LANGUAGES, HUMANITIES, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

(ENGLISH)
SCHOOL YEAR 2020 - 2021

ORAL
COMMUNICATION IN
CONTEXT
ENG01
Course Outcome 1

ENG01 | CORE | CO 1
ENG01 | Oral Communication in Context

NAME: TEACHER:
YEAR AND SECTION: SCHEDULE:

COURSE OUTCOME BULLETIN

Objective: To explain the nature, definition, and process of communication, and distinguish the
various models and the unique features of the communication process within cultures
Subject Matters:
Lesson 1: Nature and Definition of Communication
Lesson 2: Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication (and Effective Communication Skills)
Lesson 3: The Communication Process and its Elements
Lesson 4: The Communication Models
Lesson 5: Intercultural Communication: The Intercultural Model of Intercultural
Sensitivity
Evaluation:
Performance Task: Poster-Making: Intercultural Sensitivity
Written Work: Short Quiz (Concepts and Terminologies)

I. Nature and Definition of Communication

We use communication in our everyday lives: we greet our friends, check our social media apps,
read the news, and even when we pray and reflect. It is essential for us to understand its nature
and definition. Let’s read the following to learn more about communication.

“The transmission of messages via verbal and non-verbal cues” (Ang, 2004)
“It is dynamic, systematic or contextual, irreversible and proactive process in which
communicators construct personal meanings through their symbolic interactions”
(Wood, 2004)
“It is the mutual exchange of information, ideas and understanding by any effective means”
(Flormata-Ballesteros, 2003)

Communication is a complex process through which we express, interpret, and coordinate

messages with others. We do so to create shared meaning, to meet social goals, to manage
personal identity, and to carry out our relationships. At its core, then, communication is
about messages.

2
ENG01 | CORE | CO 1
1.1. Process, System, Symbol, and Meaning
The term communication may be defined using these four key words: process, system,
symbol, and meaning.

Process refers to something that is ongoing and continuously in motion, the beginnings and
endings of which are difficult to identify.
A system is a group of interrelated elements that affect one another.
A symbol is an arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract representation of a phenomenon. Symbols
are the basis of language, much nonverbal behavior, and human thought.
Meanings are the significance we bestow on phenomena—what they signify to us. There are
two levels of meanings: the content level of meaning is the literal, or denotative, information
in a message, while relationship level of meaning expresses the relationship between
communicators.

Key Takeaway

In summary, communication is a systemic process in which people interact with and through
symbols to create and interpret meanings.

1.2. The Value of Communication

Communication has played a vital role in the lives of humans for thousands of years, and it is
considered as a means of survival. Every day, we communicate with the people around us; it is
inevitable. Hence, it is important to consider learning more about communication to become
successful in different aspects of life:
1. Personal Life
 We develop our personal identities through the process of interacting with others
(Mead, 1934). We often view ourselves based on how others see us, and this
becomes a foundation of our self-concepts. Based on other people’s perception of
us, we establish our own identities.
 Substantial research shows that communicating with others promotes personal
health, whereas social isolation is linked to stress, disease, and early death
(Fackelmann, 2006; Kupfer, First, & Regier, 2002; McClure, 1997). College students
who are in committed relationships have fewer mental health problems and are less
likely to be obese (Braithwaite, Delevi, & Fincham, 2010). Heart disease is more
common among people who lack strong interpersonal relationships (Ornish, 1998),
and cancer patients who are married live longer than single cancer patients
(“Cancer,” 2009). Clearly, healthy interaction with others is important to our
physical and mental well-being.
2. Personal Relationships
 Daniel Goleman, author of Social Intelligence (2007), says humans are “wired to
connect”. We connect with other people in whatever channel we use, may it be in
person or through media. Thus, personal relationships start with communication.
Relationships that last often have its parties communicate with other constantly; on
the other hand, relationships with people who do not engage in communication
often collapse. Friends also rely on good communication to keep in touch, provide
support, and listen sensitively, and families that practice good communication are
more cohesive and stable (Galvin, Braithwaite, & Bylund, 2015). Communication
often starts and maintains a healthy relationship with your loved ones, family
members, friends, colleagues, and others.
3. Civic Life
 Civic engagement is more than paying attention to politics and voting. It is also
working with others—formally and informally, in small and large groups—to identify
needs of communities and society and then to find ways of meeting those needs.
John Dewey, a distinguished American philosopher, believed that democracy and
communication are intricately connected. He argued that while democracy depends
on citizens’ voting, it is more basic and important that citizens interact. Dewey
insisted that it’s vital that citizens talk and listen to each other—they must share
ideas, question each other’s positions, debate and argue, and collaborate to build
communities that are stronger than any individual could build.
 Communication skills are especially important for effective interaction in an era of
globalization, where we have daily encounters with people of different races,
genders, sexual orientations, and traditions. We live, work, and socialize with
people who communicate differently than we do. Friendships and workplace
relationships between people with different cultural backgrounds enlarge
perspective and appreciation of the range of human values and viewpoints.
Some people consider to pursue their professional careers studying about communication
because it offers different opportunities in different fields like mass media, creative writing,
public speaking, and even the academe. Effective communication skills are also an in-demand
requirement to be admitted in a university, or hired in a company.
II. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication (Effective Communication Skills)
People engage in communication using their verbal and non-verbal skills. In this section,
we will discuss the differences, types, and examples of these communication skills

2.1. Verbal Communication

In this lesson, we begin by defining symbols and discussing principles of verbal communication.
Next, we’ll examine how language enables us to create meanings for ourselves, others, and our
experiences. Finally, we identify guidelines for effective verbal communication.

Verbal Communication, also known as Linguistic Aspect, makes use of words to share
information with other people. It may be oral or written, formal or informal. The verbal
element of communication is all about the words that you choose and how they are heard
and interpreted.

Language and Meaning

Language consists of symbols, which are representations of people, events, and all that goes on
around us and in us. All language is symbolic, yet not all symbols are linguistic. Nonverbal
communication includes symbols that aren’t words, such as facial expressions, posture, and
tone of voice. Art and music are also symbolic.
Features of Language
1. Language is arbitrary, which means that verbal symbols are not intrinsically connected to
what they represent. Because meanings are arbitrary instead of necessary, language
changes as we invent new words or imbue existing words with new meanings.
2. Language is ambiguous, which means it doesn’t have clear-cut, precise meanings.
Although language doesn’t mean exactly the same thing to everyone, within a culture or
social community many words have an agreed-upon range of meanings.
3. Language is abstract, which means that words are not the phenomena to which they
refer. They stand for those phenomena—ideas, people, events, objects, feelings, and so
forth, but they are not the things they represent. As language becomes increasingly
abstract, the potential for confusion mushrooms.
Principles of Verbal Communication
Three principles clarify how we use verbal communication and how it affects us:
1. Interpretation Creates Meaning
Because symbols are arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract, their meanings aren’t self-
evident or absolute. Instead, we have to interpret the meaning of symbols.
If a work associate says, “Let’s go to dinner after work,” the comment could be an
invitation to explore transforming the work relationship into a friendship or it might
indicate that the person issuing the invitation is interested in a romantic relationship.
Effective communicators are alert to possible misunderstandings, and they check
perceptions with others to see whether meanings match.
2. Communication Is Rule Guided
Verbal communication is patterned by unspoken but broadly understood rules (Argyle &
Henderson, 1984; Shimanoff, 1980). Communication rules are shared understandings of
what communication means and what kinds of communication are and are not
appropriate in various situations. For the most part, rules aren’t explicitly taught. In the
course of interacting with our families and others, we unconsciously absorb rules that
guide how we communicate and how we interpret others’ communication.
Communication rules are shared understandings of what communication means and
what behaviors are appropriate in various situations.
Regulative rules refer to communication rules that regulate interaction by specifying
when, how, where, and with whom to talk about certain things.
3. Punctuation Affects Meaning
In writing, we use periods to define where ideas stop and start. Similarly, in
communication, punctuation is the mental mark of the beginnings and endings of
particular interactions (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 1967). For example, when a
teacher steps to the front of a classroom, we perceive that class is beginning. When the
CEO sits down at a conference table, we perceive the beginning of a meeting. When a
speaker says, “Thank you for your attention” and folds notes, we regard that as the end of
the formal speech.

Guidelines for Effective Verbal Communication

We can now consider the following ways to improve the effectiveness of our verbal
communication:
1. Engage in Dual Perspective
The single most important guideline for effective verbal communication is to engage in dual
perspective. Dual perspective involves taking another person’s point of view into account as
you communicate. We don’t need to abandon our own perspectives to recognize those of
others. In fact, it would be just as unethical to stifle your own views as to dismiss those of
others. Dual perspective, as the term implies, consists of two perspectives. It entails
understanding both our own and another’s point of view and acknowledging each when we
communicate.
2. Own Your Feelings and Thoughts
We sometimes use language that obscures our responsibility for how we feel and what we
think. Our feelings and thoughts result from how we interpret others’ communication, not
from their communication itself. Others sometimes exert a great deal of influence on how
we feel and how we see ourselves. Yet they do not directly cause our feelings.
Effective communicators take responsibility for themselves by using language that owns
their thoughts and feelings. They own their feelings and do not blame others for what
happens in themselves. Using I-language allows us to own our feelings while also explaining
to others how we interpret their behaviors.
3. Respect What Others Say About Their Feelings and Ideas
Respecting how others express their thoughts and feelings is a cornerstone of effective
communication. We also grow when we open ourselves to perspectives, feelings, and
thoughts that differ from our own.
4. Strive for Accuracy and Clarity
Because symbols are arbitrary, abstract, and ambiguous, the potential for misunderstanding
always exists. Although we cannot entirely eliminate misunderstandings, we can minimize
them.
4.1. Be Aware of Levels of Abstraction - Misunderstandings are most likely when
language is very abstract
4.2. Qualify Language - First, we should qualify generalizations, so we don’t mislead
ourselves or others. We should also qualify language when describing and
evaluating people.
Key Takeaway:
We’ve considered four guidelines for effective verbal communication. Engaging in dual
perspective is the first principle and a foundation for all others. A second guideline is to take
responsibility for our own feelings and thoughts by using I-language. Third, we should respect
others as the experts on what they feel and think and not speak for them or presume we know
what they think and feel. The fourth principle is to strive for clarity by choosing appropriate
degrees of abstraction, qualifying generalizations, and indexing evaluations, particularly ones
applied to people.

2.2. Non-Verbal Communication

Ralph Waldo Emerson once said, “What you do speaks so loud that I cannot hear what you say.”
Verbal communication is not the only skill needed to communicate; it goes hand-in-hand with
non-verbal communication. Nonverbal behaviors account for 65–93% of the total meaning of
communication (Birdwhistell, 1970; Hickson, Stacks, & Moore, 2003; Mehrabian, 1981). One
reason for the impact of nonverbal communication is its breadth: It includes every- thing from
dress and eye contact to body posture and vocal inflection.

Non-Verbal Communication, also known as Extralinguistic Aspect, includes facial expression,

the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed through body language and physical
distance. It gives clues and additional information and meaning to verbal communication.

Non-verbal communication is cultural. There are instances where non-verbal communication

can be very culture-specific.
Cross-Cultural Nonverbal Clashes

Cross-cultural misunderstandings aren’t limited to verbal communication, according to Siu

Wa Tang, chair of the Department of Psychiatry at the University of California at Irvine
(Emmons, 1998). When Tang and a colleague visited pharmaceutical plants in Changchun,
China, Tang was well accepted, but his colleague was not. The Chinese took an immediate
and strong dislike to the colleague. Tang says the problem was facial expressions. His U.S.
colleague used facial expressions that Americans would interpret as showing honesty and
directness but which the Chinese people interpreted as aggressive and rude.
Based on this experience, Tang conducted experiments to test the universality of facial
expressions. He found that a few basic feelings and expressions were understood across
cultures. Happiness and sadness, for example, were nonverbally expressed in similar ways.
However, other facial expressions did not translate so well. Nine out of 10 Americans
interpreted a photograph of a face as showing fear, yet 6 of 10 Japanese identified the same
photograph as expressing surprise or sadness. A photo identified by 9 of 10 Americans as
showing anger was interpreted by 75% of Japanese as expressing disgust or contempt.
Another source of cross-cultural nonverbal misunderstandings is eye contact. Americans
generally consider it polite to look another person in the eye when conversing, but Japanese
look at each other’s cheeks; to look another in the eyes is perceived as very aggressive.
Cross-cultural communication clashes may also occur over gift giving (Axtell, 2007). An
American might offend a Chinese with the gift of a clock because in China clocks symbolize
death. Giving a gift to an Arab on first meeting would be interpreted as a bribe. Bringing
flowers to a dinner hosted by a person from Kenya would puzzle the host because in Kenya
flowers are given only to express sympathy fora loss. And the Swiss consider even numbers of
flowers bad luck, so giving a dozen is inappropriate, and the recipient would probably
interpret the gift as reflecting ill will.
Types of Non-Verbal Communication

A. Kinesics
Kinesics is body position and body motions, including those of the face. Our bodies express a
great deal about how we see ourselves. How we position ourselves relative to others may
express our feelings toward them. Our faces are intricate messengers. With our faces, we
can indicate disapproval (scowls), and doubt (raised eyebrows). The face is particularly
powerful in conveying responsiveness and liking (Gueguen & De Gail, 2003)
B. Oculesics
Our eyes communicate some of the most important and complex messages about how we
feel. If you watch infants, you will notice that they focus on others’ eyes. As adults, we often
look at eyes to judge emotions, honesty, interest, and self- confidence. Among Westerners,
eye contact tends to increase feelings of closeness.
C. Paralanguage
Paralanguage is vocal communication that does not involve words. It includes sounds, such
as murmurs and gasps, and vocal qualities, such as volume, rhythm, pitch, and inflection. Our
voices are versatile instruments that tell others how to interpret us and what we say. Vocal
cues signal others to interpret what we say as a joke, threat, statement of fact, question, and
so forth. Vocal cues also express irritation. Effective public speakers know how to modulate
inflection, volume, and rhythm to enhance their verbal messages. We use our voices to
communicate feelings. Whispering, for instance, often signals secrecy, and shouting conveys
anger. Depending on the context, sighing may communicate empathy, boredom, or
contentment
D. Proxemics
Proxemics is space and how we use it. Every culture has norms for using space and for how
close people should be to one another (Samovar et al., 2015). Space also signals status;
greater
space is assumed by those of higher status. The prerogative of entering someone else’s
personal space is also linked to power; those with greater power are most likely to trespass
into others’ territory.
E. Artifacts
Artifacts are personal objects with which we announce our identities and personalize our
environments. We craft our image by how we dress, the jewelry we wear, and the objects
we carry and use. We also use artifacts to define settings and personal territories.
F. Chronemics
Chronemics is how we perceive and use time to define identities and interaction. Important
people with high status can keep others waiting. It also expresses cultural attitudes toward
time. Moreover, the amount of time we spend with different people reflects our priorities.
Effective verbal communication cannot be fully isolated from non-verbal communication
(body language, tone of voice, facial expression etc.).

G. Tactilics/Haptics
Haptics is physical touch. Touch is the first of our senses to develop and touching and being
touched are essential to a healthy life (Whitman, White, O’Mara, & Goeke-Morey, 1999).
Touching also communicates power and status. Cultural views of women as more touchable
than men are reflected in gendered patterns. Women tend to touch others to show liking
and intimacy, whereas men more typically rely on touch to assert power and control (Jhally
& Katz, 2001).
Guidelines for Effective Non-Verbal Communication
The following guidelines can help improve the likelihood that your nonverbal messages will be
perceived accurately and that you will accurately interpret the non- verbal messages of others:
Sending Non-Verbal Messages
1. Consciously monitor your nonverbal messages.
Try to be more consciously aware of the nonverbal messages you send through your use
of body, voice, space, time, and appearance. If you have difficulty doing this, ask a friend
to point them out to you.
2. Intentionally align your nonverbal messages with your purpose.
When non- verbal messages contradict verbal messages, people are more likely to
believe the nonverbal messages, so it is important align your nonverbal messages with
your purpose. If you want to be persuasive, use direct eye contact, a serious facial
expression, an upright posture, a commanding vocal tone with no vocalized pauses, and
professional clothing and grooming. If you want to be supportive and convey empathy,
you might use
less direct eye contact, a more relaxed facial expression, a softer voice, a nonthreatening
touch, and a lean inward toward your partner.
3. Adapt your nonverbal messages to the situation.
Just as you make language choices to suit different situations, so should you do so with
nonverbal messages. Assess what the situation calls for in terms of use of body, voice,
space, time, and appearance. For example, you would not dress the same way for a
wedding as you would for a workout.
4. Reduce or eliminate distracting nonverbal messages.
Fidgeting, tapping your fingers on a table, pacing, mumbling, using lots of pauses, and
checking your phone often for texts and e-mails can distract others from the message
you are trying to convey. Make a conscious effort to learn what distracting nonverbal
messages have become habitual for you and work to eliminate them from your
communication with others.

Interpreting Non-verbal Messages

1. Remember that the same non-verbal message may mean different things to different
people.
Most nonverbal messages have multiple meanings that vary from person to person,
culture to culture, and even situation to situation. Just because you fidget when you are
bored, doesn’t mean that others are bored when they fidget. What you perceive as an
angry vocal tone might not be intended as such by the person talking. So always try to
consider multiple interpretations of the nonverbal messages you receive and seek
clarification, particularly when your first interpretation is negative. This guideline
becomes even more important when interpreting messages sent via social media and
technology.
2. Consider each nonverbal message in context.
Because any one nonverbal message can mean different things in different contexts,
take the time to consider how it is intended in each situation. Also realize that you might
not understand all the details of the situation. For example, if you see a classmate
sleeping during your speech, you might interpret the nonverbal message as boredom or
disrespect.
3. Pay attention to the multiple nonverbal messages being sent and their relationship to the
verbal message.
In any one interaction, you are likely to get simultaneous messages from a person’s
appearance, eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, voice, as well as use of
space and touch. By taking all nonverbal messages into consideration in conjunction
with the verbal message, you are more likely to interpret their messages accurately.
4. Use perception checking.
Perception checking lets you see if your interpretation of another person’s message is
accurate. By describing the nonverbal message you notice, sharing two possible
interpretations of it, and asking for clarification, you can get confirmation or correction
of your interpretation.
Key Takeaway:
Nonverbal communication consists of all the messages that transcend spoken or written words.
Nonverbal messages may emphasize, substitute for, or contradict a verbal message. They can
regulate our conversations and project an image about who we are to others. It is also the
primary way we convey our emotions. Because nonverbal communication is ambiguous, we
need to be aware of the potential for misunderstandings both in face-to-face interactions and
those on social media. Effectiveness requires that we learn to monitor our nonverbal
communication and to exercise caution in interpreting that of others.
III. The Communication Process and its Elements
In this lesson, we will be discussing how communications works through its process and
the elements involved.

The communication process refers to a complex set of three different and interrelated
activities intended to result in shared meaning.
The following are the definitions of the elements of communication:
• The sender is the source of information or encoder of the message
• The receiver is the the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the
message
• The message refers to the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in
words or in actions.
• Channel refers to the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal
or non-verbal, in which the encoded message is conveyed
• Feedback is the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver

The Communication Process

1. The sender initiates the communication.
2. The sender encodes the idea by selecting words, symbols, or gestures to compose a
message.
3. The message is the outcome of the encoding.
4. The message is sent through a medium or channel, which is the carrier of the
communication.
5. Noise is anything that distorts the message.
6. The receiver decodes the received message into meaningful information.
7. Feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the sender's message and returns the
message to the sender.
III. The Communication Models

Researchers and scholars in the field of communication have studied and developed different
models that show the different understandings of the communication process.

4.1. Linear Models

One of the first models (Laswell, 1948) described communication as a linear, or one-way,
process in which one person acted on another person. This model consisted of five questions
that described early views of how communication worked:

Who?
Says what?
In what channel?
To whom?
With what effect?

A year later, Shannon and Weaver (1949) advanced a model that included noise, which is
anything that can interfere with the intended message. The figure below shows two versions of
the Shannon and Weaver’s model. Although linear models were useful starting points, they
were too simple to capture the complexity of most kinds of human communication.

Noise is anything that interferes with the intended meaning of communication; includes
sounds (e.g., traffic) as well as psychological interferences (e.g., preoccupation).
Feedback refers to verbal or nonverbal response to a message. The concept of feedback as
applied to human communication appeared first in interactive models of communication.
4.2. Interactive Models
The major shortcoming of the early models was that they portrayed communication as flowing
in only one direction, from a sender to a receiver. The linear model suggests that a person is
only a sender or a receiver and that receivers passively absorb senders’ messages. Clearly, this
isn’t how communication occurs.
When communication theorists realized that listeners respond to senders, they added feedback
to their models. Feedback is a response to a message. Wilbur Schramm (1955) pointed out that
communicators create and interpret messages within personal fields of experience. The more
communicators’ fields of experience overlap, the better they understand each other. Adding
fields of experience to models clarifies why misunderstandings sometimes occur.

Feedback refers to verbal or nonverbal response to a message. The concept of feedback as

applied to human communication appeared first in interactive models of communication.

4.3. Transactional Model

The Transactional Model highlights that communication as changing over time as a result of
what happens between people. An accurate model would include the feature of time and
would depict features of communication as dynamically varying rather than constant. The
transactional model includes noise, which is anything that has the potential to interfere with
the intended communication. The outer lines on our model emphasize that communication
occurs within systems that themselves affect communication and meanings. Those systems
include con- texts that both communicators share (e.g., a common campus, town, and culture)
as well as each person’s personal systems (e.g., family, religious associations, and friends). Also
notice that our model, unlike previous ones, portrays each person’s field of experience and the
shared field of experience between communicators as changing over time. As we encounter
new people and
grow personally, our field of experience expands. Finally, our model doesn’t label one person a
“sender” and the other a “receiver.” Instead, both people are defined as communicators who
participate actively in the communication process. This means that, at a given moment in
communication, you may be sending a message, receiving a message, or doing both at the same
time (interpreting what someone says while nodding to show you are interested)

V. Intercultural Communication
Because culture has a profound impact on perception and communication, this lesson focuses
on the relationship between culture and communication. We will explain some basic concepts
of culture and several ways cultures are unique and offer some strategies for improving
intercultural communication competence.

Culture refers to the system of shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and norms that guide what is
considered appropriate among an identifiable group of people
Values are commonly accepted standards of what is considered right and wrong, good and
evil, fair and unfair, and so on
Intercultural communication refers to the interactions that occur between people of
different cultures
Culture shock is the psychological discomfort one feels when engaging in a new cultural
situation
5.1 Culture and Communication
Intercultural communication refers to the interactions that occur between people whose
cultures are so different that the communication between them is altered (Samovar, Porter, &
McDaniel, 2012). To become effective intercultural communicators, we must begin by
understanding what a culture is, then identifying how cultures differ from one another, and
finally realizing how those differences influence communication.

 Because each of us is so familiar with our own customs, norms, and values, we may feel
anxious when they are disrupted. We call this psychological discomfort when engaging
in a new cultural situation culture shock (Klyukanov, 2005, p. 33). We are likely to feel
culture shock most profoundly when thrust into an unfamiliar culture through travel,
business, or studying abroad.
 Culture is both transmitted and modified through communication. In Western cultures,
for example, most people eat using forks, knives, spoons, individual plates, and bowls. In
some cultures, people may eat with chop- sticks, use bread as a utensil, or use their
fingers and share a common bowl. All of these dining rituals are culturally based and
taught by one generation to the next through communication.
 Communication is also the mechanism through which culture is modified. For example,
several generations ago, most American children were taught to show respect by
addressing adult family friends using a title and last name (e.g., Mr. Jones, Miss Smith).
Today, children often address adult family friends by their first names. How did this
cultural norm change? In earlier generations, adults corrected young children who
addressed an adult by his or her first name. But toward the end of the 20th century,
adults began giving children permission to use first names and, over time, the norm
changed. So communication is both the means by which culture is transmitted and the
way a culture is changed.
5.2 The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

 The developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS) was created by Dr. Milton
Bennett. This model was created as a basic outline to explain the reactions that people
have to cultural differences.
 The stages of DMIS is a continuum that ranges from ethnocentric to highly
ethnorelative (Cushner, McClelland, & Safford, 2012, p. 155).
o “Ethnocentric” may be defined as using your own set of standards and customs to
judge all people, often unconsciously. This refers to the first three stages of the model.
o “Ethnorelative” is a word coined to express the opposite of ethnocentric; it refers to a
person who is comfortable with many standards and customs and who can adapt
his/her behavior and judgments to many interpersonal settings. This refers to the last
three stages of the model.
 This model is acceptable for both children and adults as they progress through cross-
cultural sensitivity.
The Six Stages of the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
Stage 1 : Denial

 The individual refuses to acknowledge cultural differences. A person confronted with

cultural difference avoids or denies the existence of any difference.
 People with this predominant experience are “in denial” about cultural difference – they
are unable to experience differences in other than extremely simple ways.
 They may be perplexed when asked about their own culture, because they have not
considered how culture impacts their own or others’ lives.
 They might ask well-meant but naive questions about other cultures (“do they have
television in Japan?”) and make superficial statements of tolerance (“live and let live”).
 In some cases, people with this orientation may dehumanize others, assuming that
different behavior is a deficiency in intelligence or personality

Stage 2 : Defense

 The individual begins to see cultural differences and is threatened by them. This strategy
occurs as a way to counter the impact of cultural differences which are perceived as
threatening. A person does this as a way of maintaining the integrity of their own
worldview.
 People with a predominant experience of Defense experience cultural difference in a
polarized way –us and them. They feel “under siege” by people that they stereotype in
simplistic and negative ways, protecting themselves with a hardened boundary between
themselves and the “others.”
 Typically, one’s own culture is exalted, and other cultures are denigrated with negative
stereotypes. This hierarchical view of culture may lead people to assume a kind of social
Darwinism wherein they place their own culture at the peak of development and
civilization.
 A common variation is a Reversal of the two poles, so that one’s own culture is
denigrated and other cultures are uncritically lauded. While Reversal may superficially
seem to be more culturally sensitive, it is nevertheless still dualistic and overly simplistic

Stage 3 : Minimization

 While individuals at this stage do acknowledge cultural differences, they see human
universals as more salient than cultural distinctions.
 In this stage, people will seek to hide difference under cultural similarities. Part of
minimization is an assumption of universal characteristics shared by all humanity.
However this assumption is usually made by the dominant culture. Bennett suggests
that people tend to use their own worldview to interpret other’s behavior and that the
idea of a ‘universal truth’ is usually based on one’s own values.’ (Teaching and Learning
Unit, University of Melbourne, 2010)
 The predominant experience of Minimization is that of having “arrived” at
intercultural sensitivity. The polarized experience of Defense has given way to a
recognition of the common humanity of all people regardless of culture (“We are the
world”).
 The familiar cultural worldview is protected by believing that deep down we are all
alike, either physically/psychologically or spiritually/philosophically. This assumption of
similarity is then invoked to avoid recognizing one’s own cultural patterns,
understanding others, and eventually making necessary adaptations.
 The assumed commonality with others is typically defined in ethnocentric terms: since
everyone is essentially like us, it is sufficient in cross-cultural situations to “just be
yourself.”

Stage 4 : Acceptance

 When Acceptance is the predominant experience, people experience cultural difference

in context.
 They accept that all behaviors and values, including their own, exist in distinctive
cultural contexts and that patterns of behaviors and values can be discerned within each
context.
 They see cultures as offering alternative viable solutions to the organization of human
existence, and they are curious about what the alternatives to their own culture are.
 Acceptance does not mean agreement or preference for alternative values, but
rather acceptance of the distinctive reality of each culture’s worldview.

Stage 5 : Adaptation

 The experience of Adaptation is one of consciously shifting perspective and intentionally

altering behavior.
 Adaptation is the application of Acceptance, and it is likely to become the predominant
experience when there is a need to actually interact effectively with people of another
culture.
 With the acceptance of another culture’s organization of reality, Adaptation can
proceed by allowing one to reorganize experience in a way more like that of the other
culture. This is intercultural empathy. The ability to empathize with another worldview
in turn allows modified behavior to flow naturally from that experience. It is this
natural flow of behavior that keeps code-shifting from being fake or inauthentic.

Stage 6 : Integration

 The experience of Integration is of being a person who is not defined in terms of

any one culture – typically a person who is bicultural or multicultural.
 The experience of Integration may occur when individuals intentionally make a
significant, sustained effort to become fully competent in new cultures.
 It may become the predominant experience for nondominant group members who
have adapted (not assimilated) to a dominant or colonial culture, or it may characterize
persons who grew up or lived for extended periods in other cultures.
 A marginal cultural identity allows for lively participation in a variety of cultures, but also
for an occasional sense of never really being “at home.”
 People with this orientation experience themselves as “in process,” and they generally
have a wide repertoire of cultural perspectives and behavior to draw on.

EVALUATION

Written Work 1:
Short Quiz (Formative Assessment)
After learning all the concepts about the previous lessons, prepare for a short online quiz (30
points).
Test types:
Multiple Choice
Modified True or False
Identification
Performance Task 1:
The students are tasked to create a digital poster about the following theme:
“Move across different cultures through intercultural communication ventures.”
Guidelines:
1. You may use any platform you prefer (Canva, Adobe Photoshop, Microsoft Word, etc.) as
long as the poster is saved as a PDF file (A4 in size).
2. Submit a one-minute video of you explaining the contents and meaning of your poster.
RUBRIC
Criteria 9-10 points 6-8 points 3-5 points 1-2 points
Content The poster The poster The poster does The poster is
includes all includes most of not have all of lacking in
(Text and information the relevant the relevant elements
Images) relevant to the information; information. required.
topic. The poster however, it could Information is There are many
is creative, clear, have been better presented in an gaps in
complete and organized and unorganized information
concise. could be more fashion. presented.
creative. Some or all of the
written elements
are plagiarized.
Creativity The poster is The poster is The poster is The poster is
exceptionally very attractive. 1-2 unattractive. No
attractive. It is attractive. It is elements are element is
artistically artistically present: design, present: design,
presented. All presented. 3-4 layout, creativity layout, creativity
elements are elements are and additional and additional
present: design, present: design, items. items.
layout, creativity layout, creativity
and additional and additional
items. items.
Presentation The student The student The information Not enough
presents the presented the presented is not preparation was
information information fairly clearly displayed done for the
clearly and clearly and throughout the presentation, it
displays a displays a project. therefore lacks
complete reasonable Some of the many elements of
understanding of understanding of presentation was what is expected.
their information. their information. read. Most of the
It is evident that presentation was
the student is read.
well prepared.

Mechanics There are There are several

minimal errors in errors in
grammar, grammar,
spelling, and spelling, and
punctuation. punctuation.
References

Bennett, M. (2011). A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. Retrieved from The

Intercultural Development Research Institute: https://www.idrinstitute.org/wp-content
/uploads/2018/02/FILE_Documento_Bennett_DMIS_12pp_quotes_rev_2011.pdf

Teaching and Learning Unit, University of Melbourne.

(2010). Study_intercultural_comms1. Retrieved from The University of Sydney Business
School: http://sydney.edu.au/business/ data/assets/pdf_file/0017/90350/
Study_intercultural_comms1.pdf
Wood, J. (2018). Communication in Our Lives. Boston, Ma: Cengage Learning.

Verdeber, K., Sellnow, D., & Verdeber, R. (2017). Communicate! Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Wood, J. (2017). Communication Mosaics: An Introduction to the Field of Communication,.

Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.