PHYS0411

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS
Laboratory Manual

Department of Physics
The University of the West Indies, Mona Campus
Revised 2022
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GENERAL INFORMATION

Purpose of Physics Labs

Physics labs have several aims, which include but are not limited to:

1. Training you to perform an experiment and to record and analyse the results in an orderly
scientific manner.
2. Teaching you to use scientific instruments.
3. Giving you further insight into the physical laws governing the theoretical concepts you are
learning in class.

General Lab Rules

Please refer to the ‘PHYS Lab Handout’ document for further important guidelines.

1. You will be penalised and possibly required to leave the lab immediately for the following:
a. Eating or drinking in the lab
b. Engaging in horseplay
c. Irresponsible handling of equipment
d. Disrespecting staff or other students
2. Students are required to adhere to the dress code. Any student dressed improperly will not
be allowed into the lab. Your back, midsection and shoulders should be covered, and your
top should not be low cut. Your pants/skirts should cover your knees while you are seated
and should not be too low cut so as to expose your underwear or skin while seated. You are
required to wear closed shoes (front, back and both sides). Socks and slippers cannot
substitute for closed shoes. Additionally, equipment used for specific labs may require that
you take special precautions as it relates to your dress.
3. No bags are to be kept on the tables with experiments/lab equipment. There is a specified
table for your bags and other personal belongings to be stored during the lab.
4. Cell phones, laptops and tablets are allowed in the lab for research purposes only. These
devices are to be kept on silent/vibrate and should not become a source of distraction to you
or other students.
5. Visitors will be granted minimal access to the lab. Visitors must request permission from the
lab demonstrator before going into the lab. No unauthorised persons will be allowed to stay
in the lab.
6. The cupboards, drawers or any other storage areas in the lab are off-limits to students.
Students are not to disturb any lab setups – other than the experiment he/she is working on.
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7. The equipment you are using is your responsibility. You will be liable for any damage to
equipment due to neglect, improper use or failure to adhere to the instructions given.
8. Please keep your lab areas clean and remove any garbage left in that lab space at the end of
the lab session.
9. Any issues that may arise during the lab should be reported to the laboratory technician or
the senior scientific officer or other laboratory staff.
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WRITING A PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT

The format required in the report is fairly standard and is briefly discussed here.

1. EXPERIMENT NUMBER, TITLE, DATE AND LAB PARTNER

These must be written at the beginning of the report.

2. PURPOSE

A brief statement of the purpose of the experiment is required even if this is already given
on the instruction sheet for the experiment.

3. THEORY

This is given on the instruction sheet for the experiment and need not be reproduced.

4. METHOD

This is also given on the instruction sheet for the experiment and need not be reproduced.

5. RESULTS

Readings are to be tabulated, where necessary. Titles for tables should be written above the
table. Table lines should be done in pencil and the content of the table written in pen. Graphs
should be properly titled, labelled and drawn using a suitable scale. Graphs are to be done in
pencil and the points should be plotted using either an ‘×’ or ‘ꙩ’. Diagrams are to be drawn
to scale where instructed and must be properly labelled.

6. CALCULATIONS AND ESTIMATION OF ACCURACY

Calculations usually include determination of the slope of a graph and determination of

unknown values using the slope. Units are to be included in all answers where necessary.
An estimation of the accuracy of numerical results must be done. Examples of this are given
in the ‘PHYS Lab Handout’ document.

7. DISCUSSION AND ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

The discussion should include results and conclusions related to the purpose of the
experiment and should indicate whether or not the purpose of the experiment has been
achieved. It is, therefore, a good idea to reread the purpose before starting to write your
discussion. In your discussion you should include descriptions of the graph(s) obtained and
say what conclusion(s) can be drawn from them and how they relate to the theory given.
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Similarly, you should analyse your overall results and draw some conclusions including a
comparison of the theoretical and calculated values. Discuss the sources and magnitude of
error and how it affects the results. Important precautions that may yield better results in
performing the experiment should also be noted. Appraisal of the experiment should be
constructive.

Please refer to the ‘Mock Lab – PHYS04’ document for an example of a laboratory report written
using this format.
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SOME EXCERPTS FROM LABORATORY HANDOUT DOCUMENT

ABSOLUTE ERROR

The absolute error in a quantity is usually expressed in the same unit as the quantity itself.
Example: Length of table, L = 1.65 ± 0.05 m. In this case the absolute error ΔL = ±0.05 m.

FRACTIONAL ERROR AND PERCENTAGE ERROR

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 × 100%

LINE OF BEST FIT

A line of best fit is a line drawn in such a way that the sum of all distances from the line to the
points are the same on both sides of the line and also as small as possible.

Note that the best fit line does not necessarily have to touch or pass through any of the data
points.

Note: the slope triangle must fall outside of all the points on the line of best fit.

Refer to ‘PHYS Lab Handout’ document for further explanation.

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List of Experiments

EXP. 1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENT ………………………………………………………………………. 8

EXP. 2 FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM ……………………………………………………………………………… 10

EXP. 3 FRICTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 14

EXP. 4 CIRCULAR MOTION ………………………………………………………………………………………… 17

EXP. 5 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE ……………………………………………………………………………….. 21

EXP. 6 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW ……………………………………………………………………………….. 26

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EXP. 1 INTRODUCTORY EXPERIMENT – DENSITY, MASS AND VOLUME

Purpose
To learn the techniques of writing up a UWI Physics lab.

Apparatus
Beaker, vernier calliper, electronic balance, retort stand and clamp.

Introduction
The instructor will briefly explain the Lab Guidelines and the Safety Regulations, as well as what
is expected of the students in regards to the Physics lab sessions.

Procedure
1. The demonstrator will show you how the readings in this experiment were obtained. Observe
the procedure, taking special note of any precautions and possible sources of error.
2. Use the data given in Table 1 for varying depths of solution to create your own table of results
in SI units.
3. Plot a graph of md versus d and draw the line of best fit for your points.
4. Show that 𝑚𝑑 = (𝐴𝑑 )𝜌 + 𝑚𝑏
where A: internal cross-sectional area of the solution (beaker)

ρ: density of solution

mb: mass of empty beaker

md: mass of beaker with solution

d: depth of solution

(Recall that 𝜌 = 𝑚⁄𝑉)

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5. Determine the slope of the graph. Using the density of the solution as 1000 kgm-3, calculate
the average internal cross-sectional area A of the beaker from the slope (this is your
experimental value).
6. Use the internal diameter of the beaker given below to calculate the theoretical value of A
and compare this value to the experimental A.
7. Determine the mass of the empty beaker, mb from your graph (experimental value) and
compare it with the theoretical value given below.
8. Comment on your results.

Table 1

Depth, d (cm) Mass of beaker with solution, md (g)

0.85 247.8
1.46 278.4
1.87 298.2
2.33 328.8
2.87 359.1
3.44 400.4
3.71 415.6
4.10 436.2

Mass of empty beaker = 193.1 g

Internal diameter of beaker = 8.64 cm

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EXP. 2 FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

Purpose
1. To investigate the relationship between the forces acting on an object which is in equilibrium.
2. To determine the mass of an extended object, using the principle of moments.

Apparatus
Force table, metre rule, slotted masses, mass holders, retort stand and clamp, string, and
electronic balance.

Note: your personal protractor will be necessary for this experiment (one will not be provided).

Theory
A point object is in equilibrium, if

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 (1)

An extended object is in equilibrium, if

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 and ∑ 𝜏 = 0 (2)

𝜏 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑂𝑅 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)

𝜏 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡) 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 (3)

The principle of moments states that when a body is in equilibrium the sum of the moments in
the clockwise direction is equal to the sum of the moments in the anti-clockwise direction.
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Procedure
Part 1 Parallelogram of forces

The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. Three strings are tied to a small ring at P. The strings
pass over pulleys at L, N and K and the masses m1, m2 and m3 are attached to the strings.

L
M
N
m1
T1 m2
T2

m3

Figure 1

1. Make m1 and m2 200 g each and the angle LPN a right angle.
2. Make m3 large enough so that the system will remain at rest. Adjust it until you think you
have the most natural position where pulley friction contributes least.
3. Now use the method of parallelogram of forces to find the resultant of the two tension forces
T1 and T2, as outlined below.
Confirm the mass of m1 and m2 on the balance. Assume, in this case, the pulleys are
frictionless and the acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 ms-2. Using your graph paper, with a
scale in cm to represent forces in Newtons, draw lines of appropriate length and direction to
represent the forces T1 and T2 (PL and PN in Figure 2). The magnitude of the force will
determine the length of these lines. Complete the parallelogram by drawing the line NM
parallel to PL and also the line LM. Connect point P to point M. This line PM represents the
resultant R of the forces T1 and T2. Find the magnitude and direction of R.
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L N

T1 θ ϕ T2

T3

Figure 2

Question 1. How does R computed above compare with the actual value of T3?

Part 2 Resolving forces

1. Using your diagram from the above experiment, measure the angles θ and ϕ with a
protractor (Figure 2).
2. Since the point P is in equilibrium, the forces should balance both in the horizontal and
vertical directions. Write down equations to show the equilibrium of forces in the horizontal
and vertical directions.
3. Use your known values of T1, T2, θ and ϕ to calculate T3.

Part 3 Application of moments

In this section the mass of a metre rule will be determined by the application of the principle of
moments.

1. Suspend a metre rule by a string from a retort stand and clamp and adjust the point of
suspension such that the metre rule balances. Note the point of suspension when the metre
rule balances since this is the location of the centre of gravity of the metre rule.
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2. Now change the point of suspension of the metre rule to the 35 cm mark. Suspend a 100 g
mass from the metre and determine the point of suspension of the mass which balances the
system.
3. Draw a diagram indicating all the forces acting on the metre rule.
4. Write an equation for the balance of the moments of the forces and hence determine the
mass of the metre rule.
5. Weigh the metre rule on a balance and compare with the calculated value.

Question 2. If the metre rule was not uniform, could the principle of moments be used to
determine the mass of the metre rule? Explain.
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EXP. 3 FRICTION
Purpose
To investigate static and kinetic friction.

Apparatus
Friction board, block unit, slotted masses, mass holder and electronic balance.

Introduction
Although we experience frictional forces almost every moment of the day, the detailed physical
theory of their operation is not yet clear. In the experiments that follow, you will discover for
yourselves some of the characteristics of friction and will also gain experience in the balancing of
forces in equilibrium.

Theory
The frictional force F acting on an object is given by

𝑭 = 𝜇𝑵
where, μ is the coefficient of friction and N is the normal reaction on that object.

Procedure
Part 1 Kinetic friction on a flat surface

1. Using the balance, determine the mass M0 of the wooden block.

2. Set up the apparatus as in Figure 1 with the baseboard of the friction board horizontal and
no extra masses on the block of wood or the load hanging over the edge of the table. Ensure
that the segment of string between the block and pulley is parallel to the baseboard.
3. Add masses to the mass holder until the block slides with constant velocity (approximately)
when the baseboard is gently tapped. Note the value m of the load for this condition.
4. Repeat this with 100 g, 200 g, 300 g, 400 g, 500 g and then 600 g masses on top of the block.
Note that the same initial position of the block on the baseboard should be used throughout
the experiment as the friction may vary for different positions.
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mass

block unit pulley

baseboard

load
(mass holder with
slotted masses)

Figure 1

5. Let: 𝑀 = 𝑀0 + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘

𝑚 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟

Tabulate your results neatly, ensuring that your results are in SI units.

6. Draw a diagram indicating all the forces acting on m and M. Remembering that in your
experiment m and M moved with constant velocity (i.e., the acceleration a = 0), show that

𝑚 = 𝜇𝑀

7. Plot your data suitably so as to get a straight line. Obtain μ from your graph.

Question 1. If too much load was added, the system would develop an acceleration a. In this case,
write down the equations of motion: one for m and the other for M. Hence, obtain an expression
for a in terms of m, M, μ and g.

Question 2. Why is it important that the string attached to the block is parallel to the baseboard?

Part 2 Static Friction

The μ determined above is called the coefficient of kinetic friction μk. In this section we shall
briefly investigate static friction.
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1. Place the block at the same initial position of the baseboard once more. Increase the load by
gently adding masses to the holder until the block starts to slide without any tapping of the
board this time.
2. Repeat this once or twice and compare the load that was required in this case with the
previous result when the board was tapped. Note that it has been found that other factors,
such as the length of time the block has been standing still, also affect the static friction. It is
therefore possible that repeated results may vary.

Part 3 Increased Friction

1. Place the block at the same initial position on the board, press down on top of it with your
hand and release gently.
2. Increase the load as before (gently and with no tapping) and note the load which causes
sliding.
3. Comment on your results.
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EXP. 4 CIRCULAR MOTION

Purpose
To better understand:

1. The difference between speed, velocity and acceleration;

2. How there can be acceleration, even when there is no change in speed;
3. The factors affecting centripetal acceleration.

Apparatus
Computer simulation.

Theory
When an object of mass m moves in a circular path of radius r at the constant speed v, the
centripetal acceleration of m is given by:
𝑣2
𝑎= (1)
𝑟

Procedure
Exercise 1 Racing around a curve

1. Click the orange-coloured rectangular box, saying “Exercise 2 Simulation” after the
descriptive material and figure.
2. You will see a race track with 2 cars on it: your RED car and the BLUE car belonging to your
competitor (the computer). Due to the curve, the RED car appears to start in front of the
BLUE car, but both of cars travel the same distance to the finish line.
3. The track is divided into 3 segments:
a. The Speed Change Zone
Here, your car will go from rest (0 ms-1) to the speed you enter in the box in the blue
region below. This speed is maintained during the rest of the trip.
b. The Straight Constant Speed Zone
c. The Circular Constant Speed Zone
4. Below the track, on the left-hand side, you will see 4 gauges which will read the following
variables for your car at any time in the journey:
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 speed, v
 acceleration, a
 x-component of the velocity, vx
 y-component of the velocity, vy
5. Next to these, you will see the blue region with the control panel to change your car’s final
speed to any desired value. The commands: GO, RESET and PAUSE are on the right-hand side.
Pressing GO will accelerate your car from rest (0 ms-1) to the final (constant) speed you have
chosen. When you want to start again, press RESET and then GO.
Pressing PAUSE will freeze the car and a second pressing of PAUSE will resume action. The
simulation also shows you a velocity vector on your car, indicating its speed and direction of
travel.
6. Of course, you want to win the race.
But if you choose a very high speed, your car may spin off the track on the curve.
Try a few different speeds. Observe carefully the gauge readings for the speed, acceleration,
vx and vy, especially when your car is on the curve.

Question 1. Along the curve, your car’s speed is constant. Why does velocity in the x-direction vx
and the y-direction vy change while speed v remains constant?

Question 2. When your car is moving along the curve, the acceleration gauge shows a non-zero
value. How can your car have an acceleration when its speed is constant?

Exercise 2 Curve radius and centripetal acceleration

1. Click the orange-coloured rectangular box, saying “Exercise 4 Simulation” after the
descriptive material and figure. You will see a track with two semi-circular turns of the
following radii:

r1 = 15.0 m

r2 = 7.5 m

2. Choose a speed for your car. It will travel with this speed for the entire race. If your speed is
too high, your car will leave the track.
3. Press GO and start the race. Repeat this until you win the race.
4. For your winning race, list the following:
a. Velocity, v
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b. Acceleration through the first turn, a1

c. Acceleration through the second turn, a2

Question 3. For a constant velocity, as the radius of the curve decreases, what happens to the
acceleration?

5. A car is moving at an unknown constant speed v0 through a tricky track with 8 semi-circular
turns of different radii, r (as in the completed exercise). The values of the acceleration, a, at
the turns are listed below:

Radius of turns, r Acceleration through the turns, a

(m) (ms-2)
8 24.5
9 21.8
10 19.6
11 17.8
12 16.3
13 15.1
14 14.0
15 13.1

6. Using equation (1), plot the data suitably so as to get a straight line.

Note, you may need additional calculations and columns to achieve this.

7. Calculate the slope of the graph, and hence obtain v0.

Exercise 3 Speed and centripetal acceleration

1. Click the orange-coloured rectangular box, saying “Exercise 5 Simulation” after the
descriptive material and figure. You will see your car (only) on a circular track.
2. Your aim in this exercise is to investigate how the centripetal acceleration, a, varies with the
speed, v, along a circular track of constant radius, r.
3. Choose a speed for your car and click GO.
4. Record the acceleration.
5. Now, double the speed and record the new acceleration.
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6. Choose 6 additional speeds (that are spread across the range of possible values) and note the
corresponding accelerations.
7. Tabulate your results neatly.
8. Using equation (1), plot your data suitably to get a straight line.
9. Calculate the slope of your graph, and hence obtain the radius, r, of the circular track.
10. If Doug Gore is driving around a circular track and his constant speed is given to you, how
could you determine the radius of the track, without using metre rules or measuring tapes?
(Hint: You have a stop watch). Now, go back to the simulation and calculate the radius of the
track.
11. Compare the two results for the radius of the track.
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EXP. 5 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Purpose
1. To verify Archimedes’ Principle.
2. To construct a simple hydrometer to determine the density of a liquid.

Apparatus
Metre rule, string, retort stand and clamp, rubber stopper, masses, beaker, cork stopper, double
beam balance, displacement can, measuring cylinder, fluorescein, lead shots, test tube, graph
paper, scissors, and vernier calliper.

Theory
Archimedes’ Principle: When an object is immersed (partially or completely) in a fluid, it
experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the density (weight per volume) or specific
gravity (weight per volume relative to water) of a liquid.

Procedure
Part 1 Determination of the upthrust on an object totally immersed in water

The balance you will use, illustrated in Figure 1, consists of a metre rule suspended by a string
from a retort stand and clamp.

1. Adjust the position of the string on the metre rule so that it balances horizontally on its own
with no other masses suspended. Record the position of the string as CM (the centre of mass).
2. Take the rubber stopper provided and suspend it by a string close to one end of the metre
rule.
3. Now balance the metre rule by suspending a 100 g mass by a string on the other side of the
rule. The metre rule should be horizontal when balanced. Record the point of suspension of
the 100 g mass. Take the CM as 0 cm.
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CM

Metre rule

Rubber
stopper Mass, m

Figure 1

When the metre rule is balanced, the principle of moments states that the sum of the moments
of forces about the point of suspension in the clockwise direction is equal to the sum of the
moments in the anticlockwise direction.

4. Draw a diagram indicating all the forces acting on the metre rule.
5. Write an equation for the equilibrium of forces using the principle of moments. Hence
determine the mass of the rubber stopper.

Question 1. Why balance the metre rule with nothing suspended at the start?

6. Leaving the rubber stopper suspended from the same point, place a beaker of water below
the stopper and arrange it so that the stopper is completely immersed in the water.
7. Now find a new position for suspension of the 100 g mass so that the metre rule is again
balanced. Ensure that the stopper is not touching the sides or bottom of the beaker during
this process.
8. From the above readings calculate the ‘apparent weight’ of the rubber stopper while it was
immersed in water.
9. The loss of weight is due to the upthrust of the water or ‘buoyancy force’. Archimedes’
Principle shows that: upthrust = weight in air – apparent weight in water (assuming air gives
negligible upthrust). Thus find the upthrust on the stopper.
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Question 2. Does it matter how far below the surface of the water you immerse the stopper,
providing you do not touch the bottom? Why?

Part 2 Determination of the upthrust on an object floating in water

1. Determine the mass of the cork stopper using the balance.

2. Place the cork stopper in a beaker of water. Note that since the cork is floating it is only
partially immersed.

Question 3. What must the relation be between the upthrust on the stopper and its weight? What
is the upthrust in this case?

Part 3 Determination of the weight of water displaced by the rubber and cork stoppers

1. For these measurements a displacement can is used. Place the can on the shelf over the sink.
2. Fill the can with water until water runs out of the spout into the sink. Wait until the water
has stopped draining from the spout then place an empty beaker under the spout and
carefully lower the rubber stopper into the beaker.
3. Find the weight of the displaced water collected in the beaker. Again, wait until the water
has completely stopped draining from the spout before removing the beaker.
4. Repeat the above procedure with the cork stopper and find the weight of water displaced by
the floating cork in the beaker.
5. Compare the weights of displaced water with the upthrusts found for the rubber stopper and
cork stopper in Parts 1 and 2.

Part 4 Construction of a simple hydrometer and the determination of the density of a

liquid

1. Place the test tube in the measuring cylinder containing the coloured solution and add a few
lead shots to the test tube until it floats vertically in the solution.
2. Cut a strip of graph paper to an appropriate size (marked with a scale of 0 cm, 1 cm, 2 cm, 3
cm, …) and place it inside the test tube. See Figure 2.
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Test tube
Strip of graph
paper

Solution

Lead shots

Measuring
cylinder

Figure 2

Readings will be simplified if the paper is allowed to curve against the inner side of the tube. The
test tube and its contents will be used as a simple hydrometer to determine the density of the
coloured solution.

3. Record the level x0 at which the graph paper in the test-tube cuts the surface of the liquid.
4. Now add lead shots, five at a time, to the test tube and record the reading x of the level of
solution against the graph paper scale each time the shots are added.
5. Tabulate the following:
a. Cumulative number of lead shots added (Do not include those used to stabilize the test
tube in the solution)
b. Cumulative mass of shots added, m [Average mass of one shot = 0.12 g]
c. Scale reading, x [This reading should be made carefully]
d. Depth of immersion of test tube, d = x – x0

As the mass in the tube is increased, the tube sinks deeper and displaces more solution. This
increases the upthrust to balance the increased weight.

The increase in the volume of the solution displaced = π r2 d

where r is the radius of test tube

The increase in the weight of the solution displaced = (π r2 d) ρ g

where ρ is the density of coloured solution

25

Since the tube floats, the increased weight is balanced by an increased upthrust.

 mg = π r2 d ρ g (1)

6. Using equation (1), plot your data suitably so as to get a straight line.
7. Measure the external diameter, and hence calculate the radius r, of the test tube with the
vernier calliper.
8. Using the radius and the slope of your graph, calculate the density of the coloured solution
ρ.
9. Comment on your results.
26

EXP. 6 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Purpose
To examine the validity of Newton's second law.

Apparatus
Cart, mass holder, slotted masses, string, pulley, PASCO scientific Science Workshop Interface and
motion sensor, and DataStudio software.

Theory

Motion
sensor mC

mH

Figure 1

Consider a level track with a cart pulled by a string that has a hanging mass attached to it (Figure
1). Neglecting air resistance, there are four forces acting on the cart. Recall that:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (1)
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Procedure
Part 1 Deriving the equations

1. Draw a free body diagram indicating the forces acting on the cart as well as the hanging mass.
2. Since the cart only moves on the level track (in the horizontal), there is only an x-acceleration.
What does this say about the forces that are acting perpendicular to the track?
3. Using the free body diagram and equation (1), derive equation (2) below:

𝑚𝐻 𝑔 − 𝑓 = (𝑚𝐻 + 𝑚𝐶 )𝑎𝑅 (2)

where mH: hanging mass

mC: mass of the cart and its contents

f: magnitude of the frictional force

aR: magnitude of the acceleration in the direction of the pulley

The subscript R symbolizes movement to the right as would be the case if the setup were as shown
in Figure 1.

4. Now consider the cart moving away from the pulley. Draw a free body diagram for the cart
and the hanging mass.
5. Use equation (1) and the free body diagrams to derive the equation below:

𝑚𝐻 𝑔 + 𝑓 = (𝑚𝐻 + 𝑚𝐶 )𝑎𝐿 (3)

where aL symbolizes the acceleration which may be different from when the cart was moving
towards the pulley.

Since the frictional force has opposite signs in equations (2) and (3) you may add the equations
to get:
𝑎𝑅 +𝑎𝐿 𝑚𝐻 𝑔
= (4)
2 𝑚𝐻 +𝑚𝐶

Part 2 Experimentation

1. Open DataStudio and select ‘Create Experiment’. On the top left side of the ‘Experiment
Setup’ window, click the ‘Add Sensor or Instrument’ tab and add the motion sensor. The
green light on the motion sensor will flash and a ticking sound will be heard to indicate that
sensor is ready to use. Set the Sampling rate to 20 Hz. Minimize the ‘Experiment Setup’
window.
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2. Drag and drop the graph icon from the ‘Displays’ pane on the lower left into the
window. From the ‘Data’ pane at the top left, drag ‘Velocity’ onto the same graph window.
3. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Ensure that the length of string will allow the
hanging mass to fall as far as before reaching the fall. Also ensure that the cart remains in the
detection zone of the sensor for the full range of its motion.
4. Take the time to set everything up carefully and to ensure that the motion sensor measures
position correctly to ensure that you obtain meaningful results. Click ‘Start’ and move the
cart towards the sensor and away from the sensor to ensure that the sensor records both
positive and negative displacement correctly. Once this is done open a new graph window.
5. Attach a hanging mass of 300 g. Click ‘Start’ and push the cart away from the pulley and then
release it. Try to stop data collection before the mass hits the ground. Identify the portion of
the plot which indicates motion away from the pulley and the portion which indicates motion
towards the pulley.
6. You will now fit each part of the plot (separately) to a straight line to determine the
acceleration of the cart during that portion. To select the relevant portion of the plot, hold
the left mouse button down while dragging the cursor over that portion, then release the
button. The selected portion will be highlighted in yellow. To fit the portion of the plot to a
straight line, choose ‘Fit’ then ‘Linear’. Find the acceleration for each part. Hint:
recall with the slope of a velocity-time graph represents. Check with your demonstrator to
make sure that you are analysing the data correctly.
7. Repeat this procedure for 7 additional readings of mass and resulting acceleration.
8. Plot an appropriate graph using equation (4) and find a value for g, the acceleration due to
gravity.
9. Compare your results to the theoretical value of g.