EXPERIMENTS IN GENERAL PHYSICS

P HYS 1102

Prepared by:
Department of Physics
K.U.E
September 2023
Preface 1

1 Measurement and Uncertainty 4

2 Local Acceleration Due to Gravity Using Simple Pendulum 10

3 Coefficients of Static and Kinetic Friction 13

4 Current, Resistance And Ohm’S Law 18

5 Measuring the Specific Heat of Metal Elements 23

A Reporting your laboratory work: 26

0
The goal of this course is to introduce learners to the art and science of
experimental physics, and to the tools physicists use to analyze,
document and present results.
The experiments in this lab will fascinate you, give you a first look at
modern instrumentation and techniques, and give you a taste of what
real experimental physics is all about. Some experiments are easier than
others.
Each experiment is designed to require three hours in lab and about 6
hours of homework to obtain presentable results. The manual for each
experiment has the following sections:

Pre-Lab Assignment: Pre-laboratory assignment that is based upon

the laboratory description is provided under the heading Pre-Lab
preparation. The intention is prepare students to perform the
laboratory by having them answer a series of questions about the
theory and working numerical problems related to the calculations
in the experiment.
Objectives: itemized list of actions describing the purpose of the
investigation following a heading “In this experiment you will
determine:-”
Theory: Scientific theory, principle and laws are presented under this sectio
Equipment: Equipment requirement for the experiment is listed down
Procedure and Data Collection: Detailed procedure is given on how to
perform the measurements. The data tables provided include the units
in which the measurements are to be recorded. SI units are used.
Data Analysis:
Questions: This section is a list of questions. The questions are usually
related to the actual data taken by the student and attempt to require
the student to think critically about the significance of the data with
respect to how well the data can be said to verify the theoretical
1
concepts that underlie the laboratory.
Learning Resources: Additional online/stand-alone resources related to the
experiment are listed.
References:

To the Student . . .
a) Come Prepared
There are no regular lectures in Experimental Physics Courses. Only
cursory explanations of the relevant theory are generally presented in the
lab guides. Therefore, you will find it essential for a proper
understanding of the experiments to dig the theoretical background out
of the textbooks of relevant courses.
b) Plan your work ahead of time
The time available for your work in the laboratory is limited. It is advisable to
plan your work ahead of time:
• List the Objective(s);
• List the Tasks i.e. make a list of the things you have to do and the data you
must obtain;
• Identify required instrument reading techniques, calibrations, precautions
etc.;
• Attempt to foresee how particular problems can be circumvented.
c) Record your work clearly
You must record, in your lab notebook, sufficient information about
what you have done so that you could write a complete and publishable
account of your experiments days or years later without having to do
anything over again. That means your lab notebook must have dates,
diagrams, narratives, tables of raw data, formulas, computations,
reduced data, error analysis and conclusions in a neat, compact, and
orderly arrangement.
You are expected to read the lab manual before coming to the lab. You
are expected to come properly equipped with calculators, graph papers
and copies of the lab reports and manual.
You are expected to follow the usual rules of the laboratory; arrive on-

2
time, arrive prepared, no food or drink and no goofing off. The
instructors will expect that the lab report will be completed and handed
in by the end of the lab period.

The Pre-Lab Questions are preparatory and must be turned in at the

beginning of each lab. They are designed to prepare you for the lab and
exams as well. Instructors may refuse admittance to students who do not
come to lab prepared
You are required to produce a Laboratory Report at the end of your
work. The report should include the data and calculations tables. You
should answer the questions given at the end of the each laboratory
experiment/demonstration.

Precautions and special instructions

Always keep in mind the Laboratory Safety Rules, in general the
safety rules to be observed in handling heat sources. It is your
responsibility to make sure that you follow all safety rules at all
times, and to graciously help everybody else in the laboratory
(including the instructor) to do the same.

3
M EASUREMENT
(Exp-1)

1.1 Pre-lab Assignment

1. What scientific concept(s) are used in this experiment? State them clearly.

2. Describe the specific actions you are expected to do in this experiment. Do not copy
the objectives from this lab manual. Instead, try to figure them out from the lab
procedures.

3. State briefly how the objectives will help you learn about the scientific concepts of
measurements, errors, precision and accuracy by doing this experiment.

4. Predict the outcome of this experiment based on your understanding of the scientific
concepts of measurement uncertainties. Write your hypothesis in a couple of
sentences.

1.2 Objectives of the Experiment

In this experiment you will:-:-

□ practice estimating distance, mass and time interval,

□ practice how to use vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauges,
□ make basic length, mass, and time measurements with increasing precisions,
□ make calculations of volume and density.

1.3 Theory
In physics, measurements, observations, and data analysis are equally important as theory
and conceptualization in order to understand and describe how things work. Basic
measurements and observations require the use of measuring devices like the meter stick,
vernier calipers, the micrometer, beam or digital balances, analog or digital timers. Data
analysis is done using formulas for obtaining derived quantities and using statistics for
calculating averages and errors.

All measurements have errors and uncertainties, no matter how sophisticated the
measuring instrument is and no matter how hard the experimenter attempts to minimize
them. Understanding and managing the sources of errors and controlling uncertainties are

4
crucial in drawing valid and strong conclusions from the outcomes of experimental data
analyses.

In addition to measurement uncertainties, calculations introduce uncertainties in the

results. Below, the major concepts in measurements and handling uncertainties will be
discussed in two parts: the first part focuses on measurements and units; the second part
deals with the nature of error and uncertainty.

Below, the major concepts in measurements and handling uncertainties will be discussed
in two parts: the first part focuses on measurements and units; the second part deals with
the nature of error and uncertainty.

A) Measurements and Units

Scientific measurements normally use metric units. The International System of Units (SI)
is a modern form of the metric system based on units of ten.

LENGTH: The meter

The meter (m) is the basic SI unit of length. Since 1983, the meter has been defined as the
distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.

There are three commonly used instruments for measuring length in the physics lab: the
meter stick (or simple ruler), the vernier calipers and the micrometer screw gauge.

The Meter Stick

The simplest way to measure length is to use an ordinary meter stick. Laboratory meter
sticks are carefully calibrated in centimeters with a millimeter least count which can be seen
in Figure 1. This means the millimeter is the unit of the smallest reading that can be made
without estimating.

Fig. 1.1: This meter stick is calibrated in centimeters (major

divisions) with a least count of millimeters. Fig. 1.2: The object’s length is measured to be 41.64 cm.

The least count of the laboratory meter sticks is 0.1 cm = 1 mm and therefore a reading can

5
be made to 0.01 cm. Figure 1.2 above shows a meter stick being used to measure the length
of a plastic strip. Certainly, the length of the strip is between 41.6 cm and 41.7 cm. We then
estimate the strip’s length to the fractional part (doubtful figure) of the least count
subdivision and report it as 41.64 cm or 0.4164 m.

The Vernier Caliper

The vernier caliper, shown in Figure 3, is used in length measurements that require better
precision compared to the meter stick. The vernier is convenient when measuring small
thicknesses, outer and inner diameters of round objects, and the depth of a hole.

Fig. 1.3: The parts of the vernier calipers

As shown in Figure 1.3, the vernier caliper has a main scale (in millimeters) and a sliding
vernier scale. The vernier scale is divided into 50 equal divisions and thus the least count of
the instrument is 0.02 mm (see Figure 4). The main scale reading is the mark on the main
scale immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier scale (37 mm), while the vernier scale
reading is the mark on the vernier scale which exactly coincides with a mark on the main
scale (the 23rd mark from zero). Therefore, the reading in Figure 4 is 37 mm + 23 x 0.02
mm =
37.46 mm. (Note that each division on the vernier = 0.02 mm.)

The Micrometer Screw Gauge

The micrometer screw gauge (Figure 1.5) is used to measure even smaller dimensions than
the vernier caliper. The micrometer screw gauge has a main scale and a rotating scale.
The 50 divisions on the rotating scale

6
Fig. 1.4: The reading here is 37.46 mm

(thimble) are equivalent to 0.5 mm on the main scale, so the micrometer has a least count of
0.01 mm. The jaws can be adjusted by rotating the thimble using the small ratchet knob.

Fig. 1.5: The micrometer screw gauge

In Figure 1.6 the last main-scale mark clearly visible to the left of the thimble is 7 mm and
the thimble lines up with the main scale at 38th mark (0.38 mm); therefore, the reading is
7.38 mm. In Figure 6b, the last mark on the main scale clearly visible to the left of the thimble
is 7.5 mm; therefore, the reading is 7.5 mm plus the thimble reading of 0.22 mm, giving 7.72
mm.

MASS: The Kilogram

The kilogram (kg) is the SI unit of mass. In the lab, we usually work with the gram (g)
which represents one- thousandth of a kilogram, and with the milligram (mg) which equals
one-thousandth of a gram.

To read the mass value on the triple beam balance in Figure 1.9, start with the middle scale,
then read from the upper scale and finally read from the lower scale.

7
TIME: The Second
The second (s) is the basic SI unit of time. In the physics lab we use analog or digital
stopwatches to measure time intervals.

Volume
The basic unit of volume used in the science lab is the liter (L). A fraction of the liter is the
milliliter (mL) which is one-thousandth of a liter (0.001 L).

Density
Density can be calculated from measured values of mass and volume using the formula: 𝜌 = 𝑚 𝑉

1.4 Apparatus

Equipment Needed Quantity.

Meter Stick or Metric Ruler 1

Vernier Caliper 1
Micrometer Screw Gauge 1
Triple-beam balance 1
Graduated Cylinder, 25 mL 1
Rectangular block 1
Cylindrical Blocks (copper and aluminum) 1
Metal sphere 1
Light string …
Resort stand 1
Stopwatch-digital 1

8
1.5 Procedure:
1. Using meter stick measure the length and width of lab-table by meter stick with 1m least step and again with
1cm least step.
2. Using meter stick measure the length, width and thickness of rectangular block. And repeat the measurement
using vernier caliper.
3. Measure the diameter and length of cylindrical object using vernier caliper and Micrometer Screw Gauge.
4. Measure the diameter of spherical metal ball in different direction using vernier caliper and Micrometer
Screw Gauge.
5. Measure the mass of rectangular block, cylindrical object, spherical metal ball, and irregular shaped object.
6. Water or liquid in to graduate cylinder, measure the volume of liquid as V1. Attach the irregular object to thin
light string and fully immerse gently. Record the volume of liquid and irregular object as V2.

𝒍
7. Prepare the pendulum with a theoretical period of 1 second using the relationship T = 2π 𝒈
.

1.6 Data Analysis and Results

1. Complete each data table with calculated values. Show clearly standard formulas for
calculating areas and volumes for each object.
2. Discuss the accuracy and precision of your length, mass and time measurements in terms of
the percent errors in calculations and measurement uncertainties.
3. Make calculation of volume and density from your data table.
4. Make valid conclusions from your results.

1.7 Questions
1. Why is it important to correctly estimate length, time, and mass?

2. Compare your estimates of length, mass and time to actual measurements by calculating
the percent errors.
3. Sometimes many trials are run and recorded. Then the highest and lowest data points are
disregarded when taking the average. Explain why.
4. Which is more accurate, individual measurements or their average? Explain.

5. Suppose you are provided with a ruler the ends of which are worn a bit. How should you
start your measurements in order to minimize the possibility unacceptable errors?
6. For the figures below identify the value of the major mark and the value of the minor mark
(least count) and write the reading from the instrument

9
L OCAL ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY USING
S IMPLE PENDULUM
(Exp-2)

2.1 Pre-Lab Assignment

1. How is a pendulum set?

2. What are the required apparatuses?
3. What is the known and standard acceleration due to gravity?
4. What are the factors affecting the acceleration due to gravity?

2.2 Objectives of the Experiment

In this experiment you will:-

□ Investigate the relation between the period of a simple pendulum and its length.

□ determine local acceleration due to gravity

2.3 Theory

The simple pendulum consists of a small bob (in a theory a ‘particle’)

of mass m suspended by a light inextensible thread of length l from the
fixed point B. If the bob is drawn aside slightly

and released, it oscillates to-and -fro in a vertical plane along the

arc of a circle. We shall show that it describes S.H.M. about its
equilibrium position O.
Suppose at some instant the bob is at A where arc OA = R and angle
∠OBA = θ.

i. The forces acting on the bob in this position are

ii. The tension T along the string, and the weight mg acting vertically downward. Resolving mg
into its rectangular components, radially and tangentially at A

The component mgcosθ acting perpendicular to the tangent is balanced by the

tension T, whereas mg sinθ acting along the tan- gent is the only unbalanced force
10
which tends to restore the bob back to its normal position
Hence the equation of motion of the bob is

ma = −mg sinθ
where a is the acceleration of the bob along the arc at A due to the force mg sinθ.

The negative sign indicates that the force is towards O while the displacement R is measured along the
arc from O in the opposite direction.

When θ is small, sin θ≈θ in radians (eg. If θ = 50; sin θ = 0.0872 then θ 0.0873 rad) so that the restoring
force becomes mg θ. ≈

= θ (OA=R), Therefore, R = lθ, Hence

ma= -mg θ
a= -𝜔 R, -m𝜔 R= -mg

𝜔 = , hence 𝜔=

As the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement, the motion of

the bob (or simple pendulum) is simple harmonic if the oscillations are of small
amplitude i.e., θ does not exceed 100.Hence the period T of the simple pendulum;

𝒍
T = 2π 𝒈

From which the acceleration due to gravity, g, can be obtained as

𝑔=

2.4 Apparatus
o Mass(bob with different size)
o Measurable light string
o Support (stand and ceiling)
o Stopwatch
o Meter stick

2.5 Procedure/ data collection

1. Connect the bob to the string which is suspended from some height (ceiling).
2. Make the initial length of the pendulum 80 cm. and consecutively increase the length by
10 cm interval five times.
11
3. For each of the increment give the pendulum a small displacement.
4. Allow each pendulum to make four complete cycles. Record the time taken.

5. Divide the total time into four to get average period T (time for each oscillation).
6. Repeat the experiment by changing the bob of small/large mass.
Table 2.1
Time t of Length (l) Time T for
Number of oscillation each
oscillation
activity
1
2
3
4
5

2.6 Data analysis

1. Calculate acceleration due to gravity using the average period.

2. Find average (ḡ ).

3. Find the standard deviation.

4. Using the standard 9.81m/s2, find the percentage error.

5. Plot the period g vs. T .

6. Plot l vs. g.

2.7 Questions

1. What is the relation between period and the amplitude of the oscillations?
2. Does the change of mass affect the acceleration due to gravity?

12
C OEFFICIENTS OF STATIC AND K INETIC F RICTION
(Exp-3)

3.1 Pre-Lab Assignment

1. What do you expect to know/learn from this experiment?

2. What are the quantities that are to be measured during the experiment?
Also, write down the quantities that are to be determined (calculated) from
the measured values.
3. Suppose a block of mass m lies on a plane inclined at an angle θ. Let θs be
the maximum angle at which the mass can remain static on the plane. Let θk
be the angle at which the block slides down the incline at constant speed.
Show that the coefficient of static friction is µs = tanθ and that the
coefficient of kinetic friction is µk = tanθk . (Draw the force diagram.)
4. For either type of coefficient of friction, what is generally assumed about
the dependence of the value of the coefficient on the area of contact between
the two surfaces?

3.2 Objective of the Experiment

In this experiment you will:-:-

□ Measure the coefficient of static and kinetic friction between two surfaces.

3.3 Theory

When a body rests or slides on a surface, contact forces are present as part of the interaction
of the object and the surface it is residing on. The contact force can be resolved into its
perpendicular and parallel components.
The perpendicular component of the contact force is called the normal force (N) and the
component parallel to the surface is the frictional force (f). The direction of the frictional
force is always such as to oppose the motion of the body relative to the surface.
For an object in motion, the frictional force is called kinetic friction. Kinetic friction is
present whenever two surfaces are in motion with respect to each other. The magnitude
of this force is proportional to the normal force and is gives

fk = µkN

Where N is the magnitude of the normal force and µk is called the coefficient of
kinetic friction.

13
Friction is always present even when there is no relative motion. This is called the static
friction force and we could define a corresponding coefficient of static friction µs. The
static friction is also proportional to the magnitude of the normal force while at rest and
reaches maximum at the point where the body just starts to move relative to the surface.
In general, we have
0≤fs≤(fs)max

where fs is the static friction and its maximum value is given by

(fs)max = µsN
These coefficients are generally dependent on the nature of the surfaces. In particular
the coefficient of kinetic friction depends on the relative speed of the surfaces. For
certain range of speed, the coefficient of kinetic friction is fairly constant.
In the experiment, the frictional force (f) will be measured as a function of the normal
reaction force (N). The graph of f versus N is plotted. The graph is expected to be a
straight line, as shown below. The coefficient of friction (static or kinetic) is
determined from the slope of the graph.

3.4 Apparatus

□ Wooden block(A) with a hook attached to it

□ A plane piece of wood (B) with a grooved wheel at one end
□ Scale pan (D)
□ Light string
□ Set of standard weights
□ Spring balance

14
3.5 Procedure/ data collection

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig 3.1

Fig. 3.1: Experimental setup

2. Weigh the block A (mA ) and the scale pan D (mD ) on the spring balance. Record the
readings.
3. Attach the scale pan D to the hook of A by a light string passing round the wheel C.
4. Mark the initial position of the block A with a pencil.

A) Coefficient of Static Friction

1. Mark the initial position of the block A with a pencil. Then gently add
weights to the scale pan D until block A just begins to slide. Record the
weight in the scale pan D.

2. Next return A to its initial position and increase the reaction force of the
wooden block B by placing a known weight on A. Then add weights to D
until A begins to slide again. Record the weight in D.

3. Repeat Step 2 for two more increasing weights on A. Record the weights
both on the block A and the scale pan D, and tabulate as in Table 3.1.

15
Table 3.1: Data for calculating the coefficient of static friction

B) Coefficient of kinetic friction

1. Place a weight on D and give a slight push toward C. Add increasing weights
to D, giving a slight push each time. At some stage, the block A will be found
to continue moving with a steady, small velocity. Record the corresponding
weight in the scale pan.

2. Now increase the reaction force of B by adding weights to A. Then, repeat

Step 1 for two more weights on A, returning the block to its original position
on B each time. Tabulate the readings in a table similar to Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Data for calculating the coefficient of kinetic friction

3.6 Data analysis

A) Coefficient of Static Friction
1. Using the data in Table 3.1, calculate the normal reaction force, N = (mA +
mi)g, where mA is the mass of block A, mi is the mass added on block A and g
is the acceleration due to gravity.
2. Using the data in Table 3.1, Calculate the frictional force, fs = (mD + mi)g ,
where mD is the mass of the scale pan D, mi′ is the mass added on the scale
pan D.

16
3. Tabulate the results of Steps 1 and 2 in a table similar to Table 3.3. Using
the calculated values of fs and N, plot a graph of fs versus N. Draw the “best”
straight line that is nearest to all the points and determine its slope.
4. Determine the coefficient of static friction (µ ≡ µs).
5. Draw the lines with the list and greatest slopes, which just agree with the plotted
points. Find the error in
µs from the variation in slope. Discuss possible sources of error.

Table 3.3: Calculation Table.

B) Coefficient of Kinetic Friction

1. Using the data in Table 3.2, calculate the normal reaction force, .
2. Using the data in Table 3.2, calculate the frictional force, .
3. Tabulate the results of Steps 1 and 2 in a table similar to Table 3.3. Using
the calculated values of fk and N, plot a graph of fk versus N . Draw the
“best” straight line that is nearest to all the points and determine its slope.
4. Determine the coefficient of kinetic friction (µ = µk) using above.
5. Discuss possible sources of error.

3.7 Questions

1 What are the factors that greatly affect the coefficients of static and kinetic
friction?

2 How will µs and µk vary if we place standard mass on top of the wooden block?

3 Is friction beneficial? Cite real life situations to assert your point.

17
CURRENT, R ESISTANCE AND O HM’S LAW
(Exp-4)

4.1 Pre-Lab Assignment

1. What is the electrical current flowing through a circuit?

2. What is the potential difference or voltage across two points?

3. What is the meaning of resistance of a conductor?

4. What is an ammeter? A voltmeter? What is the major difference in the

way one uses each to measure electrical quantities in a simple electronic
circuit? Be specific.

4.2 Objectives of the Experiment

In this experiment you will:-:-

□ To determine the unknown resistance of the given material of the wire and hence to
verify the ohm’s law
□ Measure the electrical resistance of a conductor and verify the Ohm’s Law.

4.3 Theory
Today it is impossible to imagine a world without electricity. All our activities
would almost hamper in the absence of electricity. How were the basics of
electricity understood? Where did it all begin? Questions like these might be
intriguing for you. The building blocks for manipulating and utilizing electricity
are voltage, current, and resistance. The energy transfer in electrical circuits
cannot be detected without the help of the instruments like ammeter, voltmeter,
etc. George Simon Ohm was a German physicist who proposed a relationship
between electrical current and potential difference.

Ohm’s law states that if physical conditions (temperature) of a conductor

remains same, the potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional
to the current I flowing through the conductor.

18
In other words the ratio of voltage and current for a conductor (resistor) is
constant and that is represented by a constant R;

known as the resistance of the conductor. If V is potential difference in volts

and A is current in amp then we can represent V = RI or R = V/I. The unit of R is
Ohm.

Fig. 4.1: Ohm’s law experiment circuit diagram

In figure 4.1a resistor R is connected to a variable d.c. battery through an ammeter

A in series and a off/on switch K. A voltmeter V is connected across two terminal
XY of the resistor. The battery can be a combination of several cells in series or a
electronic d.c, power supply.

By changing the potential applied through the battery the current I can be changed through
resistor and corresponding voltage difference at the ends of resistor can be measured by
the volt meter. The readings can be tabulated as shown below. Using individual values of
each set R is calculated. You will see that nearly constant value of R from each calculation
confirms the validity of Ohm’s law. Average value of R can be calculated which gives the
resistance of the resistor R.

Table 4.1: Data Table for Ohm’s Law Experiment

Figure 4.2 shows a graph between current I in (A) and potential difference V in
(volt) can be plotted. This is plotted for fictitious value of I and V. The graph as
shown is a straight line. This also confirms the verification of Ohm’s law.

19
4.4 Apparatus

Equipment Needed

Variable D.C. power supply of

suitable range may be up to 10 V
(This can be also combination of
cells as shown in the diagram)
Different resistance wires or coils to be used as resistors
D.C. ammeter
DC Voltmeter
Off/On key
Some connecting copper wires
A digital millimeter for the alternate

4.5 Procedure/ data collection

1. Make the circuit as shown in figure 4.1 using the equipment’s from
No. 1 to 6. The positive end of the ammeter should be connected to
the positive terminal of the power supply. Similarly the positive end
of the voltmeter should be connected to the positive terminal X of
resistor and negative to the Y terminal. Ammeter is to be connected in
series with the resistor and voltmeter in parallel at points X and Y.

2. For the data connection plug in the key K and start from minimum
current. Measure the current in ammeter (A) and voltage in voltmeter
(V) note down the readings in column 2 and 3 in the above table.
Repeat the measurements by increasing the current in resistor by
varying the potentiometer of d.c, power supply. Measure the
corresponding values of voltage from voltmeter and enter in the table.

3. Such measurements can be repeated for different resistors and readings

can be noted in different tables.

20
4.6 Data analysis

1. Take the ratio of 3rd column reading and 2nd column reading and
write the result in 4th column. This is the value of R; resistance of
resistor.

R= ohm

2. Find out the value of R from each set of measurements and writ
down the values of R in last column. You may notice these values
of R in last column from different sets of measurements are
nearly same. This constant value of R also confirms the statement
of Ohm’s law.

Fig. 4.2: A plot of I vs V for the verification of ohm’s law

3 From all the calculations of resistance values of R an average value

can be calculated which gives more accurate value of resistance of
resistor (Rav)
4 For the checking of your measurements the R value can be also
measured using digital multimeter (Rm) and difference from your
calculations can be calculated. This gives error in your measurements.
Rav−Rm
5 Percentage of error may be calculated as: ∆R% =
Rav

6 From the readings of table column 2 and 3 plot a graph between I and
V. Straight line nature of this plot also confirms the validity of Ohm´ s
law. Calculate slope of this curve which gives the value of Rav .

21
4.7 Result and discussion
 The average values of resistances of different resistors are

 And the percentage errors are

 The straight line nature of I-V curve verifies the ohms law

4.8 Questions
1 How are the voltmeter and ammeter placed in circuit for the measurement and
why?
2 Which of the meter (voltmeter, ammeter) forces all the current into meter for the
measurement?
3 Which meter has the largest resistance and why?
4 Which meter measures the flow rate of electrons?

4.9 Additional learning resources

1. Now you should understand the concepts of voltage, current, resistance,

and how the three are related. The majority of equations and laws for
analyzing circuits can be derived directly from Ohm’s Law. By
knowing this simple law, you understand the concept that is the basis
for the analysis of any electrical circuit!

2. These concepts are just the tip of the iceberg. If you’re looking to study
further into more complex applications of Ohm’s Law and the design of
electrical circuits, be sure to check out the following hands on activities. Go to
the references given below

22
MEASURING THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF METAL
ELEMENTS
(Exp-5)

5.1 Pre-Lab Assignment

1. The specific heat of different substances are different. For example specific
Heats (near room temperature) of Lead is 128 J/kg◦C and that of Brass is
385 J/kg◦C. Find out the specific heat of common sub- stances like water,
steel, oil, ice,
2. Which substance has the highest heat capacity?

3. Coolants are used in motors to take away heat. What property can be used to
compare different coolants?

4. In this experiment you will measure the masses of the metal (mm), the
water (mw), and the calorimeter (mc), the initial temperatures of the metal
(Twi), and the final temperature (Tf).

(a) Derive a formula for the specific heat of the metal mass in terms of
measureable quantities defined above.

(b) Derive a formula for the uncertainty in the specific heat of the metal
elements

You may assume that the uncertainties in the masses of the objects and in
the specific heats of water and the cup are negligible. In other words, you
only have to consider uncertainties in the temperatures.

5.2 Objectives of the Experiment

After completing this experiment, you will be able to:

□ Use a simple calorimeter to conduct an experiment to measure heat transfer.

□ Calculate the specific heat of a solid sample using the calorimeter experiment
data.
□ Analyze possible sources of error in a calorimeter experiment

23
5.3 Theory
The Specific Heat of a substance (c), is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of the substance by 1 ◦C (or 1 K).
Different substances have different specific heats. For example the specific heat of
water is 4.18 J/g K.
If an object is made of a substance with specific heat equal to csub, then the heat,
∆H, required to raise the temperature of that object by an amount ∆T is:
∆H= MobCsu∆T
5.4 Apparatus

 Calorimeter . Copper block . Thread

 Thermometer . Balance . Water
 Balance . Iron block

 Copper block . Aluminum block

5.5 Procedure/ data collection

1. Measure Mcal, the mass of the calorimeter you will use (it should be
empty and dry). Record your result in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Data and Calculations

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Mcal
Msample
Tcool
Tfinal
Mtotal
Mwater
∆Twater
∆Tsample
c

24
2. Measure the masses of the aluminum, copper, and iron samples.
Record these masses in Table 10.1 in the row labeled Msample.

3. Attach a thread to each of the metal samples and suspend each of

the samples in boiling water. Allow a few minutes for the samples to
heat thoroughly.

4. Fill the calorimeter approximately 1/2 full of cool water-use enough

water to fully cover any one of the metal samples.

5. Measure Tcool, the temperature of the cool water. Record your measurement
in the table.
6. Immediately following your temperature measurement, remove one
of the metal samples from the boil ing water, quickly wipe it dry,
then suspend it in the cool water in the calorimeter (the sample
should be completely covered but should not touch the bottom of the
calorimeter).

7. Swirl the water and record Tfinal, the highest temperature attained
by the water as it comes into thermal equilibrium with the metal
sample.
8. Immediately after taking the temperature, measure and record
Mtotal, the total mass of the calorimeter, water, and metal sample.

9. For each metal tested, use the equations you derived in the pre-lab
assignment and determine the spe cific heat of the metal.

5.6 Questions
1. If we had accounted for the heat absorbed by the
calorimeter, how would that have affected the calculated
value for the specific heat? Would it have been larger or
smaller? Be specific, referring to how heat is transferred
and the equation(s) used to calculate the specific heat
capacity.

2. Considering your answer to number 1, does the loss of

heat to the calorimeter account for the error you observed
in the experiment?

25
REPORTING YOUR LABORATORY WORK:

The report for each experiment should be started on a page and should normally consist
of the following parts:

1. Title, name and date (cover page)

2. Introduction - it contains the objectives of the experiment and some

background information on the experiment.

3. Theory - it contains detailed explanations of the physical principles (laws,

formulae, etc.) of the experi- ment.

4. Apparatus - it contains a complete description of the devices used in the

experiment.

5. Procedure - it contains a complete description of the experimental setup

and the steps employed in per- forming the experiment.

6. Data - the values of the measurements are displayed, usually in tabular form.

7. Data analysis and error analysis - it contains calculations of the

observed data and the corresponding errors.

8. Results and discussion - it contains the results of the experiment

expressed in terms of numbers, tables, figures, graphs, etc. obtained from
the experiment are presented.

9. Conclusions - in this section the writer highlights the important results of the
experiment.

10. Solutions or answers - it contains the solutions (showing all the necessary
steps) or (and) answers to the questions given at the end of each experiment.

If you do not complete an experiment during a session, a statement of the reasons

for discontinuing the exper- iment should be given.
26
27