PHY 151 INTRODUCTORY MECHANICS

DR. DAVID DOTSE WEMEGAH

VECTORS

Vectors can be defined as quantities that have both magnitude and direction and combine according
to certain rules of addition. The magnitude is a real value that indicates how large or small the
vector is. Examples of such physical quantities are force, velocity, acceleration, electric field and
magnetic field

Scalar Definition:
Scalar quantities are those that can be specified by a number and unit and that therefore have only
magnitude. They are said to be described fully by their magnitude. Examples are: mass, length,
time, density, energy and temperature. These quantities can be manipulated by the rules of ordinary
algebra.

Addition of vectors
We have two methods by which vectors can be added
(i) Geometrical Method
(ii) Analytical Method

Geometrical Method
Facts:
 To represent a vector on a diagram, we draw an arrow
 The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of vector (i.e. we choose a scale)
 The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector.
 The arrow head represents the sense of the direction.
 In this lesson, vectors will be represented by bold characters.

Rules for adding vectors geometrically

If we consider the diagram below, we draw to scale the displacement vector a, then draw b with
its tail at the head of a and then draw a line from the tail of a to the head of b to construct the
vector, the resultant r, of the vectors a and b is the algebraic sum of the two vectors, r = a + b as
below. (NB: + is not the same as the that in scalar algebra).

Commutative law of addition

This states that a + b = b + a.

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b

b
Associative law of vector addition

Student should identify the vector sums from the diagram below.

These laws assert that the sum of vectors is the same irrespective of the order or in what grouping
we add the vectors.

Vectors Subtraction/Difference
Given a vector a, the negative –a, is a vector of the same magnitude but in opposite direction.
So a – b = a + (-b). These operation apply also to all vector quantities and not only displacement

-b -b

a
a

A change of position of a particle is called a displacement. So if a particle moves from position x

to position y, its displacement can be represented by drawing a line from x to y with an arrow
showing the direction.
x y
This motion of a particle can be represented in a vector form as XY or⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑌. The arrow represents
only the net effect of the motion but not actual motion; hence the path of the particle need not
necessarily be a straight line from x to y.

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Identical Vectors
Given two vectors AB and CD:

A B

C D

These two vectors are said to be identical if they have the same length, magnitude and points in
the same directions.

Displacement, Independent of the path of the motion

The path of a particle from X and Y needs not necessarily be a straight line

Fig. a X Fig. b X

The actual path of the particle moving from X to Y may be the dotted line in the Fig. a. However,
the displacement remains the vector XY (deep line). At some intermediate point Z the
displacement from X is the vector XZ.

Similarly, from Fig. b. above, after displacement XZ, the particle undergoes another displacement
ZY. The net effect of the two displacements is represented by the vector XY.
Therefore XY can be said to be the sum or resultant of the displacements XZ and ZY.

𝑋𝑌 = 𝑋𝑍 + 𝑍𝑌

Position Vector

y A

(0, 0) x

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When a set of vectors are all referenced to a given origin, the vectors are called position vectors
relative to that origin.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Unit Vectors
A vector whose magnitudes is 1 is known as a unit vector. Note that unit vectors are generally used
to specify directions
|𝑎̂| = 1

𝐴
|𝑎̂| =
|𝐴|
Resolution of Vectors
The geometrical method has limitations when considered in three dimensions. This calls for the
use of the analytical method that involves the resolution of vectors into components with respect
to a particular coordinate system.

The resolution of a vector R, drawn onto x, y-coordinate system, making an angle θ with the x-
axis is done by finding the x-component Rx and y-component Ry of that vector. Each component
of the vector in a particular direction is the “effective part” of the vector in that direction.

Now consider a vector 𝑎 whose tail has been placed at the origin of a rectangular coordinate
system, with an angle θ to the x-axis as shown,

y
a

x
o a
In order to get the components of this vector, a line is then drawn perpendicularly from the head
to the axes, for the quantities 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 to form the components of the vector 𝑎. From this diagram
𝑎𝑦
sin 𝜃 =
|𝑎|
and

𝑎𝑥
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑎|

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Hence, the components 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 are given as:

𝑎𝑥 = |𝑎|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑎𝑦 = |𝑎|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃,

where 𝜃 is the angle that vector 𝑎 makes with the positive x-axis measured counterclockwise from
this axis. The 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 may be positive or negative depending on the angle 𝜃.

From the components 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦

The magnitude of vector 𝑎,

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|𝑎| = √|𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 |2 + |𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 |
and

|𝑎𝑦 |
tan 𝜃 =
|𝑎𝑥 |

Three Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System

There are three mutually perpendicular directions each extending to infinity in the forward and
backward direction. These are usually labelled, 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 axis. The origin of these vectors is given
as (0, 0, 0).

𝑗̂

𝑖̂
𝑘̂ x

By convention, the x direction is labelled by the unit vector 𝑖̂, the y direction by the unit vector 𝑗̂,
and the z direction by the unit vector 𝑘̂. These unit vectors are mutually perpendicular and are
usually reserved for the directions 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. These being unit vectors have the property,|𝑖̂| = |𝑗̂| =
|𝑘̂| = 1. Therefore a vector ‘a’ acting in this plane is represented as, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂.

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Example
⃗
𝑏
Find the magnitudes and directions of the vectors (𝑖). −𝑏⃗, (𝑖𝑖). 1.5 , (𝑖𝑖𝑖). −2𝑏⃗ if 𝑏⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂

Component of A Vector
A vector 𝐴̂, connecting the origin to a point 𝑃(𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 ) can be written as 𝐴̂ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂.
The coeficients 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑧 , are called the components of the vector 𝐴̂ and often represent
points in 3-D space. When the components are points, the vector 𝐴̂ is a position vector.

⃗ connect the origin to the points 𝑃(𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 ) and 𝑄(𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 ) respectively,

If the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
then 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵̂ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂. Then

⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑘̂

𝐴+𝐵

If the vector 𝐴, is not directly connected to the origin, with the the tail of the vector located at point
𝑃1 with coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), the head located at 𝑃2 with coordinate (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) and the position
vector that links the point 𝑃1 to the origin is ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and that which connect 𝑃2 to the origin is ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2 , then

𝑟1 + 𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑟2

𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1
since
𝑟1 = 𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗
and
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗
then
𝐴 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂

this gives the vector 𝐴̂ in terms of the coordinates of the starting point and the end point.

Vector Multiplication
There are three ways of multiplying vectors:
Multiplying a vector by a scalar, Dot/scalar product and Cross/vector product

Multiplying a vector by a scalar: as 𝑘𝑎 where k is the scalar quantity. The resultant vector direction
is positive if k is positive and vice versa.

Dot/Scalar Product
The scalar products of two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗ written as 𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Where |𝐴| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐵| are
the magnitudes of the vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗ with 𝜃 as the angle between the two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗ . The
dot product of two vectors yields a scalar. The dot product can be positive, zero or negative.

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There are two main types of projections

⃗ = (𝐴 cos 𝜃)𝐵 = 𝐴(𝐵 cos 𝜃)

𝐴∙𝐵

Properties
1. Commutative property: ⃗ =𝐵
𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ ∙𝐴

2. Associative property: ⃗ = 𝑐(𝐵

𝑐𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 ⃗ ∙ 𝐴)

3. Distributive property: ⃗ ) ∙ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∙ 𝐶 ) + (𝐵
(𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗ ∙ 𝐶)

UNIT VECTORS AND THE DOT PRODUCT

• Unit vectors

𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = |𝑖̂|. |𝑖̂|cos(0) = 1

𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑘̂ = 1

𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = |𝑖̂|. |𝑗̂| cos(𝜋⁄2) = cos(90°) = 0

𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑖̂. 𝑘̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ = 0

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Question
Explain why the dot product of two vectors gives a scalar quantity.

Answer
Since A and B are scalar and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is a pure number, the scalar product of two vectors is a scalar.

Examples
a. Calculate the dot product of the vectors 5𝑖̂ – 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 2𝑖̂ – 𝑘̂. What is the angle between them?
b. Calculate the angles between two forces represented by 𝐹1 = (−2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂)𝑁 and
𝐹2 = (3𝑖̂ − 6𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂)𝑁.

Vector Components of Dot Product

If a vector 𝐴 is given as, 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂, and vector 𝐵 ⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂.

⃗ is given as, 𝐵

⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
then 𝐴 . 𝐵

Similarly, 𝑘̂. 𝐴 = 𝑘̂. (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂)

𝑘̂. 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑧

Magnitude of a vector

The magnitude of a vector 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑎̂

where
𝐴 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂

is obtain by taking the product 𝐴. 𝐴

𝐴. 𝐴 = ((𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂) . ((𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂)

𝐴2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

𝐴 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

Generally, the magnitude of a vector 𝐴̂ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) is given as

𝐴 = √𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 + 𝑍 2

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4. Cross / Vector product
y
j

B i
x
k
z

⃗ is given as
The cross or vector product of two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵
𝐶 =𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛̂

where 𝜃 is the angle between the two vectors and 𝑛̂ is the direction perpendicular to both vectors.

This quantity is a vector with a magnitude and direction. The direction of the vector is defined to
be along the perpendicular to the plane formed by the two vectors as in the diagram above.

Features of the Cross / Vector Product

(i). The cross product (𝐴 × 𝐵⃗ ) when 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗ are parallel is zero. Hence the cross product of the
same unit vector is zero.

(ii). Vector product find useful applications in treating problems relating to quantities such as
angular momentum, torque and angular velocity.

⃗ ≠𝐵
(iii). Unlike the scalar products, vector products are anti-commutative i.e. 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴. But
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = −𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴 (opposite direction)

𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = |𝑖||𝑖| sin 0𝑛̂ = 0

𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
Similarly
𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = |𝑖̂||𝑗̂| sin 90𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂

𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = |𝑗̂||𝑘̂| sin 90𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂

𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = |𝑘̂||𝑖̂| sin 90𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂

But
𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂

𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂

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𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂
Example

⃗ given that 𝐴 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂) and 𝐵

Find 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂).

Solution:

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
|𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 | = 𝑖̂(𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) − 𝑗̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 ) + 𝑘̂ (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 ).
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

Derivatives of vectors

The derivative of a vector function F in terms of a scalar variable, x

𝑑𝐹 ∆𝐹(𝑟) 𝐹(𝑟 + ∆𝑟) − 𝐹(𝑟)

= lim = lim
𝑑𝑟 ∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑟→0 ∆𝑟
Given that

𝐹(𝑟) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑖̂ + 𝐹(𝑦)𝑗̂ + 𝐹(𝑧)𝑘̂

𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑𝐹(𝑦) 𝑑𝐹(𝑧)

= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Read on the following

Integrals of Vectors

Derivatives of trigonometry functions

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The cosine rule and the sine rule
Given a triangle with magnitude of its sides A, B and C and angles as shown below,

𝜆 𝛼

the sine rule is given as

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜆

Cosine rule
𝐶 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜆

KINEMATICS AND ONE DIMENSIONAL MOTION

KINEMATICS
Kinematic involves the mathematical description of motion (Position, Displacement, Velocity, and
Acceleration). Kinematic basically means movement.

COORDINATE SYSTEM IN ONE DIMENSION

Choice of origin, Choice of coordinate axis, Choice of positive direction for the axis, Choice of
unit vectors at each point in space

POSITION
Vector from origin to body:

In the x direction is given as,

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂

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In the y direction is given as

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂

In the z direction is given as

𝑧(𝑡) = 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘̂

DISPLACEMENT
Change in position of a coordinate of an object between the times t1 and t2

∆𝑥 = (𝑥(𝑡2 ) − 𝑥(𝑡1 ))𝑖̂ = ∆𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂

Speed: The term speed refers to how far an object travels in a given time interval, regardless of
direction.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

Velocity is the rate of charge of the position or coordinate of an object with time

AVERAGE VELOCITY
In a one-dimensional motion, suppose an object moves in the x-direction in a coordinate system
such that at some moment in time, 𝑡1 the object is on the x-axis at position 𝑥1 and at some later
time, 𝑡2 its position is at 𝑥2 then:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

∆𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝑣̅
∆𝑡

The component of the average velocity, 𝑉̅𝑥 is the displacement Δx divided by the time interval Δt.
This can be expressed in the x-direction with unit vector 𝑖̂ as:

∆𝑥
⃗̅ =
𝑉 𝑖̂ = 𝑉̅𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂
∆𝑡

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INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
Instantaneous velocity at any moment is defined as the average velocity during an infinitesimally
short time interval.

∆𝑥
𝑣̅ = (1)
∆𝑡

We define instantaneous velocity as the average velocity as we let ∆𝒕 from equation (1) becomes
extremely small (approaching zero). Hence for a one–dimensional motion we define instantaneous
velocity as:

∆𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

For time interval Δt, we calculate the average velocity. As Δt→0, we generate a sequence of
average velocities. The limiting value of this sequence is defined to be the x-component of the
instantaneous velocity at the time t.

∆𝑥 𝑥(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑(𝑥)

𝑉𝑥 (𝑡) = lim 𝑉̅𝑥 = lim = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

AVERAGE ACCELERATION
Average velocity is defined as the change in velocity divided by the time taken to make this
change:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝑎̅ = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

∆𝑣𝑥 (𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑥1 ) ∆𝑣𝑥

𝑎̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

• Change in velocity divided by the time interval

Motion at constant acceleration

13
When the magnitude of the acceleration is constant and the motion is in a straight line, the
instantaneous and average accelerations are equal.

INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION
This is the acceleration of a body at a particular instance of time. For time interval Δt, we calculate
the average acceleration. As Δt→0 , we generate a sequence of average accelerations. The limiting
value of this sequence is defined to be the x-component of the instantaneous velocity at the time t.

∆𝑣 𝑣(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣

𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ = lim 𝑎̅𝑥 𝑖̂ = lim 𝑖̂ = lim 𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

CONSTANT ACCELERATION: area under the acceleration vs. time graph

∆𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0

𝑎𝑥 = ̅̅̅
𝑎𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡

𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡

CONSTANT ACCELERATION: Area under the velocity vs. time graph

14
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑣𝑥 , 𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,𝑜 )𝑡
2
But

𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡

Therefore
1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑣𝑥,𝑜 , 𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,𝑜 𝑡 + (𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑥,0 )𝑡 = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2 2

CONSTANT ACCELERATION: Average velocity

When the acceleration is constant, the velocity is a linear function of time. Therefore the average
velocity is

1
𝑣𝑥 =
̅̅̅ (𝑣 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 )
2 𝑥

Similarly,

1 1 1
𝑣𝑥 = (𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 ) = ((𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡) + 𝑣𝑥,0 ) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
̅̅̅
2 2 2

15
CONSTANT ACCELERATION: Area under the velocity vs. time graph
Displacement is equal to the area under the graph of the x-component of the velocity vs.
time

1
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑣𝑥 , 𝑡)
∆𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥0 = ̅̅̅𝑡
2

SUMMARY: constant acceleration

• Position

1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
• velocity
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑥,0 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡

MOTION WITH VARIABLE ACCELERATION

VELOCITY AS THE INTEGRAL OF THE ACCELERATION

The area under the graph of the acceleration vs. time is the change in velocity

𝑖=𝑁 𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑎𝑥 , 𝑡) = lim ∑ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡𝑖 )∆𝑡𝑖 = ∫ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

∆𝑡𝑖 →0
𝑖=1 𝑡=0

𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑑𝑣𝑥
∫ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = [𝑣𝑥 ]𝑡𝑡=0 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) − 𝑣𝑥,0
𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0 𝑡=0 𝑡=0

16
POSITION AS THE INTEGRAL OF VELOCITY
• Area under the graph of velocity vs. time is the displacement

𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑡=𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥

∫ 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) − 𝑥0
𝑡=0

Example 1.
Determine the average speed, if a car travels 350 km in 5 hours.

The term speed and velocity are often used interchangeably. However, speed is just a positive
number with units whilst velocity signifies both magnitude (value of how fast a body is moving)
as well as the direction of movement.

Example 2
Under what condition would average speed and average velocity have the same magnitude? (Ans:
When the motion is in one direction).

Example 3
A car travels 100 m east and then 46 m west. If it does this in 1 hour, determine.
(i). The distance and the average speed of the car
(ii). The displacement and the average velocity of the car

Example 4
A person walked in such a way that during a 5 s time interval, his position changes from 𝒙𝟏 =
100 𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑥2 = 50 𝑚. What is the person’s average velocity?

Example 5:
• A runner accelerates from rest for an interval of time and then travels at a constant velocity. How
far did the runner travels?

I. UNDERSTAND – get a conceptual grasp of the problem

stage 1: constant acceleration
stage 2: constant velocity.

17
TOOLS:
Coordinate system
Kinematic equations

DEVISE A PLAN:
Stage 1: constant acceleration

Initial conditions:

𝑥0 = 0 𝑣𝑥,0 = 0

Kinematic Equations:

1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
2

Final Conditions: end acceleration at

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎
position:

1
𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎 ) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎2
2

velocity

𝑣𝑥,𝑎 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎 ) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎

DEVISE A PLAN
Stage 2: constant velocity, time interval

𝑡𝑎 , 𝑡𝑏
Type equation here.
Type equation here.
• Runs at a constant velocity for the time

𝑡𝑏 − 𝑡𝑎

• Final position

𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑡𝑏 ) = 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑣𝑥,𝑎 (𝑡𝑏 − 𝑡𝑎 )

III. SOLVE
• three independent equations

18
1
𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2

𝑣𝑥,𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎

𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑣𝑥,𝑎 (𝑡𝑏 − 𝑡𝑎 )

• Six unknowns:
𝑥𝑏 𝑥𝑎 𝑣𝑥,𝑎 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑏

• Need three extra facts: for example:

𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑏

III. SOLVE
• Solve for distance the runner has traveled

1 1
𝑥𝑏 = 𝑥(𝑡 = 𝑡𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎 (𝑡𝑏 − 𝑡𝑎 ) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑏 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎2
2 2

IV. LOOK BACK: Choose Values

Runner accelerated for

𝑡𝑎 = 3.0𝑠

Initial acceleration:
a =2.0 m s-2

Runs at a constant velocity for

𝑡𝑏 − 𝑡𝑎 = 6.0𝑠

Total time of running

𝑡𝑏 = 𝑡𝑎 + 6.0𝑠 = 3.0𝑠 + 6.02 = 9.0𝑠

Total distance running

1 1
𝑥𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑏 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎2 = (2𝑚𝑠 −2 )(3𝑠)(9𝑠) − (2.0𝑚𝑠 −2 )(3.0𝑠)2 = 4.5𝑥103 𝑚
2 2

Final velocity
v =a t = (2.0 m s)(3.0s )=6.0 ms-1

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Note

 Make sure you are using the correct SI unit to answer questions.
 Need to use consistent coordinate system and origin for all objects
 Need to think carefully about directions (signs!)
 Need to think carefully about conditions, especially when things ‘’start’’ at different times
 Write separate equations for each object
 Read problem carefully to understand the specific constraint to use to solve it

Summary
 Kinematics provides a language to describe motion
 Basic relationship between position, velocity, acceleration (change=slope=derivative)
 Study special cases (like constant acceleration) but understand the assumptions that go into all
formulas
 Position, velocity, and acceleration are ALL vectors and need to be manipulated using either
arrows (qualitative) or components (quantitative)
 Directions (or signs in 1D) of position, velocity, and acceleration can all be different

MOTION WITH VARIABLE ACCELERATION

A particle is said to have a variable acceleration when
a. Its coordinates are function of time and involve a term tn where n > 2.
b. The velocity vector remains constant in magnitude but varies in direction

QUESTION
The coordinate of certain particle moving along the x-axis is given by 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 where 𝑥 is
in metres and t is seconds. Find the velocity and the acceleration of the particle after 2 seconds.

Solution

Displacement = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3

𝑑𝑥
But 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = = 6𝑡 − 6𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥(2)
Velocity after 2 s, 𝑣(2) = = 6(2) − 6(2)2
𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = 12 − 24

= −12 𝑚𝑠 −1
Calculate the acceleration

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VECTOR DESCRIPTION OF MOTION

Two dimension
Motion parameters can be expressed in 2-D system as follows

• Position

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂

• Velocity

𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 (𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Acceleration

𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑦 (𝑡)

𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Three Dimension
Motion parameters can be expressed in 3-D system as follows

1. Position
𝑟̂ (𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑍(𝑡)𝑘̂
2. Velocity

𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑧(𝑡)

𝑉̂ (𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ≡ 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑧 (𝑡)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

3. Acceleration

𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑧 (𝑡)

𝑎̂(𝑡) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ≡ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Examples
1. An aircraft travels 200 km on a straight course making an angle of 300 east of due north.
Determine how far north and how far east the aircraft traveled from its starting point.

2. A vehicle travels due east on a level road for 50 km.It then turns due north at an intersection and
travels 70 km before stopping. Determine the resultant displacement of the vehicle.

FREE FALL MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

A free-falling object is an object which is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any object
which is being acted upon only be a force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall. Regardless
of the mass and with negligible air resistance all bodies had the same acceleration vertically
downward when falling freely. Assuming no air or the medium resistance, the body has

21
acceleration of –g when moving upwards and +g when moving downwards. Very close to the
surface of the earth, the gravitational force is constant hence, the acceleration of the falling body
is also constant or uniform.

The equations of motion of a body under gravity can be written as follows:

Downwards motion Upwards motion

1.𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡. 1. 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡.

1 1
2. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2 2. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠. 3. 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠.

Example. 1
A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity near the surface of the Earth. When it reaches the
highest point,
a. it velocity is zero and its acceleration is non-zero
b. its velocity is zero and its acceleration is zero
c. its velocity is non-zero and its acceleration is zero
d. its velocity is non-zero and its acceleration is non-zero

Example2
A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 10 ms-1 from the top of a 50 m tall building.
a. With what velocity will it hits the ground?
b. How long does it takes the ball to strike the ground?

Example
A ball B is thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 40.0 ms-1 at the same time ball C is released
at a hieght of 100. 0 m directly above the point of projection. If the two balls collide, find the ratio
𝑉
of their impact velocity 𝐵⁄𝑉 .
𝐶

PROJECTILES
From our previous lesson, we considered motion of objects in one-dimension in terms of
displacement, velocity, acceleration as well as vertical motion of objects under gravity. We now
consider motions in two dimensions of objects projected into the air, such as golf ball, battered
baseball. Such motions are called projected motions.

Projectiles can be considered when a particle is projected under gravity in a given direction.

Assumptions:
(a). Acceleration due to gravity is uniform
(b). The air resistance to the motion is negligible

Definitions
Trajectory: The path traced by the projectile (parabola)

22
Angle of projection: This is the angle the initial direction of motion makes with the horizontal
plane through the point of projection.

Range: the maximum horizontal displacement covered by the particle during its motion from time
of launching to the time it hurts the ground or target.

Time of flight: The time taken by the particle to exhaust the entire motion from instance, of
launching or projection to the time it hits the ground or target.

uy= 0
Trajectory
y
uy

ux
usin

ucos
x
range
Angle of elevation/projection

The figure shows the trajectory of a projectile. The particle is projected at an angle θ, to the
horizontal with an initial velocity of u, and acted upon by the force of gravity, which pulls the
particle downward with an acceleration of -g.

Projection on a parallel plane

If the projection is done on a parallel plane, the equation of motion is given as:

𝑑𝑣
= −𝑔𝑗̂ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = − ∫ 𝑔𝑗̂𝑑𝑡

𝑣 = −𝑔𝑡𝑗̂ + 𝑐
When t = 0,
𝑣 = 𝑢 = |𝑢|(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗̂)

Where 𝑖 is a unit vector in the horizontal direction and 𝑗̂ a unit vector in the vertical direction.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 |𝑢| = 𝑣 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0

𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑗̂ = 𝑐

23
𝑣 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡

where x is the displacement

𝑥 = ∫(𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑗̂)𝑑𝑡

1
= 𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑗̂ + 𝑐
2

When t = 0, x = 0, then c = 0.

1
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖̂ + (𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑗̂ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
2

The characteristics of the motion can be determined from these equations.

The greatest (maximum) Height (H)

At the maximum height, the j-component of the velocity is zero

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 = 0

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴𝑡= (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) … … … … … … … … . . (4)
𝑔

If we substitute equation 4 into the vertical displacement in equation 3, we get.

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
𝑥 = 𝐻 = 𝑢( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( )
𝑔 2 𝑔

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= − 𝑔
𝑔 2 𝑔2

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
−
𝑔 2 𝑔

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐻= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
2𝑔

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Time of Flight (T)
At the time of flight, the j-component of the displacement is zero.

1
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 = 0
2
1
𝑢𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑔𝑇 2
2
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑇= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6)
𝑔

Hence, the time of flight is twice the time taken to reach maximum height.

The Range (R)

At the time of flight (T), the i-component of displacement (distance travelled) is equal to the range:

𝑅 = 𝑢𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑢( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑔

2𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝑔

𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
𝑔

Maximum Range
Considering equation 7, for fixed values of u and g, the range depends on 𝜃

𝑢2
−1 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≥ 1, 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1
𝑔

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 1

2𝜃 = 90𝑜
𝜋
𝜃 = 45𝑜 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (8)
4

However, for a given velocity of projection, there are two possible angles of projection to attain a
particular range
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔

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𝑔𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 =
𝑢2

𝐵𝑢𝑡 sin(180 − 2𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

𝑔𝑅
sin(180 − 2𝜃) =
𝑢2
The two angle are therefore:
2𝜃 1
, (180 − 2𝜃)
2 2

𝜃, (90 − 𝜃)
The trajectory
If we let x and y be the horizontal and vertical distances respectively from the origin, then

𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)

1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
2

Form equation 1,

𝑥
𝑡= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Substituting equation (3) into equation (2), we get,

𝑥 1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑢( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( 2 )
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( 2 )
2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔 ( 2 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
2 𝑢
For given values of 𝜃, 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔,

𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 2
where,
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
𝑏 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑔
2 𝑢2

are constants, hence the trajectory is a parabola.

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QUESTION1
A stone is projected from the ground with velocity of 10 ms-1 at an angle of 60o to the horizontal.
Find
a. How far it goes.
b. The maximum height reached
c. Its time of flight?

QUESTION 2
A projectile is fired horizontally with a velocity of 200 ms-1 from the top of a building 50 m high.
a. How long will it take to strike the ground?
b. How far from the foot of the building will it strike the ground?
c. Find its velocity just be hitting the ground

Solution
𝑣𝑥𝑜 = 200 𝑚𝑠 −1

50 m
vx

vy

Since the projectile is fired horizontally, it will have initial velocity only in the x-direction, thus

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑥𝑜 = 200 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑣𝑦𝑜 = 0, 𝑦 = 50 𝑚

1
a. Using the equation¸ 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑜 𝑡 + 2 𝑔𝑡 2

50 = 1⁄2 (10)𝑡 2

Hence, 𝑡 = ±3.2 𝑠, but t > 0, therefore time of flight, t= 3.16 s

b. Range = 𝑣𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 200 x 3.2 = 640 m

c. Final velocity in the y-direction , 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑜 + 𝑔𝑡

𝑣𝑦 = (10)(3.2) = 31.6 𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 = (200𝑖 + 31.6𝑗)𝑚𝑠 −1

CIRCULAR MOTION
A body is said to describe a circular motion when it moves in a circular path such that its distance
from a fixed point is always constant. For a uniform circular motion, the speed (tangential and
angular) is constant, but there is acceleration, since the linear velocity changes direction as the
object moves along the circle.

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Position and Displacement
The figure below shows the position vector of an object moving in a circular orbit of
radius, R, and change in position 𝛥𝑟 between time, t and time, 𝑡 + 𝛥𝑡.

Position vector is changing in direction not in magnitude.

Magnitude of Displacement
• The magnitude of the displacement, is the length of the chord of the circle

|∆𝑟| = 2𝑅 sin(∆𝜃⁄2)

Small Angle Approximation

• When the angle is small, approximate

sin Δθ ≅ Δθ

• infinite power series expansion

1 1
sin ∆𝜃 = ∆𝜃 − (∆𝜃)3 + (∆𝜃)5 − ⋯
3! 5!

• Using the small angle approximation, the magnitude of the displacement is

|∆𝑟| = 𝑅∆𝜃

Magnitude of Velocity and Angular Velocity

The magnitude of the velocity is proportional to the rate of change of the magnitude of the angular
displacement with respect to time

|∆𝑟| 𝑅|∆𝜃| |∆𝜃| 𝑑𝜃

𝑣 = |𝑣| = lim = lim = 𝑅 lim =𝑅
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

28
Angular velocity
𝑑𝜃
𝜔=
𝑑𝑡
Magnitude of velocity
𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔
units: [ radsec-1 ]

Direction of Velocity
 The same as sequence of chord Δr directions as Δt approaches zero
 the direction of the velocity at time t is perpendicular to position vector and tangent to the
circular orbit

Acceleration
When an object moves in a circular orbit, the acceleration has two components, tangential and
radial.

Tangential Acceleration
The tangential acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity

∆𝑣𝜃 ∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2𝜃
𝑎𝜃 = lim = 𝑅 lim =𝑅 =𝑅 2
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Angular acceleration: rate of change of angular velocity with time

𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2 𝜃
𝛼= = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Therefore tangential acceleration

𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑅𝛼

Units: rads-2

29
Uniform Circular Motion
• An object is constrained to move in a circular path when the total tangential force acting on the
object is zero, hence by Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the tangential acceleration is zero

𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0

• Magnitude of the velocity (speed) remains constant

Period and Frequency

The amount of time taken to complete one circular orbit of radius R is called the period (T). In one
period the object travels a distance equal to the circumference of a circle (2𝜋𝑅). If the particle is
moving with velocity, 𝑣 then

𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝑣𝑇

• Period:
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋
𝑇= = =
𝑣 𝑅𝜔 𝜔

• Frequency is the inverse of the period and it is defined as the number of complete oscillation in
a unit time.

𝑓 = 1/𝑇 = 𝜔/2𝜋
• Units [sec-1 ] ≡ [Hz]

Radial Acceleration

 Any object traveling in a circular orbit with a constant speed is always accelerating towards
the center
 Direction of velocity is constantly changing

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Magnitude of Change in Velocity

 The magnitude of the change in velocity is

|∆𝑣| = 2𝑣 sin(∆𝜃⁄2)
• small angle approximation
sin ∆𝜃 ≅ ∆𝜃

Conclusion
|∆𝑣| ≅ 𝑣|∆𝜃|

Magnitude of Radial Acceleration (ar)

• Magnitude
|∆𝑣| 𝑣|∆𝜃| |∆𝜃| 𝑑𝜃
𝑎𝑟 = lim = lim = 𝑣 lim =𝑣 = 𝑣𝜔
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Recall the magnitude of velocity

𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔
• Conclusion:
|𝑎𝑟 | = 𝑅𝜔2

• Arc length s=Rθ

• Tangential velocity
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃
𝑣= =𝑅 = 𝑅𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

31
• Tangential acceleration
𝑑𝑣0 𝑑2𝜃
𝑎𝜃 = = 𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Centripetal acceleration

𝑣2
|𝑎𝑟 | = 𝑣𝜔 = = 𝑅𝜔2
𝑅

Rotational Kinematics
A rotational kinematic is a motion of a rotational body whose rotational parameters, angular
displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration are functions of time.

The variables of the motion of such circular systems are exactly analogous to the variables of linear
motion x, vx, and ax for one dimensional motion. The rotational kinematic obeys the same equations
as the linear motion:

For constant angular acceleration:

1
𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) + ∝ (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )2
2
𝜔(𝑡) = 𝜔0 +∝ (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

[𝜔(𝑡)]2 = 𝜔02 + 2 ∝ (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )

32
Tutorials
A car is moving round a circular track with a constant speed v of 10 m/s as in the diagram below.
At different times the car is at points A, B and C respectively. Determine the velocity change from
(i). A to C (ii). A to B.

Solution

A 10
v
o
90
B
o
90

v C

v
(i). Velocity change from A to C
𝑣𝐶 − 𝑣𝐴 = (10) − (−10)
= 20 𝑚/𝑠 in the direction of C.

(ii). Velocity change from A to B 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 + (−𝑣𝐴 )

vB

X
Y
vA

From the diagram, above 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑍𝑌 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑌 = −𝑣𝐴 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −1

So that ZX= 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 = √102 + 102 = 28 𝑚𝑠 −1

33
Direction:
𝑣𝐴 10
tan(𝜃) = =
𝑣𝐵 10

10
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) = 45𝑜
10
Question
A stone of mass 2 kg is whirled at 2 revolutions every second in a horizontal circle of radius 1 m.
find
a) It centripetal acceleration
b) The centripetal force acting on the stone.

Question
A wheel of radius 0.5 m starts from rest and rotates with a uniform acceleration to 60 revs-1 in 2 s.
Find
a) The angular acceleration of the wheel
b) The speed at any point of its path

Question
A rotating disc has an angular displacement described by the expression
𝜃 = 0.25𝜋 + 4𝑡 − 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3 , where θ is in radians and the t is in seconds. Find
a) The expression of the angular speed and angular acceleration as a function of t.
b) The angular speed and angular acceleration of the disc after 2 s.
c) The angular displacement and the number of revolutions made at the end of 3 s.

Reading Materials:

– Fundamentals of College Physics by Peter J. Nolan

– University Physics by Young and Freedman (12th Edit.)
– Physics for Scientics and Engineers with Modern Physics by Giancoli (4th Edit.)
– Physics for Scientics and Engineers with Modern Physics by Serway and Jewett
(6th Edit.)
– Fundamentals of Physics by Halliday, Resnick and Walker
– Any Physics text book for univerties

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