PHY 151: INTRODUCTORY MECHANICS

PROF. DAVID DOTSE WEMEGAH

0243477467
[email protected]

VECTORS

Vectors can be defined as quantities that have both magnitude and direction and combine according
to certain rules of addition. The magnitude is a real value that indicates how large or small the
vector is. Examples of such physical quantities are force, velocity, acceleration, electric field and
magnetic field.

A vector is represented by a directed line segment, with an arrowhead. For example, ' a vector 𝐹⃗
h; represented by a directed line AB.
B

𝐹⃗

Scalar Definition:
Scalar quantities are those quantities that can be specified by a number and unit. They have
magnitude without direction. They are said to be described fully by their magnitude. Examples are
mass, length, time, density, energy and temperature. These quantities can be manipulated by the
rules of ordinary algebra.

Addition of Vectors
We have two methods by which vectors can be added
(i) Geometrical Method
(ii) Analytical Method

Geometrical Method
Facts:
 To represent a vector on a diagram, we draw an arrow
 The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector (i.e. we choose a
scale)
 The direction of the arrow represents the direction of vector.
 The arrowhead represents the sense of the direction.
 In this note, vectors will be represented by bold characters.

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Rules For Adding Vectors Geometrically
Considering the diagram below, and drawing to a scale, the displacement vectors a and b with the
tail of b on the head of a. The resultant vector r is obtained by drawing a line from the tail of a to
the head of b. In this case, the resultant of vectors a and b is the algebraic sum of the two vectors,
r = a + b as below. (NB: + is not the same as the that in scalar algebra).

Commutative Law of Addition

This states that a + b = b + a.

b
Associative law of Vector Addition

Identify the vector sums from the diagram below.

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These laws assert that the sum of vectors is the same irrespective of the order or in what grouping
we add the vectors.

Vectors Subtraction/Difference
Given a vector a, the negative –a is a vector of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.
So a – b = a + (-b). These operations also apply also to all vector quantities.

-b -b

a
a

A change of position of a particle is called a displacement. So if a particle moves from position x

to position y, its displacement can be represented by drawing a line from x to y with an arrow
showing the direction.
x y

The motion of this particle can be represented in a vector form as XY or⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑋𝑌. The arrow represents
only the net effect of the motion but not actual motion; hence the path of the particle needs not
necessarily be a straight line from x to y.

Equal (Identical) Vectors

These two vectors are said to be identical if they have the same length (magnitude) and point in
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐶𝐷
the same direction. Given two vectors 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then

A B

C D

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷

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Displacement, Independent of the Path of the Motion
The path of a particle from X and Y needs not necessarily be a straight line

Fig. a X Fig. b X

The actual path of the particle moving from X to Y may be the dotted line in figure a. However,
the displacement remains the vector XY (deep line). At some intermediate point Z, the
displacement from X is the vector XZ.

Similarly, from Fig. b. above, after displacement XZ, the particle undergoes another displacement
ZY. The net effect of the two displacements is represented by the vector XY.
Therefore, XY can be said to be the sum or resultant of the displacements XZ and ZY.

𝑋𝑌 = 𝑋𝑍 + 𝑍𝑌

Position Vector
These are vectors, which are referenced relative to a given origin (0,0). This gives an idea about
the direction and the distance of the point from an origin in space.

y A

(0, 0) x

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑂𝐴

Displacement vector: is a vector which shows how much and in which direction an object has
changed its position in a given interval of time. Consider a particle that goes from point A to B.
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑⃗ is displacement vector of the particle. This is represented in terms of position vector
Then, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
as

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴

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Unit Vectors
A vector whose magnitudes is 1 is known as a unit vector. |𝑎̂| = 1

𝐴⃗
|𝑎̂| =
|𝐴⃗|

Note that unit vectors are generally used to specify directions.

Resolution of Vectors
The geometrical method has limitations when considered in three dimensions. This calls for the
use of the analytical method that involves the resolution of vectors into components with respect
to a particular coordinate system.

The resolution of a vector R, drawn onto x, y-coordinate system, making an angle θ with the x-
axis is done by finding the x-component Rx and y-component Ry of that vector. Each component
of the vector in a particular direction is the “effective part” of the vector in that direction.

Now consider a vector 𝑎⃗ whose tail has been placed at the origin of a rectangular coordinate
system, with an angle θ to the x-axis as shown,

y
a

x
o a
To get the components of this vector, a line is then drawn perpendicularly from the head to the
axes, for the quantities 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 to form the components of the vector 𝑎⃗. From this diagram

𝑎𝑦
sin 𝜃 =
|𝑎⃗|
and
𝑎𝑥
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎⃗|
Hence, the components 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 are given as:

𝑎𝑥 = |𝑎⃗|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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𝑎𝑦 = |𝑎⃗|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where 𝜃 is the angle that the vector 𝑎⃗ makes with the positive x-axis measured counterclockwise
from this axis. The 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 maybe positive or negative depending on the angle 𝜃.

From the components 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗

𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 + |𝑎⃗|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑗

⃗⃗,
The magnitude of a Vector 𝒂

2
|𝑎⃗| = √|𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| 2
𝑥 + |𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝑦
and
|𝑎⃗𝑦 |
tan 𝜃 =
|𝑎⃗𝑥 |

Three Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

There are three mutually perpendicular directions each extending to infinity in the forward and
backward direction. These are usually labelled as 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 axis. The origin of these vectors is
given as (0, 0, 0).

𝑗̂

𝑖̂
𝑘̂ x

By convention, the x-direction is labelled by the unit vector 𝑖̂, the y-direction by the unit vector 𝑗̂,
and the z-direction by the unit vector 𝑘̂. These unit vectors are mutually perpendicular and are
usually reserved for the directions 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. These being unit vectors have the property,|𝑖̂| = |𝑗̂| =
|𝑘̂| = 1. Therefore a vector ‘a’ acting in this plane is represented as, 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂.

Example
⃗⃗
𝑏
⃗⃗, (𝑖𝑖).
Find the magnitudes and directions of the vectors (𝑖). −𝑏 , (𝑖𝑖𝑖). −2𝑏⃗⃗ if 𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂
1.5

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Component of a Vector
A vector 𝐴̂, connecting the origin to a point 𝑃(𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 ) can be written as 𝐴̂ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂.
The coefficients 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑧 , are called the components of the vector 𝐴̂ and often represent
points in 3-D space. When the components are points, the vector 𝐴̂ is a position vector.

If the vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ connect the origin to the points 𝑃(𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 ) and 𝑄(𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 ) respectively,
then 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵̂ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂. Then

⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘̂

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵

If the vector 𝐴⃗, is not directly connected to the origin, with the tail of the vector located at a point
𝑃1 with coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), the head located at 𝑃2 with coordinate (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) and the position
vector that links the point 𝑃1 to the origin is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and that which connect 𝑃2 to the origin is ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑟2 then

𝑟1 + 𝐴⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2

𝐴⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1
since
𝑟1 = 𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗
and
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗
then
𝐴⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂

this gives the vector 𝐴̂ in terms of the coordinates of the starting point and the endpoint.

Vector Multiplication
There are three ways of multiplying vectors:
 Multiplying a vector by a scalar,
 Dot/scalar product
 Cross/vector product

Multiplying a vector by a scalar: Eg. 𝑘𝑎⃗ where k is the scalar quantity. The resultant vector’s
direction is positive if k is positive and vice versa.

Dot/Scalar Product
The scalar products of two vectors 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ written as

𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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Where |𝐴| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| are the magnitudes of the vectors 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗⃗ with 𝜃 as the angle between the
two vectors 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗⃗ . The dot product of two vectors yields a scalar. The dot product can be
positive, zero or negative.

1. If 𝜃 = 0̊, then 𝐴⃗°𝐵

⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 (Maximum value). [cos0 = 1]
2. If 𝜃 =180, then 𝐴⃗°𝐵
⃗⃗ = −𝐴𝐵 (Negative maximum value). [cos180 = -1]
3. If 𝜃 =90, then 𝐴⃗°𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 0. ). (Minimum value) [cos90 = -1]
4. If 𝜃 is an acute angle, then 𝐴⃗°𝐵⃗⃗ = +ve
5. If 𝜃 is an obtuse angle, then 𝐴⃗°𝐵 ⃗⃗ = -ve

There are two main types of projections

𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴 cos 𝜃)𝐵 = 𝐴(𝐵 cos 𝜃)

Properties
1. Commutative property: 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝐵

2. Associative property: 𝑐𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗)

⃗⃗ = 𝑐(𝐵

3. Distributive property: (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵

⃗⃗ ) ∙ 𝐶⃗ = (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗ ) + (𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗)

Unit Vectors and the Dot Product

• Unit vectors
𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = |𝑖̂|. |𝑖̂|cos(0) = 1

𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑘̂ = 1

𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = |𝑖̂|. |𝑗̂| cos(𝜋⁄2) = cos(90°) = 0

𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑖̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 0

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Question
Explain why the dot product of two vectors gives a scalar quantity.

Answer
Since A and B are scalar and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is a pure number, hence the scalar product of two vectors is a
scalar.

Vector Components of Dot Product

If a vector 𝐴⃗ is given as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂, and vector 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂.
⃗⃗ is given as 𝐵

then 𝐴⃗ . 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

Similarly, 𝑘̂. 𝐴⃗ = 𝑘̂. (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝑘̂. 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑧

Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑎̂

where
𝐴⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂

is obtained by taking the dot product 𝐴⃗. 𝐴⃗

𝐴⃗. 𝐴⃗ = ((𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂) . ((𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂)

𝐴2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

𝐴 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

Generally, the magnitude of a vector 𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) is given as

𝐴 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

Cross/Vector Product

The cross or vector product 𝐶⃗ of two vectors 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗⃗ is given as

𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛̂

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where 𝜃 is the angle between the two vectors and 𝑛̂ is a unit vector in the direction perpendicular
to both vectors.
y
j

B i
x
k
z

This quantity is a vector with a magnitude and direction. The direction of the resultance vector is
defined to be along the line perpendicular to the plane formed by the two vectors as in the diagram
above.

Features of the Cross / Vector Product

(i). The cross product of two vectors (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ ) when 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ are parallel is zero since the angle
between the vectors is 0 (sin0 = 0). Hence the cross product of the same unit vector is zero.

𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = |𝑖⃗||𝑖⃗| sin 0𝑛̂ = 0

𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0

(ii). Unlike the scalar products, vector products are anti-commutative i.e. 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗. But
⃗⃗ ≠ 𝐵
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = −𝐵⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗ (opposite direction)

Vector Product of Unit Vectors

𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = |𝑖̂||𝑗̂| sin 90𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂

𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = |𝑗̂||𝑘̂| sin 90𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂

𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = |𝑘̂||𝑖̂| sin 90𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂

But
𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂

𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂

𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂

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Summary
The resultant of any two unit vectors in a cross product can be obtained using the following rules
Note
1. Multiplication of any two unit vectors in an anticlockwise direction gives a third unit vector
with a positive sign.
2. Multiplication of any two unit vectors in clockwise direction gives a third unit vector with
a negative sign.

Rule 1
1. 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 2. 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 3. 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂

Rule 2
1. 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂, 2. 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂, 3. 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂

Cross Product Methods

Two main methods are used in the cross multiplication of vectors, these are the component method
and the determinant method.

Component Approach
If a vector 𝐴⃗ is given as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂, and vector 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂,
⃗⃗ is given as 𝐵
then the cross product of vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵

=AxBx(𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂) + AxBy(𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂) + AxBz(𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂)

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+ AyBx(𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂) + AyBy(𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂) + AyBz(𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂)

+ AzBx(𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂) + AzBy(𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂) + AzBz(𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂)

[As, 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0, 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂, 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂,

𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂, 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂]
Then,

⃗⃗ = AxBy(𝑘̂) + AxBz(−𝑗̂) + AyBx(-𝑘̂) + AyBz(𝑖̂) + AzBx(𝑗̂) + AzBy(−𝑖̂)

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵

= 𝑖̂(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) − 𝑗̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 ) + 𝑘̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )

2: DETERMINANT APPROACH
⃗⃗ given that 𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) and 𝐵
Find 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂) = |𝐴𝑥
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 |
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

Here, we will use, i, j, k one by one. When one is chosen, its corresponding row and column
become bound and the remaining elements are subtracted after cross multiplication (determinant
determined).

The component along the x-axis (𝑖̂ direction) is 𝑖̂(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )

The component in the 𝑗̂ direction is 𝑗̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 )

12
Similarly, the component in the 𝑘̂ direction is 𝑘̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )

Using the determinant conversion, positive, negative, positive (+, -, +) for the is 𝑘̂, 𝑗,
̂ 𝑘̂ directions
respectively, gives:

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
|𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | = 𝑖̂(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) − 𝑗̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 ) + 𝑘̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

Derivatives of Vectors

The derivative of a vector function F, in terms of a variable, r which is a function of x, y and z,

𝑑𝐹 ∆𝐹(𝑟) 𝐹(𝑟 + ∆𝑟) − 𝐹(𝑟)

= lim = lim
𝑑𝑟 ∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟
Given that

𝐹(𝑟⃗) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑖̂ + 𝐹(𝑦)𝑗̂ + 𝐹(𝑧)𝑘̂

𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑𝐹(𝑦) 𝑑𝐹(𝑧)

= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Read on the following

Integral of Vectors
Derivatives of trigonometry functions

13
The cosine Rule and the sine Rule
Given a triangle with the magnitude of its sides A, B and C and angles as shown below,

𝜆 𝛼

The sine rule is given as

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜆

This is also referred to as the Lami's Theorem, which states that if the resultant of three vectors is
zero, then the magnitude of a vector is directly proportional to the sine of the angle between the
other two vectors.

Cosine rule
𝐶 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜆

Assignment: Submit this on Friday January 31, 2025

Questions
1. A particle initially at point A(2, 4, 6) m moves finally to the point B(3, 2, -3) m. Write the
initial position vector, final position vector and displacement vector of the particle.
2. Three forces A = (i + j + k), B = (2i - j + 3k), and C are acting on a body which is kept at
equilibrium. Find C.
3. The resultant of two forces has magnitude 20 N. One of the forces is of magnitude 20√3
N and makes an angle of 30̊ with the resultant. What is the magnitude of the other force?
4. Calculate the dot product of the vectors 5𝑖̂ – 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 2𝑖̂ – 𝑘̂. What is the angle between
them?
5. Calculate the angles between two forces represented by 𝐹⃗1 = (−2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂)𝑁 and
𝐹⃗2 = (3𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂)𝑁.
6. If the vectors (4𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 3𝑘̂) and (2𝑚𝑖̂ − 6𝑚𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂) are perpendicular to each other, then
find the value of m.
7. Prove that (𝐴⃗ + 2𝐵 ⃗⃗ ). (2𝐴⃗ − 3𝐵
⃗⃗ ) = 𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 − 6𝐵 2 .
8. If (𝑎⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂), (𝑏⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗
̂ − 3𝑘̂) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑐⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑘̂) , then find
a. 𝑑⃗ = 4𝑎⃗ + 2𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗
b. 𝑒⃗ = 2𝑎⃗ − 6𝑏⃗⃗ + 2𝑐⃗
c. 𝑑⃗. 𝑒⃗
14
KINEMATICS AND ONE DIMENSIONAL MOTION

KINEMATICS
Kinematic means movement and involves the mathematical description of motion (Position,
Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration).

COORDINATE SYSTEM IN ONE DIMENSION

The coordinate system of a particle in motion in one dimension is defined by
 Choice of origin,
 Choice of a coordinate axis,
 Choice of positive direction for the axis,
 Choice of unit vectors at each point in space

Position
The vector from the origin to the body:

In the x-direction is given as:

𝑥⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂
In the y-direction is given as
𝑦⃗(𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂
In the z-direction is given as
𝑧⃗(𝑡) = 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂
Displacement
Change in position of a coordinate of an object between the times t1 and t2

∆𝑥⃗ = (𝑥(𝑡2 ) − 𝑥(𝑡1 ))𝑖̂ = ∆𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂

Speed: The term speed refers to how far an object travels in a given time interval, regardless of
direction.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

Velocity is the rate of charge of the position or coordinate of an object with time

15
Uniform Speed
A particle is said to be moving with uniform speed if it covers equal distances in equal time
intervals, however small these intervals may be. Uniform speed always remains constant as the
body moves. Not that the body may change its direction of motion.

Variable Speed
A particle is said to be moving with variable speed, if it covers equal distances in unequal intervals
of time or unequal distances in equal intervals of time,

Average Velocity
In a one-dimensional motion, suppose an object moves in the x-direction in a coordinate system
such that at some moment in time, 𝑡1 the object is on the x-axis at position 𝑥1 and at some later
time, 𝑡2 its position is at 𝑥2 then:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

∆𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝑣̅
∆𝑡

The component of the average velocity in the x-direction, 𝑉̅𝑥 is the displacement Δx divided by
the time interval Δt? This can be expressed in the x-direction with a unit vector 𝑖̂ as:

∆𝑥
𝑉̅𝑥 = 𝑖̂ = 𝑉̅𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂
∆𝑡

Instantaneous Velocity
Instantaneous velocity at any moment is defined as the average velocity during an infinitesimally
short time interval. The average velocity

∆𝑥
𝑣̅ = (1)
∆𝑡

16
We define instantaneous velocity as the average velocity as we let ∆𝒕 from equation (1) becomes
extremely small (approaching zero). Hence for a one–dimensional motion, we define instantaneous
velocity as:

∆𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

For time interval Δt, we calculate the average velocity. As Δt→0, we generate a sequence of
average velocities. The limiting value of this sequence is defined to be the x-component of the
instantaneous velocity at the time t.

∆𝑥 𝑥(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑(𝑥)

𝑉𝑥 (𝑡) = lim 𝑉̅𝑥 = lim = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Uniform Motion
A particle is said to be in uniform motion if it covers equal displacements in equal intervals of
time, however small these intervals may be.

Features of Uniform Motion

• Uniform motion in a straight line motion with constant velocity.
• In uniform motion displacement and distance are equal
• The average and instantaneous velocities have the same values in uniform motion.
• No net force is required for an object to be in uniform motion.
• The velocity in uniform motion does not depend upon the time interval.
• The velocity in uniform motion is independent of the choice of origin

Accelerated Motion
The motion of an object is said to be an accelerated motion if its velocity changes with time. An
accelerated motion is a kind of non-uniform motion.

Average Acceleration
Average velocity is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time taken to make this
change:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝑎̅ = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

∆𝑣𝑥 (𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑥1 ) ∆𝑣𝑥

𝑎̅⃗ = ̅̅̅
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

• Change in velocity divided by the time interval

The average acceleration of a uniformly accelerated system

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢 + 𝑣

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
2 2

17
Motion with Constant Acceleration
When the magnitude of the acceleration is constant and the motion is in a straight line, the
instantaneous and average accelerations are equal.

Instantaneous Acceleration
This is the acceleration of a body at a particular instance of time. Actually, acceleration at an instant is
defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval Δt, when that instant becomes
infinitesimally small. For time interval Δt, we calculate the average acceleration. As Δt→0, we generate
a sequence of average accelerations. The limiting value of this sequence is defined to be the x-component
of the instantaneous velocity at the time t.

∆𝑣 𝑣(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣

𝑎⃗(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ = lim 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ = lim 𝑖̂ = lim 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

CONSTANT ACCELERATION: area under the acceleration vs. time graph

∆𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0

𝑎𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡

𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
Where, 𝑣𝑥,0 is the initial velocity (velocity when the time is zero), and 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) is the velocity at any
time, 𝑡.

18
CONSTANT ACCELERATION: Area under the velocity vs. time graph, gives the displacement

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑣𝑥 , 𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,𝑜 )𝑡
2
But

𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
Therefore
1 1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑣𝑥,𝑜 , 𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,𝑜 𝑡 + (𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥,0 )𝑡 = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2 2

CONSTANT ACCELERATION: Average velocity

When the acceleration is constant, the velocity is a linear function of time. Therefore, the average
velocity is

1
𝑣𝑥 =
̅̅̅ (𝑣 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 )
2 𝑥
Similarly,

1 1 1
𝑣𝑥 = (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 ) = ((𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 ) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
̅̅̅
2 2 2

CONSTANT ACCELERATION: Area under the velocity vs. time graph

Displacement is equal to the area under the graph of the x-component of the velocity vs.
time
1
∆𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥0 = ̅̅̅𝑡𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑣𝑥 , 𝑡)
2
1 1 1
𝑣𝑥 = 2 (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 )𝑡 = 2 (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 ) 𝑎 (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0 )
Similarly, ∆𝑥 = ̅̅̅𝑡

1
Since 𝑡 = 𝑎 (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0 )

19
1
∆𝑥 = (𝑣 2 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0 2 )
2𝑎 𝑥

𝑣𝑥 2 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥

SUMMARY: constant acceleration

• Position: If a particle starts from a point 𝑥0 , and move for the time, t,
1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2

If initial displacement is zero, 𝑥0 = 0

1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
or
1
𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
• velocity
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
or
𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

𝑣𝑥 2 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 2 + 2𝑎∆𝑥

or
𝑣 2 (𝑡) = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Motion with Variable Acceleration

Velocity as the Integral of the Acceleration

A particle is said to be moving with variable velocity if it covers equal displacements in unequal
intervals of time or unequal displacements in equal intervals of time. Here velocity changes
in either magnitude or direction or both.

The area under the graph of the acceleration vs. time is the change in velocity

20
𝑖=𝑁 𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑎𝑥 , 𝑡) = lim ∑ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡𝑖 )∆𝑡𝑖 = ∫ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

∆𝑡𝑖 →0
𝑖=1 𝑡=0

𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑑𝑣𝑥
∫ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = [𝑣𝑥 ]𝑡𝑡=0 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0
𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0 𝑡=0 𝑡=0

Position as the Integral of Velocity

• Area under the graph of velocity vs. time is the displacement

𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

∫ 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) − 𝑥0
𝑡=0

The term speed and velocity are often used interchangeably. However, speed is just a positive
number with units whilst velocity signifies both magnitude (value of how fast a body is moving)
as well as the direction of movement.

Example 1.
Determine the average speed, if a car travels 350 km in 5 hours.

Example 2
Under what condition would average speed and average velocity have the same magnitude?
(Answer: When the motion is in one direction).

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Example 3
A car travels 100 m east and then 46 m west. If it does this in 1 hour, determine.
(i). The distance and the average speed of the car
(ii). The displacement and the average velocity of the car

Example 4
A person walked in such a way that during a 5 s time interval, his position changes from 𝒙𝟏 =
100 𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑥2 = 50 𝑚. What is the person’s average velocity?

Example 5:
• A runner accelerates uniformly with an acceleration of 2 ms-2 from rest for a time of 3 s and then
travels with constant velocity for 6 s. How far did the runner travels?

Solution example 5
I. UNDERSTAND – get a conceptual grasp of the problem

Sketch the diagram of the motion

stage 1: constant acceleration

stage 2: constant velocity.

TOOLS:
Coordinate system
Kinematic equations

IV. LOOK BACK: Choose Values

Runner accelerated for

𝑡𝑎 = 3.0𝑠
acceleration:
a =2.0 m s-2

Runs at a constant velocity for

𝑡𝑏 = 6.0𝑠
Total time of running
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎 + 6.0𝑠 = 3.0𝑠 + 6.02 = 9.0𝑠
Example 6
A train travelling at 50 km/h approaches another train moving towards the first at 90 km/h. If they
are 35 km apart (on a straight track) how long does it take before they meet?

Example 7
A bullet of mass 10 g travelling horizontally with a velocity of 300 m/s strikes a block of mass 290
g which rest on a rough horizontal floor. After the impact, the block and the bullet move together
and come to rest in a distance of 15 cm. Calculate the coefficient of sliding friction between the
block and the floor.

22
Example

Note
 Make sure you are using the correct SI unit to answer questions.
 Need to use a consistent coordinate system and origin for all objects
 Need to think carefully about directions (signs!)
 Need to think carefully about conditions, especially when things ‘’start’’ at different
times
 Write separate equations for each object
 Read the problem carefully to understand the specific constraint to use to solve it

Summary
 Kinematics provides a language to describe the motion
 Basic relationship between position, velocity, acceleration (change= slope = derivative)
 Study special cases (like constant acceleration) but understand the assumptions that go
into all formulas
 Position, velocity, and acceleration are ALL vectors and need to be manipulated using
either arrow (qualitative) or components (quantitative)
 Directions (or signs in 1D) of position, velocity, and acceleration can all be different

Motion with Variable Acceleration

A particle is said to have a variable acceleration when
a. Its coordinates are a function of time (t) and involve a term tn where n > 2.
b. The velocity vector remains constant in magnitude but varies in direction

QUESTION
The coordinate of a certain particle moving along the x-axis is given by 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 where 𝑥 is
in metres and t in seconds. Find the velocity and the acceleration of the particle after 2 seconds.

Solution

Displacement = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3

𝑑𝑥
But 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = = 6𝑡 − 6𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥(2)
Velocity after 2 s, 𝑣(2) = = 6(2) − 6(2)2
𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = 12 − 24

= −12 𝑚𝑠 −1

23
Vector Description of Motion

Two Dimension
Motion parameters can be expressed in 2D system as follows

• Position
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂
• Velocity
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 (𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Acceleration
𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑦 (𝑡)
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Three Dimension
In general, if the particle moves in space, then its positional vector 𝑟⃗ will change and time rate of
change of position vector is known as velocity. The parameters of this motion are expressed in 3-D
system.

1. Position
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑍(𝑡)𝑘̂
2. Velocity

𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑧(𝑡)

𝑉̂ (𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ≡ 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑧 (𝑡)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

3. Acceleration

𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑧 (𝑡)

𝑎̂(𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ≡ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

24
Examples
1. An aircraft travels 200 km on a straight course making an angle of 300 east of due north.
Determine how far north and how far east the aircraft travelled from its starting point.

2. A vehicle travels due east on a level road for 50 km. It then turns due north at an intersection
and travels 70 km before stopping. Determine the resultant displacement of the vehicle.

4. The acceleration of a particle varies with time t seconds, according to the relation a = 6t +
6 ms-2. Find the velocity and position as a function of time, given that the particle starts
from an origin at t = 0 with velocity 2 ms-1.

5. At t = 0 a body is started from an origin with some initial velocity. The displacement x(m)
of the body varies with time t (s) as x = -(2/3)t2 + 16t + 2. Find the initial velocity of the
body and also find how long it takes the body to come to rest? What is the acceleration of
the body when it comes to rest?

6. The acceleration a in ms2 of a particle is given by a = 3t2 + 2t + 2, where t is the time. If

the particle starts out with a velocity v = 2 ms-1 (t = 0), then find the velocity at the end of
2 s.

25
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY (FREE FALL)

A free-falling object is an object which is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any object
which is being acted upon only by a force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall. Regardless
of the mass and with negligible air resistance, all bodies had the same acceleration vertically
downward when falling freely. Assuming no air or the medium resistance, the body has an
acceleration of – g when moving upwards and + g when moving downwards. Very close to the
surface of the earth, the gravitational force is constant hence, the acceleration of the falling body
is also constant or uniform.

The equations of motion of a body under gravity can be written as follows:

In this equations of motions, a is replaced by - g for the upward motion (minus sign because
acceleration is always directed downward) and + g for the downward motion.

Downwards motion Upwards motion

1.𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡. 1. 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡.

1 1
2. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2 2. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠. 3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠.

For such a motion at its maximum height, the velocity is zero and the point of impact the velocity
id maximum.

Questions
1. A ball is thrown upwards with an initial velocity, u near the surface of the Earth. When it
reaches the highest point,
a. its velocity is zero and its acceleration is non-zero
b. its velocity is zero and its acceleration is zero
c. its velocity is non-zero and its acceleration is zero
d. its velocity is non-zero and its acceleration is non-zero

26
2. A ball is thrown upwards with an initial velocity of 10 ms-1 from the top of a 50 m tall
building.
a. With what velocity will it hit the ground?
b. How long does it take the ball to strike the ground?
3. A ball B is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 40.0 ms-1 at the same time, ball C is
released at a height of 100.0 m directly above the point of projection. If the two balls
𝑉
collide, find the ratio of their impact velocity 𝐵⁄𝑉 .
𝐶
4. A body is projected vertically upward. If t1 and t2 are the times at which it is at a height h
above the point of projection while ascending and descending, respectively. Then prove
1
that the initial velocity of projection of the body is 2 𝑔(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 ) and the value of h is
1
𝑔𝑡1 𝑡2 .
2
5. A balloon is rising up with a velocity of 10 ms-1 and a bag is dropped from it when its
height from the ground is 40 m. Calculate the time taken by the bag to reach the ground.
What is the distance between the balloon and the bag when it hits the ground? What is the
velocity of the balloon at the time of impact of the bag?
6. A ball is dropped from the top of the tower of height h. It covers a distance of hl2 in the
last second of its motion. How long does the ball remain in the air?
7. A ball thrown up reaches the maximum height h travelling 5 m in the last second. Find the
velocity with which the ball was thrown up.
8. A steel ball is dropped from the roof of a building. A man standing in front of a 1 m high
window in the building notes that the ball takes 0.1 s to fall from the top to the bottom of
the window. The ball continues to fall and strike the ground. On striking the ground the
ball gets rebounded with the same speed with which it hits the ground. If the ball reappears
at the bottom of the window 2 s after passing the bottom of the window on the way down,
find the height of the building.

27
PROJECTILES
From our previous lesson, we considered the motion of objects in one-dimension in terms of
displacement, velocity, acceleration as well as vertical motion of objects under gravity. We now
consider motions in two dimensions of objects projected into the air, such as golf ball, battered
baseball. Such motions are called projected motions.

Projectiles can be considered when a particle is projected under gravity in a given direction.

Assumptions:
(a). Acceleration due to gravity is uniform
(b). The air resistance to the motion is negligible

Definitions
Trajectory: The path traced by the projectile (parabola)

The angle of projection: This is the angle the initial direction of motion makes with the horizontal
plane through the point of projection.

Range: the maximum horizontal displacement covered by the particle during its motion from time
of launching to the time it hurts the ground or target.

Time of flight: The time taken by the particle to exhaust the entire motion from the instance, of
launching or projection to the time it hits the ground or target. Time of flight is independent of
mass, shape and size of the body if the body is in a vacuum. But if in the air if two bodies of the
same mass and different size are falling, then the body having more volume will take more time.

vy= 0
y Trajectory
uy

ux
usin

ucos
x
range
Angle of elevation/projection

The figure shows the trajectory of a projectile. The particle is projected at an angle θ, to the
horizontal with an initial velocity of u, and acted upon by the force of gravity, which pulls the
particle downward with an acceleration of -g.

Component of the velocity

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂, the component of the velocity in the horizontal direction.

28
𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗̂, the component of the in the vertical direction.

A projectile moves under the effect of two velocities:

1. A uniform velocity along a horizontal direction, which would not change provided there is
no air resistance.
2. A uniformly changing velocity (either increase or decrease) in the vertical direction due to
gravity (the motion is taking place along horizontal) as well as in vertical direction.

To study the motion of a projectile, we make the following assumptions:

1. No frictional resistance of air.
2. The effect due to the rotation of earth and curvature of the earth is negligible.
3. g remains constant at all points of the motion of the projectile. It does not change with
height.

Projection on a parallel plane

If the projection is done on a parallel plane, the equation of motion is given as:

𝑑𝑣
= −𝑔𝑗̂ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑣⃗ = − ∫ 𝑔𝑗̂𝑑𝑡

𝑣⃗ = −𝑔𝑡𝑗̂ + 𝑐
When t = 0,
⃗⃗ = |𝑢|(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗̂)
𝑣⃗ = 𝑢

29
Where 𝑖 is a unit vector in the horizontal direction and 𝑗̂ a unit vector in the vertical direction.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 |𝑢| = 𝑣 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0

𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗̂ = 𝑐

𝑣⃗ = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)

Velocity of the Particle at any Time

This is obtained by squaring and adding the two components of the velocity equations:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑣𝑦 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)

𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 = (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)2

𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 = √𝑢2 + (𝑔𝑡)2 − 2𝑢𝑔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
tan 𝛽 =
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Displacement Equation of a Projectile

The velocity,
𝑑𝑟
𝑣= = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡

where r is the displacement

𝑟 = ∫(𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂)𝑑𝑡

1
= 𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑗̂ + 𝑐
2
When t = 0, r = 0, then c = 0.

1
∴ 𝑟 = 𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑗̂ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
2

The characteristics of the motion can be determined from these equations.

The Greatest (Maximum) Height (H)

At the maximum height, the j-component of the velocity is zero

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 = 0

30
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴𝑡= (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) … … … … … … … … . . (4)
𝑔

If we substitute equation 4 into the vertical displacement in equation 3, we get.

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
𝑠𝑦 = 𝐻 = 𝑢 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( )
𝑔 2 𝑔

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= − 𝑔
𝑔 2 𝑔2

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= −
𝑔 2 𝑔

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐻= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
2𝑔

Time of Flight (T)

At the time of flight, the j-component of the displacement is zero.
1
𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = 0
2
1
𝑢𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑔𝑇 2
2
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6)
𝑔

Hence, the time of flight is twice the time taken to reach maximum height.

The Range (R)

At the time of flight (T), the i-component of displacement is equal to the range:

𝑠𝑥 = 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑢( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑔

2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝑔
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
𝑔

31
Maximum Range
Considering equation 7, for fixed values of u and g, the range depends on 𝜃

𝑢2
−1 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 1, 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1
𝑔

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1

2𝜃 = 90𝑜
𝜋
𝜃 = 45𝑜 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (8)
4

However, for a given velocity of projection, there are two possible angles of projection to attain a
particular range
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔

𝑔𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 =
𝑢2

𝐵𝑢𝑡 sin(180 − 2𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

𝑔𝑅
sin(180 − 2𝜃) =
𝑢2
The two angles are, therefore:
2𝜃 1
, (180 − 2𝜃)
2 2

𝜃, (90 − 𝜃)

When the range is maximum, the height H reached by the projectile is

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 45 𝑢2 𝑅𝑥
𝐻= = = =
2𝑔 2𝑔 4𝑔 4

The Trajectory
If we let x and y be the horizontal and vertical distances respectively from the origin, then

𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)

1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
2
Form equation 1,
𝑥
𝑡= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

32
Substituting equation (3) into equation (2), we get,

𝑥 1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑢( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( 2 )
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( 2 )
2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( 2 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
2 𝑢
For a given value of 𝜃, 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔,

𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 2
where,
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝑏 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑔
2 𝑢2

are constants, hence the trajectory is a parabola.

Horizontal Projection
Initially: velocity is purely horizontal and vertically it is zero,
(i.) Horizontal velocity remains constant;
(ii.) Vertical velocity increases in the downward direction due to gravity.

Particle covers horizontal displacement due to horizontal velocity and vertical displacement due
to vertical velocity.

Path of this projectile

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑢𝑦 = 0, 𝑎𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑔

Using the displacement equation

𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2

33
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡
𝑥
𝑡=
𝑢

𝑦 = 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2

𝑥 2
𝑦 = 1⁄2 𝑔 ( )
𝑦
𝑔 2
𝑦= 𝑥
2𝑢2
Velocity at any time

Velocity at any Time

𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 = √𝑢2 + (𝑔𝑡)2

𝑣𝑦 𝑔𝑡
tan 𝛽 = =
𝑣𝑥 𝑢

𝑔𝑡
𝛽 = tan−1 ( )
𝑢
QUESTION1
A stone is projected from the ground with a velocity of 10 ms-1 at an angle of 60o to the horizontal.
Find
a. How far it goes.
b. The maximum height reached
c. Its time of flight?

34
QUESTION 2
A projectile is fired horizontally with a velocity of 200 ms-1 from the top of a building 50 m high.
a. How long will it take to strikes the ground?
b. How far from the foot of the building will it strikes the ground?
c. Find its velocity just be hitting the ground

Solution

𝑣𝑥𝑜 = 200 𝑚𝑠 −1

50 m
vx

vy

Since the projectile is fired horizontally, it will have initial velocity only in the x-direction, thus

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑥𝑜 = 200 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑣𝑦𝑜 = 0, 𝑦 = 50 𝑚

1
a. Using the equation¸ 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑜 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2

50 = 1⁄2 (10)𝑡 2

Hence, 𝑡 = ±3.2 𝑠, but t > 0, therefore, time of flight, T= 2t = 3.16 s

b. Range = 𝑣𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 200 x 3.2 = 640 m

c. Final velocity in the y-direction, 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑜 + 𝑔𝑡

𝑣𝑦 = (10)(3.2) = 31.6 𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = (200𝑖 + 31.6𝑗)𝑚𝑠 −1

35
Questions
1. A ball is thrown from the top of a building 45 m high a speed 20 ms-1 above the horizontal
at an angle of 30°. Find
a. the time taken by the ball to reach the ground, and
b. the speed of the ball just before it touches the ground.

2. A bomb is fired horizontally with a velocity of 20 ms-1 from the top of a tower which 40 m
high. After how much time and at what horizontal distance from the tower will the bomb
strike the ground? Take g = 9.8 ms-2.

3. A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of a tower and strikes the ground in 3 s at an
angle of 30o with the vertical
a. Find the height of the tower.
b. Find the speed with which the body was projected.

4. A ball is projected from the ground with a velocity of 40 ms-1 at an angle of 30o with the
horizontal. Determine
a. the time of flight,
b. h, the horizontal range, and
c. the maximum height.
d. At what time is the maximum height attained?
e. What is the magnitude and direction of velocity at the maximum height?
f. What is the magnitude and direction of velocity after 1 s of throwing the ball?

5. A stone is projected from a point on the ground in such a direction to hit a bird on the top
of a telegraph post of height h and then attain a maximum height 3h/2 above the ground. If
at the instant of projection, the bird flies away horizontally with uniform speed, find the
ratio between the horizontal velocities of the bird and stone if the stone still hits the bird
while descending.

36
CIRCULAR MOTION
A body is said to describe a circular motion when it moves in a circular path such that its distance
from a fixed point is always constant. For a uniform circular motion, the speed (tangential and
angular) is constant, but there is acceleration since the linear velocity changes direction as the
object moves along the circle.

Position and Displacement

The figure below shows the position vector of an object moving in a circular orbit of
radius, R, and change in position 𝛥𝑟 between time, t and time, 𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡.

The position vector is caused by changes in the direction, not in magnitude.

Magnitude of Displacement
• The magnitude of the displacement is the length of the chord of the circle

|∆𝑟⃗| = 2𝑅 sin(∆𝜃⁄2)
Where R, is the radius of the circle which is equal to r(t) or r(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)

Small Angle Approximation

• When the angle is small, approximate
sin Δθ ≅ Δθ
• infinite power series expansion
1 1
sin ∆𝜃 = ∆𝜃 − (∆𝜃)3 + (∆𝜃)5 − ⋯
3! 5!

• Using the small angle approximation, the magnitude of the displacement is

|∆𝑟⃗| = 𝑅∆𝜃

37
Magnitude of Velocity and Angular Velocity
The magnitude of the velocity is proportional to the rate of change of the magnitude of the angular
displacement with respect to time

|∆𝑟⃗| 𝑅|∆𝜃| |∆𝜃| 𝑑𝜃

𝑣 = |𝑣⃗| = lim = lim = 𝑅 lim =𝑅
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Angular velocity
𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡
Magnitude of velocity
𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔
units: [ rads-1]

Direction of Velocity
 The direction of the velocity is the same as the sequence of chord Δr directions as Δt
approaches zero.
 the direction of the velocity at time t is perpendicular to position vector and tangent to the
circular orbit.

Acceleration
When an object moves in a circular orbit, the acceleration has two components, tangential and
radial.

Tangential Acceleration
The tangential acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity

∆𝑣𝜃 ∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2𝜃
𝑎𝜃 = lim = 𝑅 lim =𝑅 =𝑅 2
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

38
Angular acceleration (𝛼): This is defined as the time rate of change of angular velocity
𝑑𝜃
𝛼=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2 𝜃
𝛼= = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Units: rads-2

Therefore, tangential acceleration

𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑅𝛼

Uniform Circular Motion

• An object is said to move in a uniform circular motion, if it is constrained to move in a circular
path when the total tangential force acting on the object is zero, hence by Newton’s Second Law
of Motion, the tangential acceleration is zero.

𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0
• Magnitude of the velocity (speed) remains constant

Period and Frequency

The amount of time taken to complete one circular orbit of radius R is called the period (T). In one
period the object travels a distance equal to the circumference of a circle (2𝜋𝑅). If the particle is
moving with velocity, 𝑣 then

𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝑣𝑇
• Period:
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋
𝑇= = =
𝑣 𝑅𝜔 𝜔

• Frequency is the inverse of the period and it is defined as the number of complete oscillation in
a unit time.

𝑓 = 1/𝑇 = 𝜔/2𝜋
• Units [s ] ≡ [Hz]
-1

39
Radial Acceleration
 Any object travelling in a circular orbit with a constant speed is always accelerating
towards the centre.
 The direction of the velocity is constantly changing.

Magnitude of Change in Velocity

 The magnitude of the change in velocity is

|∆𝑣⃗| = 2𝑣 sin(∆𝜃⁄2)
• small angle approximation
sin ∆𝜃 ≅ ∆𝜃
Conclusion

40
|∆𝑣⃗| ≅ 𝑣|∆𝜃|
Magnitude of Radial Acceleration (ar)

• Magnitude
|∆𝑣⃗| 𝑣|∆𝜃| |∆𝜃| 𝑑𝜃
𝑎𝑟 = lim = lim = 𝑣 lim =𝑣 = 𝑣𝜔
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Recall, the magnitude of the velocity

𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔
• Conclusion:
|𝑎𝑟 | = 𝑅𝜔2

• Arc length, s = Rθ

• Tangential velocity
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
𝑣= =𝑅 = 𝑅𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Tangential acceleration
𝑑𝑣0 𝑑2𝜃
𝑎𝜃 = = 𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Centripetal acceleration
𝑣2
|𝑎𝑟 | = 𝑣𝜔 = = 𝑅𝜔2
𝑅

Rotational Kinematics
A rotational kinematic is a motion of a rotational body whose rotational parameters, angular
displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration are functions of time.

41
The variables of the motion of such circular systems are exactly analogous to the variables of linear
motion x, vx, and ax for one-dimensional motion. The rotational kinematic obey the same
equations as the linear motion:

Kinematics of Circular Motion with constant angular acceleration:

1
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) + ∝ (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )2
2
𝜔(𝑡) = 𝜔0 +∝ (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

[𝜔(𝑡)]2 = 𝜔02 + 2 ∝ (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )

Tutorials
A car is moving around a circular track with a constant speed v of 10 m/s as in the diagram below.
At different times the car is at points A, B and C respectively. Determine the velocity change from
(i). A to C (ii). A to B.

Solution

A 10 m/s
v

o
90
B
o
90

v
C

v
(i). Velocity change from A to C
𝑣⃗𝐶 − 𝑣⃗𝐴 = (10) − (−10)
= 20 𝑚/𝑠 in the direction of C.

42
(ii). Velocity change from A to B 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝐵 + (−𝑣⃗𝐴 )

vB

X
Y
vA

From the diagram, above 𝑣⃗𝐵 = 𝑍𝑌 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑌 = −𝑣⃗𝐴 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −1

So that ZX= 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴 = √102 + 102 = 28 𝑚𝑠 −1

Direction:
𝑣⃗𝐴 10
tan(𝜃) = =
𝑣⃗𝐵 10

10
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) = 45𝑜
10
Question 1
A stone of mass 2 kg is whirled at 2 revolutions every second in a horizontal circle of radius 1 m.
find
a) It centripetal acceleration
b) The centripetal force acting on the stone.

Question 2
A wheel of radius 0.5 m starts from rest and rotates with a uniform acceleration to 60 revs-1 in 2 s.
Find
a) The angular acceleration of the wheel
b) The speed at any point of its path

Question 3
A rotating disc has an angular displacement described by the expression
𝜃 = 0.25𝜋 + 4𝑡 − 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3 , where θ is in radians and the t is in seconds. Find
a) The expression of the angular speed and angular acceleration as a function of t.
b) The angular speed and angular acceleration of the disc after 2 s.
c) The angular displacement and the number of revolutions made at the end of 3 s.

43
If the body is projected with initial velocity u and let at any time t, the body is at height h
from the point of projection. There will be two possible values of t which are t1, and t2 as
given in the question.

The height of the projectile

1
ℎ = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2𝑢 2ℎ
𝑡2 − 𝑡+ =0
𝑔 𝑔

This ia a quadratic equation having two roots, t1 and t2,

hence
sum of roots
−2𝑢
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = −
𝑔

𝑢 = 1⁄2 𝑔(𝑡1 + 𝑡2 )
Product of roots
2ℎ
𝑡1 𝑡2 =
𝑔
ℎ = 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡1 𝑡2

44
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
These laws are the fundamental laws of motion based on experimental observations and were
formulated by Sir Isaac Newton. These laws provide the basis for understanding forces’ effect on
an object. These laws are the axioms on which the whole dynamics is based.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

Everybody continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to
change that state by forces impressed upon it. This is equivalent to defining a force as ‘’ that which
cases acceleration’’ The first law expresses the concept of inertia of a body which can be described
as the reluctance of a body to begin moving or stop moving once it has started moving.
Quantitatively, the inertia of a body is measured by its mass. The larger the masse, the greater the
force required to alter its speed direction appreciably compared to the smaller masses. This means
large masses possess larger inertia than smaller masses. The mass of a body can thus be a measure
of its inertia.
 Constant velocity means both magnitude and direction
 No net force does not mean no force at all, just that whatever forces are present add up to
zero
 Only forces between objects, not internal forces, count
 This works both ways; if v is constant, then F must be zero and if F = 0, then v must be
constant.

This law is also called the law of inertia which is a statement about reference frames in the sense
that it defines the kind 'of a reference frame in which the laws of Newtonian Mechanics hold.

Types of inertia
 Inertia of Rest: It is the inability of a body to change by itself its state of rest. This means
a body at rest remains at rest and cannot start moving independently.

 Inertia of Direction: It is the inability of a body to change by itself its direction of motion,
i.e., a body continues to move along the same straight line unless compelled by some
external force to change it.

 Inertia of Motion: It is the inability of a body to change by itself its state of uniform
motion, i.e., a body in a uniform motion can neither accelerate' nor retard on its own and
come to rest.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impresses, and it is made in the direction
of the right line in which that force is impressed. Or the rate of change of momentum is directed
proportional to the external force acting on the body and takes place in the direction of the force.
Mathematically it can be expressed as,

𝑑𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑑(𝑚𝑣⃗)
𝐹⃗ ∝ ∝
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

45
But
𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

hence
⃗⃗ = ma⃗⃗
∑F

Note

o Forces add as vectors

o The total force points in the direction of the acceleration
o The force and acceleration are related by a property of the object itself.

The components of the force are:

∑𝐹𝑥 = m𝑎𝑥

∑𝐹𝑦 = m𝑎𝑦

∑𝐹𝑧 = m𝑎𝑧
UNITS OF FORCE
 Acceleration is in ms-2
 Mass is in kg
kg m
 So, Force is =N
s2
 N is Newton, the unit for force.

IMPULSE
This is the product of the force and the change in time, and it is equal to the change in
momentum. From Newton’s Second Law

𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑝⃗

If the momentum of the particle changes from 𝑃⃗⃗𝑖 , at time 𝑡𝑖 , to 𝑃⃗⃗𝑓 at time 𝑡𝑓 , then
𝑡𝑓
𝑝𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑝⃗ = 𝑝⃗𝑓 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑡𝑖

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

There is always an equal reaction to every action: or the mutual action of two bodies upon each
other is always equal and directed to contrary parts.

 Force due to object A on object B is always exactly equal in magnitude and always exactly
opposite in direction to the force due to object B on object A.

46
o The two forces are called an “action-reaction” pair
o The two forces are equal and opposite in direction but do not “add to zero and go
away” in solving problems because they act on different objects
 It only makes sense to add the forces on a single object
 If you consider A + B as a single object, then these forces become
“internal”.

SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
If two or more forces (𝐹⃗⃗⃗⃗1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗3 , ………. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2 , 𝐹 𝐹𝑛 ) are applied to a single body, the total force
experienced by the body is the vector sum of all the forces acting on that body.

⃗F⃗total = ⃗F⃗1 +F
⃗⃗2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 +……….+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑛

MOMENTUM
The momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity,

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗

Momentum is a vector quantity because we obtain momentum by multiplying mass m (scalar) and
velocity v (vector). Therefore, the result is a vector and acts in the direction of the velocity. The
SI unit of momentum is kgms-1.

COLLISION
A collision occurs when a body’s momentum changes. This change may be due to a change in the
magnitude of the body’s velocity, direction or change in mass. Collision is instantaneous when the
time taken for the change in momentum is negligible.

When two bodies of mass m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities u1 and u2 respectively collide,
the collision can be elastic or inelastic.

m1 m2

u1 u2

INELASTIC COLLISION
This is a collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved, but there is the conservation of
momentum. Thus inelastic collisions are those in which kinetic energy is lost. Part of the kinetic
energy may be converted to thermal energy or elastic energy of deformation. A completely
inelastic collision is when the colliding bodies stick together after impact. An example of an
inelastic collision is a ball bouncing on the floor.

ELASTIC COLLISION:
This is a collision in which kinetic energy and linear momentum are conserved. An example of a
perfectly elastic collision is the collision between molecules of an ideal gas1.

47
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
The law of conservation of linear momentum states that the total momentum of a closed system of
objects (system of objects with no interactions with external agents) is constant. For a close system
of object collision, the sum of momentum before the collision is equal to the sum of momentum
after the collision.

Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving in the same direction with initial
velocities u1 and u2, colliding after which they move with final velocities v1 and v2, respectively.

Mathematical analysis of inelastic collision

Body A Body B
Mass = m1 Mass = m2
Initial velocity = u1 Initial velocity = u2
Final velocity = v1 Final velocity = v2

Assuming they stick together and move as a unit with common velocity v, then for the law of
conservation of momentum
𝑣 = 𝑣1 = 𝑣2

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) v
Therefore
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑣 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

Lost in kinetic energy = Initial kinetic energy – Final kinetic energy

Initial kinetic energy:

1 1
𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22
2 2
Final kinetic energy:
1 1 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 2
𝐾𝐸𝑓 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) [ ]
2 2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

The loss in kinetic energy.

1 1 1 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 2
△ 𝐾𝐸 = ( 𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 ) − ( (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) ( ) )
2 2 2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

1 2 2
1 (𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 )2
△ 𝐾𝐸 = (𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 ) −
2 2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Finding the LCM,
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )(𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 ) − (𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 )2
△ 𝐾𝐸 =
2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

𝑚1 𝑚2 (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )2
△ 𝐾𝐸 =
2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )

48
Question
Supposing an object of mass 2 kg, moving with a velocity 10 ms-1 collides head-on with another
object B, of mass twice that of A and moving in the opposite direction with velocity 25 ms-1. Find
their common velocities if both objects stacked together after collision and moved with a common
velocity.

MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

The total linear momentum of a system is the vector sum of the momenta of the individual particles.
For a system of particles, the momentum of the system:

𝑝𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑝𝑖
𝑖
Where it is emphasised that the addition is done as vectors, generalising to many different objects
is simply a case of adding more momenta.

CENTRE OF MASS
This is a point within a body where its mass seems to be concentrated. The centre of mass
accelerates as if all the system’s mass were concentrated at that point and all external forces act
there. The acceleration of the centre of mass

∑ 𝐹⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑀

Where ∑ 𝐹⃗ is the external net force on the system and M is the system’s tot.

Centre of Mass of a System of ‘N’ Discrete Particles

Consider a system of N point masses, 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , …, 𝑚𝑛 whose position vectors from the origin
O given by ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑟1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝑟3 …, ⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑟2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝑟𝑛 respectively. The position vector of the centre of mass C of the system
is given as

49
𝑚1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 + 𝑚2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 + 𝑚3 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟3 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟𝑛
𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛
𝒏
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒎𝒊 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝒊 𝟏
= 𝒏 = ∑ 𝒎𝒊 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝒊
∑𝒊=𝟏 𝒎𝒊 𝑴
𝒊=𝟏

Where M is the total mass of the system.

Consider a system of points masses, 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 , …, located at the coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), (𝑥2

𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), …, respectively. The centre of mass of this system of masses is a point whose coordinates
are (𝑥𝐶𝑀 , 𝑦𝐶𝑀 , 𝑧𝐶𝑀 ), is given as
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯
𝑥𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯

𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + ⋯
𝑦𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯

𝑚1 𝑧1 + 𝑚2 𝑧2 + ⋯
𝑥𝐶𝑀 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯
50
Note
Read on the centre of gravity.

RELATIVITY OF MOTION AND THE GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION

PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY
The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion relative to one another; this
is referred to as the principle of relativity. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all
observers, regardless of their relative motion or light source’s motion.

Newtonian mechanics assume that space and time are absolute. Two observers in different inertial
frames of reference will measure equal spatial and time intervals for an event like dropping a ball
from a height.

A frame of reference consists of an abstract coordinate system and a set of physical reference
points that uniquely fix the coordinate system and standardize measurements. The inertial
coordinate system is a frame of reference that is either at rest or moving with constant velocity.

An Inertial Frame of Reference is a frame in which an object is observed to have no acceleration

when no forces act on it. Thus it has either at rest or moving at a constant velocity. Any system
moving with constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame must also be in an inertial frame.

Galileo’s principle of inertial says an object at rest or in motion will maintain that condition unless
acted on by an external force. However, this assertion is not true experimentally. Hence, Newton’s
laws (including inertia) do not hold in accelerated reference frames but rather in frames moving
with constant velocity called Inertial frames.

51
Principle of Galilean Relativity
This states that the laws of mechanics must be the same in all inertial frames of reference.

Observers in different inertia frames will find different observations but will all find Newton’s
Law to hold.

Galilean Transformation
This compares the observation made in different inertia frames. Suppose an observer O in an
inertial frame measures the velocity of an object as v. Then another observer O’ in a different
inertia frame moving with constant velocity u relative to O, finds the same object to move with
velocity.

𝑉́ = 𝑣 − 𝑢

In a cartesian system for our two frames, we consider the relative u as always along the x-direction.
So that the Galilean transformation becomes

𝑉́𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢…………..1

𝑉́𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 ……………….2
𝑉́𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 ………………..3

Only the x-component of the velocities is affected. Integrating equation (1), we get

𝑥́ = 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡…………4
and differentiating equation 4
𝑑𝑣𝑥́ 𝑑𝑣𝑥
= …………… 5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Gives
𝑎𝑥́ = 𝑎𝑥 ……………..6
From equation (6,) we see that Newton’s law holds in both frames. Since u is constant, thus

𝑑𝑢
=0
𝑑𝑡
So that the observers in different frames measure equal acceleration

Question
Golf-4 and Passat cars are travelling at a constant speed of 100 kmh-1 and 30 kmh-1 respectively
along around in the same direction. If these speeds were measured relative to an observer on the
ground, determine the speed of the Golf to that of the Passat.

Solution
Let O be the observer on the ground who observes the Golf move at 100 kmh-1. Assume 𝑂́ to be
the Passat moving at 30 kmh-1. Then
𝑉̇ = 𝑣 − 𝑢
= 100 – 30 = 70 kmh-1

52
FORCES
A force may be defined as the acceleration that a body of unit mass experiences when the body is
pushed or pulled. The concept of force gives a quantitative description of the interaction between
two bodies or between a body and its environment.

Characteristic of force
 Produces or tries to produce motion in a body at rest.
 Stops or tries to stop a moving body.
 Changes or tries to change the direction of motion of a body.
 Produces a change in the shape of a body.

CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES
Based on the nature of the interaction between two bodies, forces may be broadly classified as
under:
1. Contact Forces: Forces that act between bodies in contact. For example, tension, normal
reaction, friction, etc.
2. Field Forces (Non-Contact Forces): Forces that act between bodies separated by a
distance without any actual contact. For example, weight, electrostatic forces, etc.

F = ma

A force is a vector quantity, and it is in the same direction as the acceleration of the body in
question. A force can be represented by a straight line, with the length of the line representing the
magnitude of the force F and the arrow indicating the direction of the force.

WEIGHT
This is a force exerted downward on an object lying on a surface. This force is due to the earth’s
gravitational pull on the object. It always acts vertically downwards (toward the centre of the
Earth).

Weight = mg
The weight acts through a point called the centre of gravity (CG).
 For symmetrical bodies, the CG is at the centre of symmetry.
 For a long uniform rod (uniform cross-section), the CG is at the geometric centre of the
rod.

53
 For a thin rectangular plate (lamina) and a parallelogram, it is at the intersection of the
diagonals.

REACTION
This is an opposing force to the weight on an object. It always acts in the opposite direction to the
direction of the weight. It is also equal in magnitude to the object’s weight on which it is acting.

Reaction

Weight
TENSION
A body suspended by a string experiences a gravitational pull. If the weight does not break the str
of the object, iting is said to be in equilibrium. The force which balances the weight and passes
along the string or spring is referred to as the tension in the string. The tension has the same
magnitude as the object’s weight causing it but acts in the opposite direction.

Tension = a

Weight = a

THRUST
If a brick is placed along a strong spring, the spring will resist the weight withwith forceled thrust.

mg

Thrust

54
FRICTION
Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact. If a force is applied
to a body at rest, the frictional force that opposes its motion is termed static (limiting) frictional
force Fs. This frictional force increases with the applied force and attains its maximum value when
motion is just about to start. The applied force equa,ls the frictional force (static friction) if the
body is at rest.

Immediately the body starts moving, the frictional force in operation reduces. This frictional force
on the body in motion is termed dynamic or kinetic frictional force, Fk (Fk < Fs)

Reaction

Friction Push

Weight
LAWS OF FRICTION
1. The frictional force between two surfaces opposes their relative motion.
2. The frictional force is independent of the area of contact of the surfaces when the normal
reaction is constant.
3. The limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal reaction in the case of static
friction. The frictional force is proportional to the normal reaction in the case of kinetic
friction. For the case of kinetic friction, the frictional force is independent of the relative
velocity between the surfaces.

Let N = Normal Reaction

𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
and
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁

Fs and Fk are the limiting or static and kinetic frictional forces, and 𝜇𝑠 and 𝜇𝑘 are constants called
the coefficient of static and dynamic frictions, respectively? The limiting frictional force is the
frictional force that operates before the body starts moving.

55
CASE 1
N

F(Frictional force) Applied force

mg

Consider a body moving on a horizontal plane. This body is in equilibrium in the vertical direction,
hence

𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
But
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
Therefore
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔

If the motion is just about to start, then

𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔

T
CASE II
Tsinθ

θ Tcosθ

𝐹𝑠

Imagine a body A of mass, m having a force of magnitude T, applied on it, in a direction which
makes an angle θ with the horizontal plane in which the body lies. When the motion is about to
begin
𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑠

⟹ 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔

56
When a body is moving at a constant speed

𝐹𝑘 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔

When the body accelerates with an acceleration of magnitude, ‘a’

𝑇 cos 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎

The force required to cause the body to rise will satisfy the relation

𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

When it moves upward with acceleration, a, then

𝑇 sin 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
CASE III (Inclined Plane)

N
F
Direction of Motion

θ
wsinθ
w wcosθ
θ

Let the slope of the inclined plane be adjusted until the body moves with constant speed. Once
there is motion
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁

As there is no motion in the direction of the normal reaction, the sum of forces in that direction is
zero. The body moves with constant speed along the plane; hence the resultant force is zero.

In this case, the normal reaction

𝑁 = 𝑤 cos 𝜃
Similarly, dynamic friction
𝐹𝑘 = 𝑤 sin 𝜃

⇒ 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑤 cos 𝜃 = 𝑤 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃
Therefore 𝜇𝑘 = = tan 𝜃
cos 𝜃

Once the body moves with constant speed, 𝜇𝑘 = tan 𝜃 (this is not the case if the body accelerates).

It can also be shown that 𝜇𝑠 =, when motion is just about to begin on an inclined plane.

57
ROLLING FRICTION
Rolling friction is the frictional force that opposes motion between two bodies when one role over
the other. It is much less than the sliding frictional force and operates when wheels, for instance,
rotate on the ground. The surface of the wheel in contact with the ground is always momentarily
at rest with respect to the ground so that both rolling and static frictional force opposes the wheel’s
motion. But rolling frictional force is negligible compared to static frictional force, the. Therefore
required to stop a vehicle on a wheel in the absence of the brakes is the practically static frictional
force.

Question 1
(a) A block of mass 2.0 kg is at rest on rough horizontal ground. The coefficient of friction
between the union and the ground is 0.3. A horizontal force, P, is applied steadily onto the block,
according to the law 𝑃 = 𝑡 2 – 𝑡 + 1, where, is in Newton’s and t is time in seconds. Calculate
(i) The time it takes the block to start moving
(ii) The speed of the block when t = 4 seconds
(iii) If the coefficient of dynamic friction between the block and the ground is 0.1, calculate
its speed when t = 10 seconds.

(b) A vehicle moving with velocity, Vo on a rough horizontal road is brought to rest in the distance,
s. If the coefficient of static friction between the tyres is µ, show that it is independent of the
vehicle’s mass. Hence calculate s, when µ = 0.5 and V0 = 90 kmh-1. [g =10 ms-2]

QUESTION
A block of mass 10 kg rests on a horizontal floor (coefficient of friction = 0.4).
a. What force is required to make the block move when:
i. Pulling horizontal
ii. Pulling at an angle of 60o.
b. If the block is pulled with a horizontal force of 50 N, what acceleration does it moves?
(g=9.8 ms-2).
Solution
R

𝜇𝑅 P

10 x g N
On the point of sliding: 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅

= 0.4 x 10 x 9.8 = 39 N

(i) The normal reaction, R = 10g N, as the block is in equilibrium vertically.

58
(ii) When the force P is not reserve,
R

60o
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅

mg = 10g

When P is reserved,
R P sin 60o

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅
𝑃 cos 60

10g

In this case, the normal reaction R is not equal to 10g since we must take into account the vertical
component of the force P,

When P is reserved, we obtain

10g = R + P sin 60o……………1

Since the block is in limiting equilibrium

P cos 60o = 𝜇𝑅………………..2

0.5 P = 𝜇𝑅
Therefore,
R = 1.25 P…………3
Substituting equation 3 into 1 gives,

10g = 1.25P + 0.866P = 2.116P

P = 46 N

This is greater than the force in the first case,

59
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅
a

50 N

The pulling force is greater than the value of P required to move the block as in equation 1. Hence
there is a net forward force of

50 – 39 = 11 N = F = ma
10a = 11
a = 1.1 ms-2

Question 2
A parcel of mass 10 kg rests on a lorry. When the lorry accelerates at 1.5 ms -2, the parcel is just
about to slide backwards. What is the coefficient of friction between the parcel and the lorry (g =
9.8 ms-2)?
Solution

1.5 ms-2

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅

10g

We can see the force acting on the mass from the figure above. Vertically, the parcel is in
equilibrium so

R = 10g N

Horizontally,
Fh = ma = 10 x 1.5 = 15 N

Therefore, as the parcel is about to slip backwards, F must act in the direction of motion and
overcome the frictional force when the parcel is about to slide. Therefore,

𝐹ℎ = 𝐹𝑟 = 𝜇𝑅 = 15
𝜇 × 10𝑔 = 15
15
𝜇= = 0.15
10 × 9.8

60
NOTE
Read on:
1. The advantages of friction.
2. The disadvantages of friction.
3. How friction can be reduced.

Summary
The frictional force F has a value given by

𝐹 ≤ 𝜇𝑅

Where R is the normal reaction between the surfaces, μ is the coefficient of friction, and it depends
on the nature of the surfaces in contact and is independent of the area in contact.

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅 is called limiting, friction and it occurs provided friction is taking place or is about to take
pl; else it is 𝐹 < 𝜇𝑅.

WORK DONE BY A CONSTANT FORCE

Work is defined as the product of the force applied and the displacement covered in the direction
of the applied force. Thus, if a force of F Newton’s causes a displacement of d meters in the
direction of the applied force, then by definition, the work, W executed by force is 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑
Joules.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑

However, a constant force F acting on a particle may not act in the direction the particle moves. In
this case, the work done may be defined as the product of the component of the force acting along
the line of action and the distance d moved by the particle along that line.

m
𝝓
-x x

Consider a force F, acting on a body of mass m, as shown in the diagram above. If the force moves
the body through a distance d, then the work done by the component of the force acting along the
line of motion is
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ф × 𝑑 = 𝑓. 𝑑

Other forces like weight and frictional forces also act on the body. If there are several forces acting
on the particle, then, the work done by these forces needs to be calculated separately so that the

61
total job done on the particle is the sum of the works done by the separate forces. For a variable
force F, acting in the direction of the displacement, the work done is given by

W = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑠
Question

1. What is the work done if ф is zero?

2. What is the work done if ф is 90o (Assuming in each case the force moved the body in the x-
direction)?
3. Explain why work is not done in the figure below, even though the body moved with a velocity
v.
w

Velocity
Frictionless surface

Solution

𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑑 cos 90𝑜 = 0

WORK AND THE DOT PRODUCT

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂

∆𝑥⃗ = ∆𝑥𝑖̂

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ ∆𝑥⃗ = (𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂) ∙ (∆𝑥𝑖̂) = 𝐹𝑥 ∆𝑥

62
WORK DONE BY NON-CONSTANT FORCE
• Infinitesimal work is a scalar

∆𝑊𝑖 = (𝐹𝑥 )𝑖 ∆𝑥𝑖

• add up these scalar quantities to get the total work

𝑖=𝑁 𝑖=𝑁

𝑊𝑁 = ∑ ∆𝑊𝑖 = ∑(𝐹𝑥 )𝑖 ∆𝑥𝑖

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Limit as
𝑁 → ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |∆𝑥𝑖 | → 0
𝑥=𝑥𝑓
𝑖=𝑁

𝑊 = lim ∑(𝐹𝑥 )𝑖 ∆𝑥𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑁→∞
∆𝑥𝑖 →0 𝑖=1 𝑥=𝑥0

WORK DONE ALONG AN ARBITRARY PATH

∆𝑊𝑖 = 𝐹⃗𝑖 ∙ ∆𝑟⃗𝑖

𝑟𝑓
𝑖=𝑁

𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑖 ∙ ∆𝑟⃗𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹⃗𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗

𝑁→∞
|∆𝑟𝑖 |→0 𝑖=1 𝑟0

63
LINE INTEGRALS
• Force vector:

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑘̂
• Line element:
𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂

• Total work:
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑓

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹⃗𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑟0 𝑟0 𝑟0 𝑟0
ENERGY
Energy can simply be defined as the ability to do work. It is the quantitative property that must be
transferred to an object to perform k on work on the object.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form but not created or
destroyed.

KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
The kinetic energy of a body of a mass m moving with a velocity, V ms-2, is given by
𝐾. 𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2

DERIVATION OF THE KINETIC ENERGY EQUATION ( 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 )

Consider a body of mass m, moving through a distance, 𝑑s under the action of a variable force F.
Work done 𝑑𝑤 by force is given by,
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠
From Newton’s second law,
𝑚𝑑𝑣
𝐹=
𝑑𝑡

𝑚𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑠; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 =𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Therefore,
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣

The work done by a force, 𝐹, in increasing the velocity of the body from zero to say 𝑣 is given by,
𝑣
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑜
1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

This work is numerically equal to the Kinetic Energy of the body.

64
RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC ENERGY AND WORK.
Consider a body of mass m moving with an initial velocity of 𝑢. If a, V and S denote its
acceleration, final velocity and displacement respectively upon applying a force of F.

From Newton’s third equation of motion,

𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2 𝑎𝑠

2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉 2 − 𝑢2

𝑉 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎𝑠 = − (1)
2

Multiplying both sides of equation (1) by the mass, m

𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2
𝑚𝑎𝑠 =
2

By definition, ma = Force (F) which implies mass is equivalent to work (W) done by the force in
causing the body to accelerate from initial velocity U to a final velocity V.

𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2
𝑊=
2
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = Final Kinetic Energy of body
2

1
𝑚𝑢2 = Initial Kinetic Energy of body
2

Thus, work done by the force is equal to the change in kinetic energy.

That is,
1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 2

POTENTIAL ENERGY
This is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position from a reference point or the
arrangement of its parts. For a body of mass m, positioned at a point h unit from a reference level,
its potential energy is given by

𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ Joules.

65
If we consider a body of mass, m falling from a point ‘a’ with height ho, above the ground as shown
in the diagram below,
a

mg
ho d

hf mg

If such a ball of mass m falls vertically downwards, its gravity force is given as ‘mg’. This is the
only force acting on the ball.

If the ball moves from point a to b, the downward displacement d = ho - hf and the work is done by
gravity in moving the ball
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑓 )

Since the force and the displacement are in the same direction. The above equation is valid
irrespective of the path taken between the initial and the final heights.

From the equation, an object at a given height above the ground,

𝑊𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑜 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓

Where 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑜 is the initial gravitational potential energy and 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 is the final gravitational
potential energy.

The gravitational potential energy is the energy that an object of mass m has by virtue of its position
relative to the earth’s surface
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELASTIC SPRING

The force experienced by a spring is proportional to the extension produced in it, Hooke’s Law.

From Hooke’s Law, an extension, s, will produce a force,

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑠

66
Consider an elastic spring of spring constant k Nm-1, having a block attached to it. Work done 𝑑𝑤,
in extending it by a distance, 𝑑𝑠 by a force F,

ds

𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠

The total work done, in extending the spring from 𝑠 = 0, to 𝑠 = 𝑥 units,

𝑥

𝑤 = ∫ 𝑘𝑠𝑑𝑠
0

𝑤 = 1⁄2 𝑘𝑥 2

This is stored as energy in the spring, and it is termed its elastic potential energy. The work done
(w) in extending the spring from 𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑏 is given by

𝑤 = ∫ 𝑘𝑠𝑑𝑠
𝑎

𝑤 = 1⁄2 𝑘(𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 )

𝑘𝑎 + 𝑘𝑏
𝑤= (𝑏 − 𝑎)
2

Since 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑠, then 𝐹𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 and 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏, where 𝐹𝑎 , 𝐹𝑏 are the tensions at point a and b
respectively.
𝐹𝑎 +𝐹𝑏
𝑤= (𝑏 − 𝑎),
2
where
𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑏
2
is the mean tension in the spring from a to b, and (𝑏 − 𝑎) is the extension produced in spring by
extending from a to b?

67
Thus, the work done in extending a stretched spring is equal to the product of the mean tension
and extension.

KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY FOR ONE DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM

In one dimensional system, the force applied to a moving body is directed along the line of motion
with the system having kinetic and potential energy,

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑢 = 𝐸(𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) …………………………………………..…1

2

E is called the total mechanical energy and it remains constant as the particle moves.

If the particle moves from a point A at the position, 𝑥𝑜 with speed, 𝑣𝑜 to point B at the position, x
with speed v. Then, for a conservative force, the total mechanical energy, E, must be the same for
each system.

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑢 = 1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑢 ……………………………..…………………………..2
2 𝑥 2 𝑜 𝑥𝑜

Equations 1 and 2 are called the law of conservation of mechanical energy for conservative forces.

The potential energy (U) is equal to the work against that force to move an object from the U=0
reference point to the position r. For one dimensional motion, we can establish a relationship
between force and potential energy as
𝑑𝑢(𝑥)
𝐹(𝑥) = − ……………………………………………………………………..………..3
𝑑𝑥

KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY FOR THREE DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM

In three dimensional systems, the work done by a conservative force depends only on the endpoints
of motion and is independent of the path taken between these points.

The potential energy is a function of three space coordinates, that is

𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Therefore
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
∆𝑢 = − ∫𝑥 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑦 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − ∫𝑧 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧………………………..………….4
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜

This can be written in a vector form as

𝑟
∆𝑢 = − ∫ 𝐹(𝑟⃗) . 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑜

Δu is the change in potential energy for the system as the particle moves from the point (xo, yo, zo)
described by the position vector 𝑟⃗𝑜 to the point (x, y, z) defined by the position vector 𝑟⃗ and Fx, Fy,
Fz are the components of the conservative force

𝐹(𝑟) = − 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
The equation can be generalized as

68
1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑢 1 2
2 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) = ⁄2 𝑚𝑣𝑜 + 𝑢(𝑥𝑜 ,𝑦𝑜 ,𝑧𝑜 )

which can be written in a vector form as

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣⃗. 𝑣⃗ + 𝑢 = 1⁄ 𝑚𝑣⃗ . 𝑣⃗ + 𝑢
2 (𝑟⃗) 2 𝑜 𝑜 (𝑟⃗𝑜 )
In which
𝑣⃗. 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑧 2 = 𝑣 2
and
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑧 2 = 𝑣𝑜 2
𝑣𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.

Similarly, equation 1 can be written as

1⁄ 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑢
2 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) = 𝐸
and equation 3 as
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝐹(𝑟⃗) = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + ⃗⃗
𝑘
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Note
Read on the law of conservation of mechanical energy.

69
ASSIGNMENT

SUBMISSION DATE: To be given

QUESTIONS

1. 500 kg roller starts from a point A as shown in the diagram below. If throughout its travel,
the average retarding force due to air friction on the wheel is 200 N. What is its speed at
points B and C given that |𝐴𝐵| = 100 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵𝐶| = 50 𝑚. How far will it travel at the
elevation of C before coming to rest?
A

C D

20 m
5m

B
2. Under a constant force, a 10 kg ball increases its speed from 2.0 ms -1 to 7 ms-1 after
covering 50 m. Calculate the force on the ball.

3. A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the top of a building 50 m tall with an initial
velocity of 20.0 ms-1. If the stone just misses the edge of the roof on its return, determine
(a) The time is taken for the stone to get to its maximum height.
(b) The maximum height reached by the stone
(c) The time at which the stone return to the point where it was thrown
(d) The velocity of the stone at this instance
(e) The velocity and position of the stone at t = 5 s.
4.
(a) What is the difference between inertia and momentum?
(b) A bullet of mass 40.0 g is fired from a gun with a nozzle velocity of 25.0 ms-1. Calculate
the recoil velocity of the gun, whose mass is 5.0 kg.

5. When an aeroplane lands on an aircraft carrier, it can be stopped by huge steel “arresting
wire” stretched across the deck. A plane of mass of 20 tons lands on the carrier at 50 ms-1
and the wire has a stiffness of 𝑘 = 3.3 × 108 . Find
(a) The kinetic energy of the plane on landing
(b) The amount of the resting wire stretches (assuming the wire obeys Hooke’s law).

6. An object moves along the x-axis according to the equation 𝑥(𝑡) = (3. 00𝑡 3 − 2.00𝑡 +
1.00) 𝑚. Determine
(a) The average speed between t = 2.00 s and t = 3.00 s,
(b) The instantaneous speed at t = 2.00 s and at t = 3.00 s,
(c) The average acceleration between t = 2.00 s and at t = 3.00 s,
(d) The instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.00 s and at t = 3.00 s.

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