University of Technology, Jamaica

Faculty of Science and Sport

School of Natural and Applied Science

MEDICAL PHYSICS MANUAL

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction Page

Scientific method 3
General Instructions 4
Errors and order of accuracy 6
Graphical Methods 8
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Experiment No. Title

1. Use of the balance , micrometer screw 14

gauge, vernier calliper

2. Deduction From Graphs 16

3. Rectilinear motion 17

4. Density and Relative density 19

5. Adding Forces, Resultant and Equilibrant 21

6. Equilibrium of Physical bodies 25

7. Specific heat Capacity 27

8. Specific Latent Heat capacity 28

9. Speed of Sound 30

10. Refraction 32

11. Converging Lens 34

12. Absorption of beta particles and gamma rays 37

13. Half Life 39

14. Graph Plotting Exercise 42

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SCIENTIFIC METHOD

THEORY

(A hypothesis or theory is suggested to explain observation)

PREDICTIONS

EXPERIMENTATION

(Measurements and the systematic changing of variables, data can be collected)

DATA ANALYSIS
( Use of mathematics data can be analyzed to see if predictions or true relationships can
be obtained and conclusion reached as to whether it is consistent or inconsistent with the
theory)

Inconsistent Consistent
(New theory is created to (Theory is accepted)
fit experimental data)

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Introduction

The laboratory course has several objectives:

1. It is designed to train you to perform experiments and to record and analyse the results
in an orderly and scientific manner.

2. It will teach you to use several scientific instruments.

3. The experiments will, in some cases, give you further insight into the physical laws
governing the processes you are measuring and help you to better understand the theory.

Preparation for practical classes

It is not possible in all cases to cover the theory of all experiments in lectures before you
perform them. This may cause difficulties, especially for those who have done little physics
previously. It is therefore desirable that you read the notes on the experiment before attending
the class. If you are unfamiliar with the theory behind the experiment, you should also consult
the textbook provided. In this way your time in the laboratory will be much more useful and
meaningful. You are also much more likely to retain what you have learned, both during the
final examinations and afterwards.

Presentation of experiments

Writing up is another technique to be learned along with the handling of apparatus. A

systematic and tidy approach is helpful.

The following is required:

a) On The Ruled Pages:

(1) The name of the experiment and the date.
(2) Diagrams of apparatus (where necessary) and or circuits.
(3) Other comments on how you performed the experiment (where necessary).
(4) Calculations
(5) Final results and deduction
(6) Precautions taken
(7) Answers to questions

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b) On The Graph Page:

(1) Graphs properly labelled, scaled and drawn

(2) Students are not required to reproduce matter in the laboratory manual or textbook.
Only note in your book where you have departed from the recommended method.
(3) Students must not bring into the lab any practical report written up by any other
student.

General Instructions and lab etiquette

1. Students must not touch any equipment other than that involved in the experiment that
they are doing.

2. All possible care must be taken with apparatus. A student will be called upon to pay for
anything broken as a result of carelessness, or mislaid during the period he/she is doing
the experiment. The apparatus is checked after each class and students will be held
responsible for anything found missing or broken.

Special precautions

1. Never leave a Bunsen burner unattended with a flame. Someone may not see it and
get badly burned. Turn the Bunsen off or on to a yellow flame.

2. Fire: In case of fire, turn off the gas immediately.

3. Batteries: Do not leave batteries running continuously during an experiment, they will
quickly go flat. Connect the battery, make your measurement then disconnect it. If a switch
is available switch off the circuit after completing the measurement.

4. Liquid: Do not put hot water (or other liquids) in a cold glass vessel or vice versa.

5. Mercury: This chemical is costly and poisonous. Never use a thermometer as a stirrer
or touch the mercury if a thermometer is broken.

6. Meters: Do not allow meters to go off-scale (positive or negative). Always watch the
meters when you connect the battery of power supply.

At the end of the experiment

Before leaving, students should:

i) Switch off and unplug all electrical instruments.

ii) Unwire all temporary electrical circuits.

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iii) Check that nothing is missing or you may be held responsible. Report any missing or
malfunctioning apparatus immediately.
iv) Arrange all equipment tidily on the bench.

Attendance

i) Prompt attendance at the specified hour is required

ii) Absence is excused only on medical grounds. In this case the student should obtain a
medical certificate to be shown to the lecturer in charge of the laboratory. Otherwise zero
marks will be awarded for the missed experiment.

ERRORS AND ORDER OF ACCURACY

Whenever a quantity is measured, there is always some degree of uncertainty in the

measurement. This uncertainty in a measurement is called an experimental error. The errors
in a particular experiment may be due to the observer, or to the instrument used or to a
combination of both. They may also be present by the very nature of the experiment; for
example, the heat lost by cooling in an experiment causes an error in the final temperature
obtained. In this context, mistakes are not errors, but can be avoided by careful
experimentation techniques. Special techniques (precautions) can minimize or eliminate
errors. An uncertainty or error in an experiment maybe classified as follows:

i) Systematic Errors: This type of error affects a set of reading in the same manner. It
may be due to experimental technique or faulty apparatus.

ii) Random Errors: If several measurements of a quantity are made as precise as possible,
each reading will differ haphazardly from each other. This is called random error and
arises because each reading is limited by uncontrollable factors, so that no two
measurements are ever carried out in exactly the same way.

As a result of errors, an estimate of its precision must be included whenever a result is

presented. Although approximate, without such an estimate the result is meaningless, since
the reader has no idea of its reliability. Reliability refers to the range within which the true
value lies.

If the temperature of the room is read as 28.5 C, on a thermometer calibrated in degrees with
an error of ± 0.1C, the temperature is then written as 28.5 ± 0.1C. The possible temperature
range is therefore 28.4 - 28.6C.

The simplest method of estimating the errors in a measurement is to use half the smallest
possible measurement obtained from the measuring instrument.

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GRAPHICAL METHODS IN PHYSICS

The presentation of experimental results or theories in the form of a graph has two main
advantages:

(i) The variation of one quantity with another may be seen easily, and
(ii) The average value of a constant may be determined from the graph.

Before looking at graphs in detail you should realize that certain guidelines should be
followed when plotting graphs.

(i) The axes should be labelled with both the quantity and units
(ii) The graph should be given a title.
(iii) It should fill the space available on the graph paper or page as far as possible
(iv) Suitable scales should be chosen – something like 5 squares to 10 units, not 7 to 3!
(v) The points should be plotted accurately and clearly.
(vi) The best fit line to the points should be drawn clearly but finely.

Probably the most useful form of graph is one in the form of a straight line and so we will
begin by considering this type.

y = mx + c (fig. 1)

This is the general equation for a straight line, where y and x are variables and m and c
are constants. A general example of the graph produced by such an equation is shown in
figure 1. You should notice the following points:

(a) When x = 0 the intercept on the y-axis is c.

(b) When y = 0 the intercept on the x-axis is –clm.
(c) The slope of the line (the change in y with x (dy/dx) is m.

C
x
m
Figure 1

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There are of course a large number of graphs but we will consider just a few other basic
types. The equations and the relevant graphs are shown below.

y = mx2 + c (fig. 2)

This is a basic quadratic; if c = 0 the graph passes through the origin. An example of this
would be the variation of the kinetic energy of a body with its velocity.

x
Figure 2

y = Kex (Fig. 3)

This shows an exponential increase in y with respect to x; k is a constant. An example of

this would be the increase in the pressure of air with depth.

Figure 3 x

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y = ke-x (Figure 4)

A rather more common form is the exponential decrease of y with respect to x. Once
again k is a constant. This equation applies to radioactive decay the discharge of a
capacitor and many other physical phenomena

Figure 4

It is much more useful to plot the results of an experiment in the form of a straight line
and so a means has to be found by which the equations above can be altered to give a
linear relation between function of y and a function of x. This is quite simply done:

For y = mx2 + c: plot y against x2

x2

Figure 5

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For y = kex : plot against ex (figure 6)

ex

Figure 6

For y = ke-x: plot against e-x (fig 7)

e-x

Figure 7

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for y = kecx (fig 8)

Here c is another constant. Taking natural loss gives:

In y = 1nk + cx

Plotting 1n y against x gives a straight line with slope c and intercept on the 1n y axis of
1n k (figure 8)

ln y

gradient = c

ln k

ln x

Figure 8

Notice that if we have an exponential decrease, c is negative.

An alternative method is to take logs of both sides of the equation; this is also useful
when one is attempting to derive an unknown equation form a set of experimental results.
We will consider first two versions where the equation is known and then one where it is
not.

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y = kx2 (fig 9)

Taking logs gives:

Log y = log k + 2 log x

Plotting log y against log x (figure 9) will give a straight line of slope 2, with intercept
on the log y axis of log k.

log y

gradient = 2

log k

log x
Figure 9
For y = ax b (fig 10)

Here a and b are constants but both are unknowns. Once again take logs of both sides
Log Y = log a +b log x
Plotting log y against log x will give a straight line of slope b and intercept on the log y-
axis of log a. Hence both a and b may be found and the form of the equation determined.
log y

gradient = b

log a

Figure 10
log x

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EXPERIMENT 1: USE OF MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE, VERNIER
CALIPERS AND BALANCES.

Apparatus
Balance, measuring cylinder, beakers, micrometer screw-gauge G, small steel ball bearing,
wire C, thick glass block L.

Prelab Questions:
1. Differentiate between random and systematic error.
2. Draw a simplified sketches of the micrometer screw gauge , vernier caliper and triple
beam balance clearly labelling each part and identifying its purpose.

Procedure 1
Aim: To determine the density of a liquid.

Method:
Determine the mass of the empty beaker using the triple beam balance. Using a measuring
cylinder pour 70 ml of water into the beaker. Determine the mass of the beaker and the water.

Measurements:

Mass of the empty beaker/g

Mass of the beaker and liquid/g
Volume of the liquid/ cm3

Analysis:

1. Determine the smallest division on the measuring cylinder and the triple beam balance.
2. Determine the mass of the liquid and hence the density of the liquid.

Procedure 2
Aim: To determine the volume of a ball-bearing.

Method:

Measure the diameter that of the ball-bearing with the micrometer screw gauge, taking care
the screw just touches the bearing when the reading is taken. Many micrometer gauges have
a ratchet to ensure that the pressure is uniform and small. Then measure the diameter of the

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bearing in a direction perpendicular to the one just taken. Repeat your measurements at two
other positions.

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Diameter/mm

Analysis:
1. Determine the smallest division on the micrometer screw gauge.
2. Determine the absolute error (mean deviation) in the diameter measurements.
3. Determine Volume of the ball bearing in SI units.
4. Determine the absolute error (SI units) in the volume of the ball bearing by using the equation
∆𝐷
∆𝑉 = ±3 ( ) 𝑉.
𝐷

Procedure 3

Aim: To determine the volume of a glass block

Method: Close the jaw of the calipers, and record the zero error, if any. Measure the length,
width and thickness of the glass block.

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Length /cm
Width / cm
Thickness/cm

Analysis:

3. Determine the smallest division on the vernier caliper.

4. Determine the absolute error (mean deviation) in average length, average width and
average thickness.
5. Determine the volume of the block in SI units.
6. Determine the absolute error (SI units) in the volume of the glass block by using the
equation
∆𝐿 ∆𝑊 ∆𝑇
∆𝑉 = ± ( + + )𝑉 .
𝐿 𝑊 𝑇

Discussion for all Procedures:

Identify 1 possible random error and 1possible systematic error for each measuring instrument
used. Say how each error can be minimised or avoided.

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EXPERIMENT 2: Deduction from Graphs

AIM: To determine the density of a liquid

THEORY:

If Mo is the mass of the empty beaker of average internal cross-sectional area A, h is the
height of the liquid in the beaker and ρ is the density of the liquid, then the mass of
beaker and liquid M is given by
M = ρAh + Mo
APPARATUS:
Two beakers, one empty, the other filled with the given liquid, a vernier caliper and
access to a balance.

PROCEDURE:
Obtain the mass of the empty beaker Mo, and its average internal diameter. Pour some of
the solution in the beaker. Measure the height of the liquid using the vernier caliper, and
then measure the mass of the beaker and liquid. Pour more liquid into the beaker and
repeat the above procedure. Repeat for at least eight (8) sets of values of mass of beaker
and liquid (M) and height of liquid h.

Analysis:
1. Calculate the average internal cross-sectional area A, of the beaker.
2. Plot a graph of M vs. h and calculate the gradient of your graph and record the value
of the y-intercept.
3. What does the y-intercept of your graph represent?
4. Using the gradient of your graph and any other relevant data that you have obtained
from your measurements determine the density of the liquid.
5. By making reference to any relevant data that you have obtained and any sources of
errror, comment on the accuracy of the density that you have determined.
6. Compare Measured and Experimental values for the mass of the empty beaker (make
reference to relative error between the two values)

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EXPERIMENT 3: RECTILINEAR MOTION (UNIFORM ACCELERATION)

AIM: To examine uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line

APPARATUS: Rectilinear motion apparatus consisting of a metal channel, a timer and

marbles, ball-bearings or a roller.

THEORY:

When an object moves with constant acceleration along a straight line, the equations of
motion for a uniformly accelerated body apply. The motion of an object with constant
acceleration in a straight line will be studied in order to test these equations.

PROCEDURE:

Prop up the metal channel near one end with a wooden block or any other suitable object.
Adjust the position of the block along the base of the channel and thus, set the angle of
tilt so that the body takes the longest time possible to roll from the top mark to the bottom
of the channel while accelerating uniformly. After you have located this position, be sure
that the channel is not shifted for the duration of the experiment.

Place the sphere at the x = 1O cm position and measure the time it takes to roll from rest
to the bottom of the channel. Repeat this procedure to obtain 3 readings t1, t2, and t3, then
find the average of these times t. Repeat the above procedure for 5 other values of x
marked out on the channel. Start your table at x = 0, t = 0.

GRAPHS:

Plot graphs of x vs. t and x vs. t2 on separate graph papers. Use x=0, t=0 as one of the
points of each graph.

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QUESTIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

1. Which equation of motion do your graphs represent? Provide reasons for your
answer.

2. By using one of your graphs, calculate the acceleration of the body.

2. How could you use one of your graphs to determine the velocity of the object at a
given instant?

3. Identify two sources of error in carrying out the experiment.

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EXPERIMENT 4: DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY

AIM: To determine the density and relative density of objects and substances.

APPARATUS: Measuring cylinder, density bottle, balance, unknown liquid, sand, irregular
shaped object, displacement can.

Procedure A

Ensure that the density bottle is clean and dry. Measure the mass of the bottle and stopper.
Fill the bottle with liquid A and then insert the stopper. Wipe the bottle dry of excess liquid
then weigh. Repeat the procedure using liquid B and then with water.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 of water

Analysis Procedure A:
1. Record your results for liquid A and B in a table.
2. Use your results to calculate the relative density of the liquid.
3. Is the liquid A more or less dense than liquid B? Explain.

Procedure B
i. Take the mass of the clean and dry density bottle (M1).
ii. Keep about 10 – 15 gm of oven dried cool soil in bottle and take the mass of the soil and
bottle (M2).
iii. Cover the soil with air free distilled water from the plastic wash bottle. Allow some time for
soaking. Gently stir the soil in the density bottle using a clean glass rod. Insert the stopper in
the density bottle, wipe it and take the mass of the soil, water and bottle (M3).

iv. Empty the contents of bottle, rinse thoroughly, fill it with distilled water, insert the stopper,
wipe dry from outside and take the mass of the bottle and water (M4).

v. Tabulate all values.

vi. Repeat the procedure for another set of values.

Analysis Procedure B:
1. Determine the specific gravity of the soil using data set one. Show all working.
2. Determine the specific gravity of the soil using data set two. Show all working.

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3. Calculate the average specific gravity of the soil. Show all working.
4. During the test if air is not completely removed. What is the effect on the value of specific
gravity?

Procedure C
Write an appropriate method for determining the density of a rock. The materials and
apparatus to be used are to be outlined along with step by step instructions. Include 3
precautions to take in carrying out the procedure.

General Analysis:
1. How does temperature affect the density of a substance?
2. Identify two possible sources of error and 2 precautions to take in carrying out
procedures A and B.
3. Describe one importance of density measurements in your specific field.

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EXPERIMENT 5: ADDING FORCE RESULTANTS AND EQUILIBRANTS

AIM: To examine the principles of moments.

APPARATU S: Experiment Board, Balance Beam, Mass Hangers (3), String, Spring
Balance, Pulley (1), Masses

THEORY

Force acting on a body can produce both translational motion (movement of the centre of
mass of the body in the direction of the force) and rotation. When a force produces
rotation it is said to have a moment or torque about the point of rotation. In this
experiment you will investigate the interplay between forces and torques by examining
all the forces acting on a body in physical equilibrium.

Figure 5.2

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PROCEDURE 1

1. Use an appropriate technique to find the centre of mass of the beam, and mark it with a
pencil.

2. Then set up the equipment as shown in Figure 5.2. (The retainer can be pulled from
the Pivot Mount and hung from the metal ring, as shown.).

3. Make sure that the beam is balanced. By supporting the Balance Beam from the Spring
Balance, you can now determine all the forces acting on the beam. As shown in the
illustration, these forces include:
i. F1, the weight of Mass M1 (including the Mass Hanger and plastic
retainer).
ii. F2, the weight of Mass M2 (including the Mass Hanger and plastic
retainer).
iii. F3, the weight of the Balance Beam, acting through its centre of mass.
iv. Fht, the upward pull of the Spring Balance (minus the weight of the plastic
retainer).

4. Tabulate values of M (the masses in grams), F (the magnitude of the forces in

Newton's), d (the distances from the applied force to the point of suspension), and t
(the torques acting about the point of suspension). Indicate whether each torque is
clockwise (cw) or counter clockwise (ccw).

Before adjusting the masses and positions to obtain two other sets of values
carry out Procedure B. All Analysis should be done after all results are
recorded.

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ANALYSIS 1

1. State the principle of moments.

2. Apply the principles of moments to the clockwise and counter clockwise

torques acting on the balance beam. Is the principle of moments obeyed?
Explain.

3. Calculate the sum of the upward and downward forces. What relationship
do you expect between these forces for the balanced beam and was this
obtained?

4. On the basis of your answers to questions 1 and 2, what conditions must be

met for a physical body to be in equilibrium (no acceleration)?

PROCEDURE 2

In measuring the torques, all distances were measured from the point of suspension of

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the Balance Beam. This measures the tendency of the beam to rotate about this
point of suspension. You can also measure the torques about any other point, on or off
the balance beam.

1. Using the same forces as you used above, remeasure the distances, measuring from
the left end of the balance beam as shown in Figure 5.3.

2. Recalculate the torques to determine the tendency of the beam to rotate about the
left end of the beam.

3. Tabulate your data. As before, indicate whether each torque is clockwise (cw) or
counter clockwise (ccw).

Analysis 2

1. Calculate and record the sums of the clockwise and counter clockwise
torques. Are the torques balanced?

2. What statement can you make regarding the sum of the clockwise and
anticlockwise moments measured with respect to any point for a body in
equilibrium?

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EXPERIMENT 6: EQUILIBRIUM OF PHYSICAL BODIES

In this experiment you will be simulating the behaviour of the forearm when it is in
equilibrium under the action of forces. The beam bar will represent the forearm, the
spring balance the force exerted by the biceps muscles and the pivot mount the elbow
joint.

APPARATUS:

Pivot mount, metal beam, spring balance, weight holder and weights.

PROCEDURE A

1. Determine the centre of gravity of the beam by balancing it on a knife-edge.

2. Measure the mass of the beam and hence calculate its weight.
3. Connect the beam to the pivot mount and to the spring balance using a plastic retainer
as shown in the diagram.
4. Set the distance between the pivot mount and the point of attachment of the spring
balance to 5 cm.
5. Adjust the beam and pivot mount downwards until the beam is horizontal.

ANALYSIS A
1. Draw a force diagram of the apparatus. By taking moments about the pivot mount
calculate the weight of the arm (beam).
2. What is the magnitude and direction of the reaction at the elbow joint (pivot mount)
on the beam?
3. Determine the accuracy of your results by comparing the two values for the weight of
the beam.

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PROCEDURE B

1. Attach a mass to the beam at the extreme end opposite to the pivot mount.
2. Adjust the pivot mount and beam until the beam is again horizontal.

ANALYSIS B
1. Draw a force diagram of your arrangement.
2. Use your arrangement to show that for a body in equilibrium the sum of the torques
(moment of forces) is equal to zero.
3. How has the effort of the biceps muscles (spring balance) changed to hold the load?
4. How has the reaction at the elbow joint (pivot mount) changed?

PROCEDURE C
In this experiment you will investigate if a greater effort by the biceps is required to hold
the arm at an angle below the horizontal. Adjust the Pivot mount upwards so that the
beam is at an angle below the horizontal. This angle should be between 200 and 300.
Based on your results, is the effort exerted by the biceps to hold the arm at an angle below
the horizontal greater that when it is held horizontal? Explain your answer.

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EXPERIMENT 7: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

AIM: To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid

APPARATUS:
Calorimeter, container, thermometer, beaker, tripod balance, metal block, ice and liquid.

THEORY
If a body of mass m, and specific heat capacity c, absorbs thermal energy and
changes temperature from 1 to 2, the quantity of heat absorbed is given by:

Q = mc (2 - 1)

If a hot body comes in contact with a cold body, the heat loss by the hot body is equal to
the heat gained by cold body, if there is no heat loss to the external environment.

Heat loss = Heat gained

PROCEDURE
Weigh the calorimeter empty and dry, and then fill the calorimeter with water to about a
quarter of its capacity. Measure the mass of the calorimeter and water. Record its
temperature after placing it in the jacket with the stirrer and allowing it to achieve thermal
equilibrium.

Measure the temperature of the boiling water. Quickly remove the block, shake off excess
water and place it into the calorimeter and water. Replace the calorimeter cover and stir.
Record the final steady temperature of the calorimeter, metal block and water. Measure
and record the mass of the metal block. Use your measurements to calculate the specific
heat capacity of the block.

QUESTION
1. Based on your value for the specific heat capacity of the metal and its physical
appearance, what metal could it be?

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EXPERIMENT 8: SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

AIM: To determine the specific latent heat of ice

APPARATUS:
Calorimeter, container, thermometer, beaker, timer, tripod balance, ice and liquid.

THEORY

If a hot body comes in contact with a cold body, the heat loss by the hot body is equal to
the heat gained by cold body, if there is no heat loss to the external environment.

Heat loss = Heat gained

When a state change occurs the temperature of the substance remains constant as it
absorbs it latent heat. If the mass of the substance is m and its specific latent heat L, the
quantity of heat absorbed Q is given by: Q  mL

PROCEDURE A

In this experiment you will observe how the temperature changes as it cools and
change state.

Place a measured mass of solid substance in the boiling tube so that the bulb of the
thermometer is covered. Heat the tube with the solid in a water bath until the solid
completely melts. Remove the tube from the water bath and allow it to cool. As it
cools record the temperature at regular intervals until the substance completely
solidifies and returns to room temperature.

Plot a graph of the temperature of the substance against the time.

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PROCEDURE B

Weigh the calorimeter and stirrer. Half fill the calorimeter with warm water at 50oC and
weigh again. Note the room temperature.

While the water in the calorimeter is cooling, break up some ice into small pieces and dry
them by placing them between pieces of newspaper. When the temperature of the water
has fallen to about 15C above room temperature, take the temperature as accurately as
you can and record this value. Immediately start adding ice. This is done by shaking
some of the pieces on a fresh dry sheet of newspaper and then transferring them to the
calorimeter by gently shaking.

Stir the water continuously until the ice melts and continue to add ice until the temperature
of the water has fallen to about 15C below room temperature. Stir and record the
minimum temperature reached by the water. Measure the mass of the calorimeter,
water and ice.

Calculate the mass of ice added hence calculate the specific latent heat of ice.

QUESTION

(1) Explain the shape of the cooling curve that you obtained in procedure A.

(2) What is the melting and fusion point of the substance from your graph?

(3) Calculate the percentage difference (relative error) between the experimental and
standard values for the specific latent heat of ice. Suggest TWO reasons for any
differences.

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EXPERIMENT 9: SPEED OF SOUND

AIM: To determine the speed of sound.

PRE- LAB QUESTIONS:

1. Categorise sound waves.
2. Explain how sound waves travel through a medium.
3. Explain the concept of echolocation and give an example of its application in
nature and in a professional field.
4. Explain any two factors which affects the speed of sound in air?

APPARATUS: Microphone, close ended tube, thermometer, Vernier LabQuest unit, meter rule

Figure 1

Figure 2

Procedure:

1. Use the thermometer to measure the air temperature of the classroom.

2. Record the room temperature in your data table.

3. Connect the Microphone to LabQuest unit. Choose New from the File menu.

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4. Set up the interface to trigger on the first loud sound the microphone
detects.
a. On the Meter screen, select Zero from the Sensors menu.
b. On the Meter screen, tap Mode.
c. Select Triggering and select Enable Triggering.
d. Select OK.

5. Place the Microphone as close to the end of the long tube as possible, as
shown in Figure 1. Position the microphone so that it can detect the
initial sound and the echo coming back down the tube.

6. Start data collection. Snap you fingers near the opening of the tube. This
sharp sound will trigger the interface to begin collecting data.

7. If you are successful, the graph will resemble the one in Figure 2. The
first peak is the initial sound, the second is the first reflection, and the
third is a second reflection. Repeat data collection if necessary. Tap any
data point on a graph to read the sound and time values displayed to the
right of the graph.

8. Determine the time interval between the start of the first vibration and the
start of the
echo vibration. Record these two times in your data table.

9. Repeat the measurement for a total of five trials.

Analysis & Questions:

a. Calculate the average time interval between the sound and its echo using
the values in the table.

b. Calculate the speed of sound.

c. The accepted value of the speed of sound is 331 m/s at 0°C . The speed
of sound increases by 0.607 m/s for every °C. Calculate the speed of
sound at the temperature of your room.

d. Compare the measured value of the speed of sound to the value found in
part c above by finding the percentage relative error.

e. State two precautions which were taken in carrying out the experiment.

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EXPERIMENT 10: REFRACTION

AIM: To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the
corresponding angles of refraction for a glass block.

PRELAB QUESTIONS:

1. What is refraction?

2. Draw a fully labelled diagram showing the boundary, normal, incident ray,
refracted ray, angle of incidence, angle refraction

3. Where are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction measured from?

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:

Optics Bench, Ray Table and Base, Slit Plate, Cylindrical lens, Light Source,
Component Holder, Slit Mask

Figure 1

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Procedure:

1. Set up the experiment as in Figure 1 above.

2. Adjust the components so a single ray of light passes through the

center of the Ray Table Degree Scale.

3. Carefully align the flat reflecting surface of the cylindrical lens with
the bold line labelled ‘Component’ on the Ray Table. With the lens
properly aligned, the radial lines extending from the center of the
degree scale will all be perpendicular to the circular surface of the
lens.

4. Without disturbing the alignment of the lens rotate the Ray Table and
observe the light ray.

5. Measure the angles of refraction for angles of incidence ranging from

0 ° to 80° in 10 degree increments.

Analysis and Discussion:

1. Is the ray bent when it passes into the lens perpendicular to the flat
surface of the lens? Explain your observation.
2. How do your observations show that light is refracted?
3. Plot a graph of sin i against sin r.
4. Is your graph consistent with Snell’s Law.
5. From your graph find the value of the angle of incidence when the
angle of refraction is 25 o.
6. Use your graph to determine the refractive index of the glass.
7. Given that n = 1/sin c, where c is the critical angle of glass, find the
value of c the critical angle of glass.
8. Discuss any precautions and sources of error in this experiment.

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EXPERIMENT 11: CONVERGING LENS

AIM: To investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the
corresponding angles of refraction for a glass block.

THEORY:

The location and magnification of an image formed by a sphericaL lens can be

determined the Fundamental Lens equation :

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏
𝒇 𝒅𝒐 𝒅𝒊

Where f is focal length of the lens , do and di are the distance from the lens to obect
and image respectively . The magnification of the image is given by the equation :

𝒅𝒊
𝑚= −
𝒅𝒐

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS:

Optics Bench, 75 mm Focal Length Convex Lens , Light Source, 3 Component

Holders, Crossed Arrow Target ,Viewing Screen

Figure 1
PROCEDURE A
1. Set up the equipment as shown Figure 1 .
2. Turn on the Light Source and slide the lens toward or away from the Crossed Arrow
Target as neeed to focus the image of the target onto the viewing screen.

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ANALYSIS A
1. Is the image magnified or reduced?
2. Is the image inverted?
3. According to the Fundamental Lens Equation what would happen to di if you increased
do?
4. What would happen to di if do were very, very large?

PROCEDURE B
1. Measure the ho height of the arrow on the crossed arrow target .
2. Set do to values listed in the table below.
3. At each value lo locate the image and measure:
i. di image distance
ii. hi image height
4. Complete the Table below.
do /mm di hi 1/do + 1/di 𝟏 𝒉𝒊 𝒅𝒊
−
𝒇 𝒉𝒐 𝒅𝒐
500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

75

50

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ANALYSIS B
1. Discuss your results. Indicate whether or not the results are in agreement with the
Fundamental Lens Equation. Identify the reasons for any discrepancies identified.
2. Is it possible to obtain a non- inverted image with a converging lens?
3. Where would you place an object to obtain an image as far away from the lens as
possible? How large would the image be?

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EXPERIMENT 12: ABSORPTION OF BETA PARTICLES AND GAMMA RAYS

AIM: To investigate the absorption of beta particles and gamma rays.

APPARATUS: G-M tube and scalar; timer; absorber set, Beta source (204TI excellent),
Gamma Source

INTRODUCTION

If a beam of gamma rays impinges on a sheet of absorbing material some of the radiation
will pass on through while some will be absorbed or scattered. As the thickness of the
absorber is increased, the fraction of the radiation passing through will decrease. When
exactly half the radiation passes through the absorber (the other half being absorbed or
scattered) the thickness of the absorber is called the half-value layer, HVL, or the half
thickness. X 1 2 .

Since the intensity of radiation is reduced by 50% by passing through one HVL, it will be
reduced by another 50%, or to only 25% of the original intensity, in passing through a
second HVL of absorber. Linear relationship is obtained if the logarithm of the activity is
plotted as a function of the absorber thickness.

PROCEDURE A

Take appropriate measurements to determine the background activity.

Place the gamma source in the sample holder and insert in the second or third shelf of the
tube stand. Place the empty absorber slide in the shelf immediately above the sample. In
this way, determine the activity of the sample with no absorber. Record all data.

Now insert the thinnest absorber in the absorber slide and determine the sample activity
again. Repeat with the other absorbers, going from the thinnest to the thickest. Record all
data.

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CALCULATIONS AND GRAPHS

Correct the activities for background radiation. Plot a graph of the log of the corrected
activity against the absorber thickness. Determine the absorber thickness necessary to cut
the gamma radiation down to one-half its original activity ( HLV for gamma radiation)
from your graphs.

QUESTIONS

1. Account for the difference, if any, between gamma and beta absorption.
2. State two ways that gamma rays react with matter?
3. Is there any general relation between the amount of charge a particle possesses and its
range in a material?

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EXPERIMENT 13: HALF LIFE

AIM:

• To define the terms half life and radioactive decay

• To determine the rate of radioactive decay
• To compare data

APPARATUS:

• Shoeboxes/ jar
• Pennies
• Graph paper
• Clock or stop watch

BACKGROUND
This demonstration simulates radioactive decay. A sample of a radioactive element
consists of a vast number of radioactive nuclei that do not all decay at the same time. As
unstable atoms are transformed, the radioactivity of a substance decreases. The time
required for this activity to decrease by half is called half-life. Half-life is a characteristic
of each radioactive isotope. Depending on the isotope, it may range from a few fractions
of a second to several billion years

As radioactive elements decay, they change into other elements. Decay continues until a
nonradioactive nucleus is formed. This process is called the decay series. There are 3
types of radioactive decay

• Alpha decay: The nucleus releases an alpha particle. This decreases the mass
number by 4 and the atomic number by 2. Uranium-238 undergoes alpha decay.

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• Beta decay: The nucleus releases a beta particle. This does not decrease the mass
number, but does decrease the atomic number by one. Carbon-14 undergoes beta
decay.

• Gamma decay: The nucleus releases a gamma ray. Gamma decay almost always
accompanies alpha and beta decay. The nucleus does not change. It makes a
transition to a lower energy state.

The radioactivity of a substance is measured by the number of decays that occur during a
given period of time. Here are 2 common units of measurement for radioactivity

• The curie (Ci) 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays/s

• The becquerel (Bq), an SI unit 1 Bq = 1 decay/s

These units do not accurately measure how dangerous a given amount of radiation might
be for humans. For medical purposes, other units of measurement reflecting this aspect
are more appropriate.

PROCEDURE:

1. Place 100- 50 atoms (pennies) into the shoebox/jar.

2. Place lid on box/ jar and shake for 10 seconds
3. Remove lid, then toss the coins onto the table top. Take out the decayed atoms
(represented by “tails up”)
4. Count the number of undecayed atoms (represented by “heads up”) left.
5. Enter the number of decayed and undecayed atoms into table of results.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 until all the atoms have decayed
7. Create a line graph to represent your data in Table 1. (# atoms vs. time)
8. Repeat the experiment again, this time choose an amount of pennies between 25 and
100, and a time frame between 5 and 45 seconds.

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9. Let instructor know what your choice is, no other lab group may do the same
combination
10. Enter you data into a second table of results.
11. Create a line graph to represent your data in Table 2
12. Compare your results to the other lab groups

Half Life Time (sec) Undecayed atoms Decayed atoms

1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 40
6 50
7 60
8 70
9 80
10 90
11 100
12 110
13 120
14 130
15 140

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS:

1. Define the term half-life:

2. What does it mean when we say an atom has “decayed”?

3. For Table 2, at the end of each half-life, at approximately what percentage are the
atoms decaying?

4. Compare Graph # 1 to Graph # 2. Give at least 3 example of how they are similar
and 3 examples of how they are different.

5. Compare your Graph # 2 to the graphs made by the other lab groups. Do you notice
any patterns or trends? Explain using the terms: half-life, decay, undecayed, atoms,
and time.
6. Does the amount of time you shake the box affect the outcome? Do the number of
atoms you start with affect the outcome? Explain: 7. How do scientists use
radioactive decay to date fossils and artifacts?

41
Graph Plotting Exercise
QUESTION # 1

In a test on a piece of wire values of load L, and extension Y were found. (Some of
the values are missing).

L/N 3.0 - 10 13 15 18

Y/mm 0.950 1.2 2.35 2.95 - 3.95

The equation connecting Y and L is of the type

Y = aL + b
Find graphically
a) the values of a and b
b) the missing values in the table.

QUESTION # 2

In measuring the resistance R (Ω) of a carbon-filament lamp at various voltages (V) the
following results were obtained:

V /(volts) 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100 120

70.0 67.2 65.0 69.3 62.1 60.0
R /(Ω)

a) Plot a suitable straight-line graph given that the law connecting R and V is of the
form
a
R b.
V
b) From your graph determine the constants a and b.
c) Determine R when V = 10 V.
d) Determine V when R = 56 Ω.

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QUESTION # 3

During an experiment, a class of physics students measures the velocity of a rocket as it

launches. They have several students watching to call out when the rocket reaches certain
heights, while one student measures the velocity. Since the rocket started from rest, the
following formula can be used to calculate the acceleration of the rocket...
v2 = 2ad
...where “v” is the velocity (m/s) of the rocket at each height, “a” is the acceleration

(m/s2 ) of the rocket, and “d” is the distance (m) the rocket has traveled up from where it
started on the launch pad.
The following information was gathered by the students.

Distance /(m) Velocity/ (m/s)

25 9.35
50 13.3
75 16.2
100 18.7
125 21.0
150 22.9
175 24.8
200 26.3

i) By plotting a suitable graph determine a value for a

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QUESTION # 4

The following values of H and Q are connected by a law of the type

Q  aH n
H/(J) 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.2 2.5 3.0
Q/(m) 6.09 6.75 7.32 7.57 7.93 8.47

a) Plot a suitable graph from which the constants a and n may be

determined

b) From your graph determine the constants a and n.

c) Determine H when Q = 10 m

d) Determine Q when H = 0.50 J.

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