the operator and sending a stop signal.

Movable guards with interlocking switches

If access is required in a hazardous area of a machine, an operator can be
protected by an inter-lock with the power source which ensures that whenever the
guard door is not closed, the power is switched off.

Two hand controls

There are other ways of preventing access while the machine is in a
dangerous condition. The use of two hand controls (also referred to as bi-manual
controls) is common in certain types of machinery. Two start buttons have to be
operated at the same time to run the machine. This ensures that both hands of the
operator are in a safe position and therefore cannot be in the hazard area.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Pullback Devices
These are mechanical devices attached to the operator's hands and
connected to the moving portion of the die. If properly adjusted, it withdraws the
operator's hands if they are inadvertently within the point of operation as the dies
close.

Photoelectric light curtain

These devices emit a “curtain” of harmless infrared light beams in front of the
hazard area. When any of the beams are blocked, the light curtain control circuit
sends a stop signal to the guarded machine.

Light curtains
− are extremely versatile and can guard areas many meters wide. By using mirrors,
light beams can be diverted all around the corners to enclose a machine.

There are many applications ranging from totally enclosing perimeter guards
for industrial robots, to point of access guards for certain types of presses.

Safety mats
− these devices are used to guard a floor area around a machine. Interconnected
mats are laid around the hazard area and any pressure will cause the mat
controller unit to send a stop signal to the guarded machine.

Pressure-sensitive mats are often used within an

enclosed area containing several machines (e.g.,
flexible manufacturing or robotics cells). When
access into the cell is required (example: for setting
or robot “teaching”), dangerous motion can be
prevented if the operator stays within the safe area.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Pressure-sensitive edges

These devices are flexible edging strips which can be

fixed to the edge of a moving part such as a machine
table or powered door where there is a risk of crushing
or shearing hazard. If the moving part strikes the
operator (or vice versa), the flexible sensitive edge is
depressed and will send a stop signal to the power
source.

Emergency stops
Wherever there is a danger of an operator getting into trouble on
a machine there must be a facility for fast access to an
emergency stop device.
The usual way of providing this is in the form of a mushroom
headed push-button which the operator strikes in the event of an emergency. The
emergency stops must be strategically placed, in sufficient quantity around the
machine to ensure that there is always one in reach at the occurrence of hazard.

Grab wire switches

For machinery such as conveyors etc., it is often more

convenient and effective to use a grab wire device
along the hazard area. These devices use a steel wire
rope connected to latching pull switches so that
pulling on the rope will operate the switch and cut off
the machine power.

Telescopic trip switches

Other variations include telescopic antenna switches where deflection of the

antenna causes the switch to cut off the machine
power. These devices are more commonly used as trip
devices on machinery such as pillar drills. The switch is
mounted on the drill and the antenna is extended
down next to the drill bit. In the event that the operator
becomes entangled with the drill, he will be pulled
onto the antenna thus operating the switch.

Robotics application

This depends on the nature of the machine and the hazard.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety
Requirements of effective safeguards
• Must prevent contact
• Must be secured and durable
• Must provide protection against falling objects
• Must not create new hazards
• Must not create interference
• Must allow safe maintenance

The Hierarchy of Measures

Each measure must be considered according to the hierarchy below. This may result in a
combination of measures being used.
1. Fixed Enclosing Guards - If access to dangerous parts is not required, the solution is to
protect them by some type of fixed enclosing guard.
2. Movable (interlocked) guards or protection devices (e.g., light curtains, presence
sensing mats, etc.) - If access is required, things get a little more difficult. It will be
necessary to ensure that access can only be permitted while the machine is safe.
Protective measures such as interlocked guard doors and/ or trip systems will be
required. The choice of protective device or system should be based on the operating
characteristics of the machine.
3. Protection appliances (e.g., jigs, holders, push sticks, etc) - These are used often in
conjunction with guards to feed a work piece while keeping the operator’s body
away from the danger zone.
4. Information, instruction, training and supervision - It is important that operators have
the necessary training in safe working methods for a machine. However, this does not
mean that measures (a), (b) or (c) can be omitted. It is not enough to merely tell an
operator that he/she must not go near dangerous parts (as an alternative to guarding
them). Operators must be trained on the hazards of their work and how to use and
maintain the safety devices as well as give safety reminders to make them aware all
the time.
5. Personal Protective Equipment - In addition to the above measures, it may also be
necessary for the operator to use equipment like special gloves, goggles, etc. The
machinery designer should specify what sort of equipment is required. The use of
personal protective equipment is not the primary safeguarding method but should
complement the measures shown above.

The protective device must be appropriate for the type of work being undertaken.

Basic Occupational Health and Safety

Lock-out/Tag-out System
Another aspect of machine safety is during maintenance work and servicing. The lock-
out/tag-out system is effective for preventing accidents during maintenance works.
It is a method that is especially designed to protect against the unexpected startup of a
machine that is supposed to be turned off. This is important because statistics indicate that
six percent of all workplace fatalities are caused by the unexpected activation of
machines while they are being serviced, cleaned, or otherwise maintained. The Lock-
out/Tag-out System is designed to protect against the unexpected startup of machine that
is supposed to be "OFF" or an unexpected release of energy (hazardous energy).

The “Fatal Five” Main Causes of Maintenance Injuries:

− Failure to stop equipment
− Failure to disconnect from power source
− Failure to dissipate (bleed, neutralize) residual energy
− Accidental restarting of equipment
− Failure to clear work areas before restarting
Hazardous Energy Sources Found in the Workplace
− Electrical - sudden turning on of power source or stored energy in capacitors
− Mechanical
− Thermal - such as steam or due to chemical reaction
− Potential - stored energy that may be due to gravity, hydraulics, pneumatics,
vacuum or springs
Types of Lock-out Devices
− Plug Locks
− Ball Valve Lock-out
− Gate Valve Lock-out
− Group Lock-out Hasp
− Electrical
− Hydraulic, pneumatic, and other pressurized systems
Lock-out Procedure
− Alert the operator(s) that power is being disconnected.
− Preparation for Shutdown
− Equipment Shutdown
− Equipment Isolation
− Application of Lock-out Devices
− Control of Stored Energy
− Equipment Isolation-Verification
Removal of Lock-out
− Ensure equipment is safe to operate
− Safeguard all employees
− Remove lock-out/tag-out devices. Except in emergencies, each device must
be removed by the person who placed it.
− Last person to take off lock
− Follow checklist
To observe proper LOTO procedures, most firms maintain some forms of
documentation.
Basic Occupational Health and Safety
Summary

Remember that any machine part, function, or process which many cause injury must
be safeguarded. When the operation of a machine or accidental contact with it can
injure the operator or others in the vicinity, the hazards must be either controlled or
eliminated.

Module in Basic Occupational Health and Safety

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