PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

MODULE 2: VECTOR
INTRODUCTION:

Vectors are essential to physics and engineering. Many fundamental physical quantities are
vectors, including displacement, velocity, force, and electric and magnetic vector fields. Scalar
products of vectors define other fundamental scalar physical quantities, such as energy. Vector
products of vectors define still other fundamental vector physical quantities, such as torque and
angular momentum. In other words, vectors are a component part of physics in much the same
way as sentences are a component part of literature.

OBJECTIVES:

• Describe the difference between vector and scalar quantities.

• Identify the magnitude and direction of a vector.
• Explain the effect of multiplying a vector quantity by a scalar.
• Describe how one-dimensional vector quantities are added or subtracted.
• Explain the geometric construction for the addition or subtraction of vectors in a plane.
• Distinguish between a vector equation and a scalar equation.

DISCUSSION PROPER:
2.1 Scalars and Vectors
2.2 Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector
2.3 Algebra of Vectors
2.4 Products of Vectors

2.1 Scalars and Vectors

Many familiar physical quantities can be specified completely by giving a single number and the
appropriate unit. For example, “a class period lasts 50 min” or “the gas tank in my car holds 65
L” or “the distance between two posts is 100 m.” A physical quantity that can be specified
completely in this manner is called a scalar quantity. Scalar is a synonym of “number.” Time,
mass, distance, length, volume, temperature, and energy are examples of scalar quantities.

Physical quantities specified completely by giving a number of units (magnitude) and a direction
are called vector quantities. Examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity,
position, force, and torque. In the language of mathematics, physical vector quantities are
represented by mathematical objects called vectors (Figure 2.2). We can add or subtract two
vectors, and we can multiply a vector by a scalar or by another vector, but we cannot divide by a
vector. The operation of division by a vector is not defined.
Figure 2.2 We draw a vector from the initial point or origin (called the “tail” of a vector) to the
end or terminal point (called the “head” of a vector), marked by an arrowhead. Magnitude is the
length of a vector and is always a positive scalar quantity. (credit "photo": modification of work
by Cate Sevilla)
Two vectors that have identical directions are said to be parallel vectors—meaning, they
are parallel to each other. Two parallel vectors A⃗ and B⃗ are equal, denoted by A⃗ =B⃗ if and
only if they have equal magnitudes ∣A⃗ ∣=∣B⃗ ∣. Two vectors with directions perpendicular to
each other are said to be orthogonal vectors. These relations between vectors are illustrated
in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 Various relations between two vectors A⃗ and B⃗ . (a) A⃗ ≠B⃗ because A≠B
(b) A⃗ ≠B⃗ because they are not parallel and A≠B (c) A⃗ ≠−A⃗ because they have different
directions (even though ∣A⃗ ∣=∣−A⃗ ∣=A). (d) A⃗ =B⃗because they are parallel and have identical
magnitudes A = B. (e) A⃗ ≠B⃗ because they have different directions (are not parallel); here, their
directions differ by 90°—meaning, they are orthogonal.

2.2 Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector

2-dimensional Vectors

A two dimensional vector is used to represent a quantity in a plane. On the right, is shown vector
A in two dimensions with
components Ax and Ay that may written as
A→ = Axi + Ayj or A→ = (Ax , Ay)
The magnitude of vector A→ is given by
| A |→ = √ Ax2 + Ay2

Fig1. - Vector in 2 dimensions.

Magnitude and Direction of 2-dimensional Vector

Referring to figure 1 above, θ , the angle between the vector and the positive x-axis direction, in

counterclockwise direction, is called the direction of the vector. The relationships between θ, | A

|→ and the components Ax and Ay of vector A are:

Ax = | A |→ cos (θ)

Ay = | A |→ sin (θ)
𝐴𝑦
tan(θ) = 𝐴𝑥

Example 1

The magnitude of a 2-dimensional vector is 10 and its direction θ = 135 °. Find its
components Ax and Ay.

Solution

Ax = 10 cos(135°) = 10 (-√2 / 2) = -5 √2

Ay = 10 sin(135°) = 10 √2 / 2 = 5 √2

Example 2

Find the magnitude and direction of the vector B→ = 2i - 2 √3 j

Solution
|B|→ = √ 22 + (- 2 √3)2 = 4

𝐴𝑦
tan(θ) = 𝐴𝑥

2 √3
tan(θ) = 2 = - √3
Ignoring the sign, the reference angle to angle θ is equal to arctan(√3) = 60°

Since the x-component of the vector is positive and the y-component of the vector is negative,
the terminal side of angle θ is in quadrant IV, hence

θ = 360° - 60° = 300 °

Vector B makes an angle of 300 ° with the positive x-axis in counterclockwise direction.

2.3 Algebra of Vectors

Figure 1, below, shows two vectors on a plane. To add the two vectors, translate one of the
vectors so that the terminal point of one vector coincides with the starting point of the second
vector and the sum is a vector whose starting point is the starting point of the first vector and the
terminal point is the terminal point of the second vector as shown in figure 2.

Fig1. - 2 vectors in 2 dimensions.

Fig2. - Add 2 vectors in 2
dimensions - Parallelogram.

When the components of the two vectors are known, the sum of two vectors is found by adding
corresponding components.
Example 1 Given vectors A = (2 , -4) and B = (4 , 8), what are the components of

A → + B→

Solution

A → + B→ = (2 ,-4 ) + (4 , 8) = (2 + 4 ,-4 + 8 ) = (6 , 4)

The subtraction of two vectors is shown in figure 3. The idea is to change the subtraction into an
addition as follows:
A → - B→ = A → + (-B)→

Fig3. - subtract 2 vectors.

Example 2

The magnitudes of two vectors U and V are equal to 5 and 10 respectively. Vector U makes an
angle of 20° with the positive direction of the x-axis and vector V makes an angle of 80° with the
positive direction of the x-axis. Both angles are measured counterclockwise. Find the magnitudes
and directions of vectors U + V and U - V.
Solution

Let us first use the magnitudes and directions to find the components of vectors U and V.

U → = (5 cos(20°) , 5 sin(20°))
V → = (10 cos(80°) , 10 sin(80°))
Magnitude and direction of vector U + V

U → + V→ = (5 cos(20°) , 5 sin(20°)) + (10 cos(80°) , 10 sin(80°))

= (5 cos(20°) + 10 cos(80°) , 5 sin(20°)+10 sin(80°))

Now that we have the components of vector U + V, we can calculate the magnitude as follows:
| U → + V→| = √ (5 cos(20°) + 10 cos(80°)) 2 + (5 sin(20°)+10 sin(80°)) 2 = 5√7 ≈ 13.22

If θ is the angle in standard position (angle between vector U+V and x-axis positive direction) of
vector U + V, then

Magnitude and direction of vector U - V

U → - V→ = (5 cos(20°) , 5 sin(20°)) - (10 cos(80°) , 10 sin(80°))

= (5 cos(20°) - 10 cos(80°) , 5 sin(20°) - 10 sin(80°))
Now that we have the components of vector U - V, we can calculate the magnitude as follows:
| U → - V→| = √ (5 cos(20°) - 10 cos(80°)) 2 + (5 sin(20°) - 10 sin(80°)) 2 = 5√3 ≈ 8.66
If β is the angle in standard position (angle between vector U - V and x-axis positive direction) of
vector U - V, the
α = 70°
We now approximate the components of vector U - V so that we can determine the quadrant of U
-V
U → - V→ = (5 cos(20°) - 10 cos(80°) , 5 sin(20°) - 10 sin(80°)) ≈ (2.96 , -8.13 )

The signs of the components of vector U - V indicate that terminal side of angle β is in quadrant
IV and therefore
β = 360° - α = 360° - 70° = 290°
The direction of vector U - V is given by an angle equal to 290°. This angle is measured in
counterclockwise direction from the positive x-axis.
Example 3

The components of three vectors A, B and C are given as follows: A → = (2 , -1), B → = (-3 , 2)
and C → = (13, - 8). Find real numbers a and b such that C → = a A → + b B →.

Solution

We first rewrite the equation C → = a A → + b B → using the components of the vectors.

(13, - 8) = a (2 , -1) + b (-3 , 2)

Rewrite an equation for each component

13 = 2 a - 3 b and - 8 = - a + 2 b

Solve the above equations in a and b to obtain

a = 2 and b = -3.

2.4 Products of Vectors

A vector can be multiplied by another vector but may not be divided by another vector. There are
two kinds of products of vectors used broadly in physics and engineering. One kind of
multiplication is a scalar multiplication of two vectors. Taking a scalar product of two vectors
results in a number (a scalar), as its name indicates. Scalar products are used to define work and
energy relations. For example, the work that a force (a vector) performs on an object while
causing its displacement (a vector) is defined as a scalar product of the force vector with the
displacement vector. A quite different kind of multiplication is a vector multiplication of vectors.
Taking a vector product of two vectors returns as a result a vector, as its name suggests. Vector
products are used to define other derived vector quantities. For example, in describing rotations,
a vector quantity called torque is defined as a vector product of an applied force (a vector) and its
distance from pivot to force (a vector). It is important to distinguish between these two kinds of
vector multiplications because the scalar product is a scalar quantity and a vector product is a
vector quantity.

Scalar Product of Vectors

The scalar product (also called the dot product and inner product) of vectors A and B is written
and defined as follows

Fig1. - Angle between vectors and scalar product.

A·B = | A | | B | cos (θ)

where | A | is the magnitude of vector A , | B | is the magnitude of vector B and θ is the angle
made by the two vectors. The result of a scalar product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.
For vectors given by their components: A = (Ax , Ay, Az) and B = (Bx , By, Bz), the scalar product
is given by
A·B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
Note that if θ = 90°, then cos(θ) = 0 and therefore we can state that: Two vectors, with
magnitudes not equal to zero, are perpendicular if and only if their scalar product is equal to
zero.
The scalar product may also be used to find the cosine and therefore the angle between two
vectors
cos (θ) = A·B / | A | | B |

Properties of the Scalar Product

1) A·B = B·A
2) A· (B + C) = A·B + A·C

Applications the Scalar Product

Example 1
Find the real number b so that vectors A and B given below are perpendicular
A = (-2 , -b) , B = (-8 , b).

Solution

The condition for two vectors A = (Ax , Ay) and B = (Bx , By) to be perpendicular is that their
scalar product is equal to zero:
AxBx + AyBy = 0.
Substitute the components and simplify
(-2)(-8) + (-b)(b) = 0
16 - b 2 = 0
b 2 = 16
Solve for b
b = 4 and b = -4
Two possible values of b; b = 4 and b = - 4 make the above vectors perpendicular.

Example 2
Find the angle made by the vectors A and B given below
A = (2 , 1 , 3) , B = (3 , -2 , 1).
Solution
We first use the components to find the scalar product of the two vectors.
A· B = (2)(3)+(1)(-2)+(3)(1) = 7
We next express the scalar product using the magnitudes and angle θ made by the two vectors.
A· B = |A| |B| cos(θ) = 7
Which gives
cos(θ) = 7 / (|A| |B|)
|A| = √(22 + 12 + 32 ) = √14
|B| = √(32 + (-2)2 + 12 ) = √14
cos(θ) = 7 / (√14√14) = 7/14 = 1/2
θ = arccos(1/2) = 60°

Example 3
Given vector U = (3 , -7), find the equation of the line through point B(2 , 1) and perpendicular
to vector U.
Solution

A point M(x , y) is on the line through point B(2 , 1) and perpendicular to vector U = (3 , -7) if
and only if the vectors BM and U are perpendicular.
Let us first find the components of vectors BM.
BM = (x - 2 , y - 1)
Vectors BM = (x - 2 , y - 1) and U = (3 , -7) are perpendiclur if and only if their scalar product is
equal to zero. Hence
(x - 2) (3) + (y - 1)(-7) = 0 Expand and simplify to obtain the equation of the line
3x-7y=-1
Parallel Vectors
Two vectors A and B are parallel if and only if they are scalar multiples of one another.
A = k B , k is a constant not equal to zero.
Let A = (Ax , Ay) and B = (Bx , By)
A and B are parallel if and only if A = k B
(Ax , Ay) = k (Bx , By) = (k Ax , k By)
Ax = k Bx and Ay = k By or Ax / Bx = k and Ay / By = k
Condition under which vectors A = (Ax , Ay) and B = (Bx , By) are parallel is given by
Ax / Bx = Ay / By or Ax By = Bx Ay
Perpendicular Vectors
Two vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if their scalar product is equal to zero.
Let A = (Ax , Ay) and B = (Bx , By)
Vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if A·B = 0
(Ax , Ay) · (Bx , By) = Ax Bx + Ay By
Hence vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if
Ax Bx + Ay By = 0

Example 1

Which of the following vectors are parallel?

A = (2 , -3) , B = (-6 , 9) , C = (-1 , -2)?
Solution
The condition for two vectors A = (Ax , Ay) and B = (Bx , By) to be parallel is: Ax By = Bx Ay.
Let us test vectors A and B first.
Ax By = (2)(9) = 18
Bx Ay = (-3)(-6) = 18
Vectors A and B are parallel.
We now test vectors A and C
Ax Cy = (2)(-2) = -4
Cx Ay = (-1)(-3) = 3
Vectors A and C are not parallel.
Vectors B and C are not parallel (there no need to test since A and B are parallel)

Self-Assessment Questionnaire
1. A weather forecast states the temperature is predicted to be −5°C the following day. Is this
temperature a vector or a scalar quantity? Explain.
2. If two vectors are equal, what can you say about their components? What can you say about
their magnitudes? What can you say about their directions?
3. Give an example of a nonzero vector that has a component of zero.
4. If two vectors are equal, what can you say about their components?
5. What is wrong with the following expressions? How can you correct them?
(a) C=A⃗ B⃗
(b) C⃗ =A⃗ B⃗
(c) C=A⃗ ×B⃗
(d) C=AB⃗
(e) C+2A⃗ =B
(f) C⃗ =A×B⃗
(g) A⃗ ⋅B⃗ =A⃗ ×B⃗
(h) C⃗ =2A⃗ ⋅B⃗
(i) C=A⃗ /B⃗
(j) C=A⃗ /B
6. If the dot product of two vectors vanishes, what can you say about their directions?
7. Find the angle between the lines given by the equations: y = 2 x + 4 and y = x + 3.
8. Find the equation of the circle with diameter the points A(2 , -2) and B(4 , -3).

Answer to Self- Assessment questionnaire

1. VECTOR
2. EQUAL, EQUAL, THE SAME
3. A UNIT VECTOR OF THE X –AXIS
4. THEY ARE EQUAL
5. a. C=A⃗ ⋅B⃗
b. C⃗ =A⃗ ×B⃗ or C⃗ =A⃗ −B⃗
c. C⃗ =A⃗ ×B⃗
d. C⃗ =AB⃗
e. C⃗ +2A⃗ =B⃗
f. C⃗ =A⃗ ×B⃗
g. left side is a scalar and right side is a vector,
h. C⃗ =2A⃗ ×B⃗
i. C⃗ =A⃗ /B
j. C⃗ =A⃗ /B
6. THEY ARE ORTHOGONAL
7. 18.43°
8. x 2 - 6 x + y 2 + 5y + 14 = 0

SUMMARY
Scalars and Vectors

• A vector quantity is any quantity that has magnitude and direction, such as displacement
or velocity. Vector quantities are represented by mathematical objects called vectors.
• Geometrically, vectors are represented by arrows, with the end marked by an arrowhead.
The length of the vector is its magnitude, which is a positive scalar. On a plane, the
direction of a vector is given by the angle the vector makes with a reference direction,
often an angle with the horizontal. The direction angle of a vector is a scalar.
• Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitudes and directions.
Parallel vectors have the same direction angles but may have different magnitudes.
Antiparallel vectors have direction angles that differ by 180°180°. Orthogonal vectors
have direction angles that differ by 90°90°.
• When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, the result is another vector of a different length
than the length of the original vector. Multiplication by a positive scalar does not change
the original direction; only the magnitude is affected. Multiplication by a negative scalar
reverses the original direction. The resulting vector is antiparallel to the original vector.
Multiplication by a scalar is distributive. Vectors can be divided by nonzero scalars but
cannot be divided by vectors.
• Two or more vectors can be added to form another vector. The vector sum is called the
resultant vector. We can add vectors to vectors or scalars to scalars, but we cannot add
scalars to vectors. Vector addition is commutative and associative.
• To construct a resultant vector of two vectors in a plane geometrically, we use the
parallelogram rule. To construct a resultant vector of many vectors in a plane
geometrically, we use the tail-to-head method.

Coordinate Systems and Components of a Vector

• Vectors are described in terms of their components in a coordinate system. In two

dimensions (in a plane), vectors have two components. In three dimensions (in space),
vectors have three components.
• A vector component of a vector is its part in an axis direction. The vector component is
the product of the unit vector of an axis with its scalar component along this axis. A
vector is the resultant of its vector components.
• Scalar components of a vector are differences of coordinates, where coordinates of the
origin are subtracted from end point coordinates of a vector. In a rectangular system, the
magnitude of a vector is the square root of the sum of the squares of its components.
• In a plane, the direction of a vector is given by an angle the vector has with the positive x-
axis. This direction angle is measured counterclockwise. The scalar x-component of a
vector can be expressed as the product of its magnitude with the cosine of its direction
angle, and the scalar y-component can be expressed as the product of its magnitude with
the sine of its direction angle.
• In a plane, there are two equivalent coordinate systems. The Cartesian coordinate system
is defined by unit vectors iˆi^ and jˆj^ along the x-axis and the y-axis, respectively. The
polar coordinate system is defined by the radial unit vector rˆr^, which gives the direction
from the origin, and a unit vector tˆt^, which is perpendicular (orthogonal) to the radial
direction.
Algebra of Vectors

• Analytical methods of vector algebra allow us to find resultants of sums or differences of

vectors without having to draw them. Analytical methods of vector addition are exact,
contrary to graphical methods, which are approximate.
• Analytical methods of vector algebra are used routinely in mechanics, electricity, and
magnetism. They are important mathematical tools of physics.

Products of Vectors

• There are two kinds of multiplication for vectors. One kind of multiplication is the scalar
product, also known as the dot product. The other kind of multiplication is the vector
product, also known as the cross product. The scalar product of vectors is a number
(scalar). The vector product of vectors is a vector.
• Both kinds of multiplication have the distributive property, but only the scalar product
has the commutative property. The vector product has the ant commutative property,
which means that when we change the order in which two vectors are multiplied, the
result acquires a minus sign.
• The scalar product of two vectors is obtained by multiplying their magnitudes with the
cosine of the angle between them. The scalar product of orthogonal vectors vanishes; the
scalar product of antiparallel vectors is negative.
• The vector product of two vectors is a vector perpendicular to both of them. Its
magnitude is obtained by multiplying their magnitudes by the sine of the angle between
them. The direction of the vector product can be determined by the corkscrew right-hand
rule. The vector product of two either parallel or antiparallel vectors vanishes. The
magnitude of the vector product is largest for orthogonal vectors.
• The scalar product of vectors is used to find angles between vectors and in the definitions
of derived scalar physical quantities such as work or energy.
• The cross product of vectors is used in definitions of derived vector physical quantities
such as torque or magnetic force, and in describing rotations.

References
College Physics second edition.Giambattistaa,richardson
https://www.dawsoncollege.qc.ca/physics/wp-content/uploads/sites/118/Obj_Stds-EngPhys.pdf
http://www.problemsphysics.com/vectors/scalar_product.html
httpswww.physicsclassroom.comclassestaticsLesson-1

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