Experiment - 3

Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it and
determining its resistance. Also plotting a graph between V and I

Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it and
determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I.

Theory

 Ohm’s Law: The potential difference, V across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature is the same.
This is Ohm’s law.
V∝I
.’. V = IR, (Here R = Constant for the given metallic wire)
 The SI unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).

 One Ohm: If the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is 1 volt and the current flowing
through it is 1 ampere, then the resistance of the conductor R is 1 ohm.

 
  Factors affecting resistance:
  The nature of resistor (a conductor having some resistance.)
  The length of the resistance. (R ∝ l)
(Resistance increases as the length of the wire is increased)

  The area of cross-section of the resistor.

 (Resistance decreases with the increase in the cross-section area of the wire)
 Circuit Diagram:

 In a circuit ammeter is always connected in series and voltmeter is connected in parallel across the
points between which potential difference is to be measured.
 A straight line graph obtained between V and I verifies the Ohm’s law.
 Least Count: It is very important to find the least count of ammeter and voltmeter before using
them.
If in the ammeter, there are 10 divisions from 0 to 0.1 A then each division indicates 0.01 A.
A. To calculate the least count of ammeter.
Range of ammeter = AR…………………….
Number of divisions in ammeter = AN…………………………..

.’. Least count of ammeter = = …………….. ampere.

B. To calculate the least count of voltmeter.
Range of voltmeter = VR……………………
Number of divisions in voltmeter = VN

.’. Least count of voltmeter = = ………………. volt.

Materials Required
A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a resistor
and a piece of sand paper.

Procedure

1. Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
3. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4. Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
5. Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider and see whether
the ammeter and voltmeter readings are shown.
6. By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of current 1 and voltmeter V.
7. Record your observations in the observation table.

8. Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula .

9. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading and current reading. On x axis take V and on y axis take I.
10. Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.

Observation Table
A. Least count of ammeter and voltmeter

S. No. Ammeter (A) Voltmeter (V)

1. Range 0 – 0.5 A 0-0.1 V
2. Least Count 0.01 A 0.01 V
3. Zero Error (e) 0 0
4. Zero Correction 0 0
B. For reading of ammeter and voltmeter

Current in Ampere (I) Potential difference in Volts (V)

S. No. (Ammeter Reading) (Voltmeter Reading) Resistance in Ohms R = V/I(Ω)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
1. 0 0.02 0 0.04 R1 =2 Ω
2. 0 0.03 0 0.06 R2 = 2 Ω
3. 0 0.04 0 0.08 R3 = 2Ω

Conclusions

1. The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.

2. The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.
3. The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.

Precautions

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be
removed using the sand paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the connections to the
teacher to take the readings.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current enters at the
positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows through the
circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations; otherwise
current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the resistance of
resisters.
Experiment - 5
Determination of the focal length of (i) Concave mirror and (ii) Convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant
object. Unit-III
(i) To determine focal length of a given concave mirror:

Materials Required
A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.

Procedure

1. Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2. Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the distant object.
3. Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen back and
forth until a clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
4. Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a metre scale. This
distance is the focal length of the given concave mirror. Record the focal length.
5. Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings and
calculate the average focal length.

Observation Table

Focal

S.No. Position of concave mirror (M) Position of screen (S) length/ =

(M – S) cm
1. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

2. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

3. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

Calculation
Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror = 10 cm

Precautions

1. The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.
2. Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
4. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object,
incident on the concave mirror.
5. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the measuring
scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale
for precise measurements.

(ii) To determine focal length of a given convex mirror:

Materials Required
Wooden bench, convex lens, a lens holder, a screen fixed to a stand, a measuring scale; etc.

Procedure

1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a table, so
that the lens and screen are not disturbed.
2. Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
4. Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given distant object
falls on it.
5. Note down the position of the lens in the table and the screen, and find the differences and
record the same. The difference will give the focal length of the given convex lens.
6. Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to find the position
of sharp image and thereby the focal length.
7. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length of the convex
lens.

Observation Table

S.No. Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length/= (L – S) cm

1. 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10 cm

2. 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10 cm

3. 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10 cm

Calculation
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens = 10 cm
Precautions

1. Convex lens should be placed vertically.

2. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object
incident on the common lens.
3. In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distanct
object is well illuminated.
4. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the measuring
scale.
Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Theory

 A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces
are inclined to each other.
Refraction of light through a prism
 In the given figure, ABC represents the base of a glass prism. Let PE be the
incident ray of light on face AB of the prism. EF represents the bending of light
when it enters the prism and hence show the refraction of light.
 RS is the emergent ray at face AC of the prism.
The angle D shows the angle of deviation.
The ∠BAC of the prism is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by ‘A’.

 In the figure, the relation between

• angle of incidence ∠i, i. e., ∠PQN
• angle of refraction ∠r, i.e., ∠FEN,
• angle of deviation ∠D, i.e., ∠HGF and
• angle of prism ∠A, i.e., ∠BAC. ∠A + ∠D = ∠i + ∠e

Materials Required
A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor,
drawing board.
Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace
the outline of the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a
straight line PE making an angle preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in
figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the
figure, later mark these points of pins as P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the
prism, i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S
appear to be on the same straight line as the feet of the images of the pins P and
Q when viewed through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend
(backwards) the emergent ray SRF so that these two lines meet at a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence
∠e and ∠D as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and
60°.

Observations

1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on
refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal because it
travels from a glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the
direction of the incident ray. This angle is called the angle of deviation (∠D).

Conclusion

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets
refracted in the prism and while leaving the prism it bends away from the normal.
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It
attains a minimum value then increases with further increase in angle of
incidence.

Precautions

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are
removed.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a
distance from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The col-
linearity of all the four pins can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either
side while viewing them. They all appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent
ray.