INDIGO QUESTION BANK

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1. 2D Instrument Approach – It is a 2 dimensional instrument approach procedure which utilizes lateral
guidance only. (Example – A VOR Approach (NPA), NDB, DME and Localiser only approaches.)

2. 3D Instrument Approach – It is a 3 dimensional instrument approach procedure which utilizes both lateral
and vertical guidance (Example – An ILS Approach (PA), MLS, GLS.)

3. ACARS (Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System) – It is a digital system for transmission of
short messages between aircraft and ground stations via air band radio or satellite. (A ping response
indicates a healthy ACARS Communication). ACARS messages are of 3 types: - ATC message, AOC
(Aeronautical Operational Control), AAC (Airline Administration Control).

4. Acceleration Altitude – Altitude at which the aircraft transits from take-off speed (V2 +15/20) to climb out
speed. Usually between 1000-1500 ft.

5. Accelerometer – It is an electro-mechanical device that measures acceleration forces. Forces can be static or
dynamic. Used in INS, IRS etc.

6. ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) – It is a number which expresses the effect of individual airplane on
different pavements. ACN should be less than or equal to PCN for an a/c to operate on a particular
pavement. ACN values are found in Jeppesen Manual under aerodrome general section (Airport Data
Section).
Condition – ACN should not exceed 10% of reported PCN for flexible pavement with permission and ACN
should not exceed 5% of reported PCN for rigid pavement with permission from airport authority.

7. Adequate Airport – It is an airport meeting the safety requirements for take-off and landing for commercial
and non-commercial operations. At the expected time of use:
a) The aerodrome will be compatible with the performance requirement landing weight and will be available
and equipped with services such as ATC, Communication, Nav-Aids, Refuelling etc.
b) At least one let down aid (ground radar would also qualify) will be available for an instrument approach.

8. ADS-B (Automated Dependant Surveillance – Broadcast) – It is a surveillance technology for tracking a/c.
The a/c determines its own position by using GNSS and broadcasts it periodically via radio frequency. A
means by which aircraft, aerodrome vehicles and other objects can automatically transmit and/or receive
data such as identification, position and additional data, as appropriate, in a broadcast mode via a data link.
ADS-B consists of two services:-
 ADS-B-Out – It periodically broadcasts information (position, altitude, velocity) through on-board
transmitter to the traffic control.
 ADS-B-In – It is the reception by an aircraft of
TIS-B (Traffic Information Service - Broadcast) which provides traffic reporting service to the a/c
equipped with ADS-B and FIS-B (Flight Information Service – Broadcast) which provides weather
reporting services like weather reports, AIRMET, SIGMET, NOTAM or PIREP to the a/c.

9. ADS-C (Automated Dependant Surveillance – Contract) – A means by which the terms of an ADS-C
agreement will be exchanged between the ground system and the aircraft, via a data link, specifying under
what conditions ADS-C reports would be initiated, and what data would be contained in the reports.
There are three types of contract:-
 Periodic
 Demand
 Event (Like reporting point)

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10. Alert Height – It is the height above the runway threshold based on the characteristics of the aeroplane and
it’s fail operational landing system. In operational use, approach would be discontinued and a missed
approach initiated if a failure occurred in one of the redundant parts of the automatic landing system or in
the relevant ground equipment above this height. But if a failure occurs below the alert height it would be
ignored and approach should be continued to complete the automatic landing. If engine failure or fire occurs
on final segment above or below the alert height and a/c’s automatic landing system is working properly,
then landing should be done.

11. Alpha Max – It is the maximum Angle of Attack (AoA). Going beyond this angle activates Alpha Floor, which
is the protection system that automatically engages TO/GA power.

12. Alternate Aerodrome – An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes either impossible
to proceed or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing where the necessary services and facilities are
available, where aircraft performance requirement can be met and which is operational at the expected time
of use.
a) T/O Alternate – An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land should this become
necessary shortly after T/O and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure.
b) En-route Alternate – An aircraft would be able to land in the event that a diversion becomes necessary
while en-route.
c) Destination Alternate – An alternate aerodrome where aircraft would be able to land when it becomes
either impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of intended landing. (Note : The aerodrome from
which a flight departs may also be a en-route or destination alternate aerodrome for that flight)

13. Anhedral – It is the downward inclination of the wing. The wing tip is lower than the wing root. Provides
more control effectiveness.

14. Dihedral – It is the upward inclination of the wing. The wing tip is higher than the wing root. Provides more
lateral stability. (Note : Too much positive dihedral can cause Dutch Roll)

15. Anti-Skid Brake System – The purpose of this system is to sense when the wheels are locked i.e. not spinning
and to release the brake pressure through the brake-modulating/metering valve system to generate wheel
spin. (Note : Spin is required for braking efficiency)

16. AOM (Aerodrome Operating Minima) – To enable scheduled, non-scheduled and general aviation operators
to operate safely at an aerodrome under limiting weather conditions, AOM is established. Minimas are
specified in terms of Visibility and/or RVR for Take-off and MDA/DA and Visibility/RVR for landing. Two types
(Normal & Restricted)
 Normal AOM – Applied by scheduled operators. These are calculated based on latest information of
airport facilities, procedures and obstruction clearance requirements.
 Restricted AOM – Consists of additives of height and visibility to the normal AOM.

Conditions to use Restricted AOM:-

 Can be used by non-scheduled and general aviation operators.
 By PICs till they have gained 100 hrs of command experience on type.
 By PICs when operating to an aerodrome with difficult terrain.
Restricted AOM for T/O – Operators shall not conduct T/O below 500m RVR
Restricted AOM for Landing – R-AOM = N-AOM (MDA/DA) + 100 ft.
R-AOM = N-AOM (Vis/RVR) + 400m

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17. Approach Speed Categories – A grouping of aircraft based on the ground speed of 1.3 times the stall speed
at landing configuration (Vso) i.e. Vat (Threshold Speed) at maximum gross weight.
a) Category A – Less than 91 kts (Small SE)
b) Category B – 91 kts – 121 kts (Small ME)
c) Category C – 121 kts – 141 kts (Airline Jet)
d) Category D - 141 kts – 166 kts (Large Jet/Military Jet)
e) Category E - 166 kts – 211 kts (Special Military Jet)

18. Approach Ban Point – The point on the final approach where the reported weather conditions at the runway
must meet the applicable minima so as to be able to meet regulatory requirements for continuing an
instrument approach to land.

19. APV (Approach Procedure with Vertical Guidance) – A performance based navigation (PBN) instrument
approach procedure designed for 3D instrument approach.

20. Archimedes Principle – It states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a
fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and
acts in the upward direction at the centre of the mass of the displaced fluid.

21. Artificial Feel Unit – It is a system required because power-operated flying controls are irreversible i.e. they
do not give feed back to the pilot any sensory information about the control surface. To prevent this, these
units are designed to give control feel which is directly proportional to the speed of the aircraft and to the
amount of control surface movement.

22. ATOW (Actual Take-off Weight) – The actual weight of the aircraft at the holding point. Fuel burns during
taxi operation to the departure runway which in turn reduces the gross weight of the aircraft. Used for T/O
performance calculation.

23. Auto-Thrust – It allows a pilot to control the power setting of an aircraft’s engine by specifying a desired
flight characteristic, rather than manually controlling the fuel flow.

24. AWO (All Weather Operations) – Any surface movement, take-off, departure, approach or landing
operations in conditions where visual reference are limited by weather conditions.

25. AWR (Airborne Weather Radar) – It is used to provide pilots with information regarding weather ahead,
cloud height and terrain ahead.
Principle – Primary Radar (Search Light principle for Bearing and Echo principle for Range).
Frequency – SHF Band (9GHZ-10GHZ)
Working – Radar antenna in the nose of the aircraft produces a narrow beam (fan-shaped cosecant beam or
long-range pencil beam). The radar energy is in a form of pulse. The wave is reflected back from a drop or
hail back to the radar.
The colour used in ascending order of intensity are green, yellow, red and magenta.
Limitations – It cannot detect clear air turbulence and snow.

26. Balanced Field – When TODA = ASDA, aircraft achieves screen height over the end of the runway in all cases.
Determines the MTOW, V1 and Vr.

27. By-Pass Ratio – The ratio of the mass of the airflow passing through the turbine (i.e. Total Air Intake) to the
mass of the airflow passing through the engine core. (5:1 which means 5 kg of air passing through the
turbine for every 1 kg of air passing through the engine core).

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28. Cabin Altitude – The pressure inside the cabin is technically referred to as cabin altitude. It is irrespective of
aircraft altitude. (Oxygen Requirement – Pilot 10000ft / Passengers 14000ft)

29. CANPA (Constant Angle Non-Precision Approach) – It would allow the aircraft to be flown on a published
descent path from the FAF (Final Approach Fix) to the DDA (H) (Derived Decision Altitude), which is a point
where a pilot decides to continue approach to land visually or initiate a missed approach if visual reference
not established with the assurance that the aircraft will not descend below MDA (H) or OCA (H) whichever is
higher. CANPA reduces crew workload, CFIT error and more safety.
*DDA (H) – Derived Decision Altitude or Height. It adds 50 ft. to MDA (H)*

30. Carburettor – It is a device which meters correct fuel-air mixture and supply same to the engine at all engine
speed and altitude. Works on Bernoulli’s Principle and usually used in Piston Engines.

31. CDFA (Continuous Descent Final Approach) – A technique, consistent with stabilized approach procedures,
for flying the final approach segment of a non-precision instrument approach procedure as a continuous
descent, without level-off from an altitude/height at or above the final approach fix altitude/height to a
point approximately 50 ft. above the landing runway threshold or the point where the flare manoeuvre
should begin for the type of aircraft flown.
Benefits:-
 Reduced risk of CFIT
 Better obstacle clearance
 Reduced noise
 Simplification of decision process
 Reduced fuel burn
 Passenger comfort
 Reduced work load

32. Ceiling – The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6000m
(20000ft) covering more than half the sky (4 Oktas or more).
Absolute Ceiling – It is an aircraft’s maximum attainable altitude /flight level at which the Mach number
buffet and pre-stall buffet occur co-incidentally. (ROC = 0 ft./min)
Service Ceiling – The maximum operating altitude/flight level which provides a safety margin below the
absolute ceiling (ROC Piston Engine = 100 ft. /min / Jet Engine = 500 ft. /min)
Aerodynamic Ceiling – Also known as Coffin’s Corner. It is an altitude/flight level where stall speed is equal
to the critical Mach No., at a given gross weight and G-force loading.

33. CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain) – It is an accident in which an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is
unintentionally flown into the ground or a mountain, or water body, or an obstacle.

34. CG (Center of Gravity) – It is a point on the longitudinal axis of the aircraft through which the total weight of
the aircraft will act.
Forward CG -
a) Higher stall speed
b) Increase in longitudinal stability
c) Less Controllability
Aft CG -
a) Lower stall speed
b) Decrease in longitudinal stability
c) Higher manoeuvrability

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35. CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link Communication (CPDLC) – Means of communication between the
controller and the pilot using datalink for ATC communications. It permits data link messages to be
generated for all stages of the flight. The messages have a fixed format defined within the FMS.

36. CMV (Converted Meteorological Visibility) – A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the
reported meteorological visibility, as converted in accordance with the specified requirements in the CAR.
Conditions where CMV cannot be used:-
 When RVR is reported
 For visual circle approaches
 For take-off
 For calculating any RVR minima below 800m

CMV is only to be used by Pilots in the flight and it is not to be used by dispatch.

CMV = Visibility X

Lighting Day Night

HIALS X 1.5 X 2.0
Any other light X 1.0 X 1.5
No lights X 1.0 NA

37. Coffins Corner – It is the altitude at or near which a fast-fixed-wing aircraft’s stall speed is equal to the
critical Mach number, at a given gross weight and G-force landing. At this altitude it is very difficult to keep
the airplane in stable flight. It is also called as ‘Q’ Corner.

38. Communication Failure – If in VFR conditions, the aircraft shall continue to fly in visual meteorological
conditions; land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; and report its arrival by the most expeditious means to
the appropriate air traffic control unit.
If in IFR conditions –
 Proceed according to the current flight plan, maintaining the last acknowledged assigned cruising
level for the portion of the route for which the a/c has received clearance and thereafter at the
cruising level indicated in the current flight plan.
 Arrange the flight so as to arrive as closely as possible to his ETA
 Commence descent as nearly as possible to the expected approach time last received or
acknowledged or if not then as nearly as possible to the ETA specified in the flight plan.
 IFR fight plan in VMC conditions, then follow VMC procedure.

39. Contra Rotating Props – Aircraft equipped with contra-rotating propellers, also referred to as CRP, coaxial
contra-rotating propellers, or high-speed propellers, apply the maximum power of usually a single piston or
turboprop engine to drive two coaxial propellers in contra-rotation (rotation about the same axis in opposite
directions). Two propellers are arranged one behind the other, and power is transferred from the engine via
a planetary gear or spur gear transmission. Contra-rotating propellers should not be confused with counter-
rotating propellers—airscrews on separate shafts turning in opposite directions.

40. Control Laws – Simplify the relationship between the movement of the Pilot sidestick controller and the
aircraft reaction. There are three main control laws - Normal, Alternate and Direct.
Normal Law – When everything is functioning as it should.
Alternate Law – When the plane enters an overstressed situation.
Direct Law – When you have more severe failures.

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41. Convergency – It is the angle of inclination between any two meridians. It is also defined as the angular
difference between two consecutive great circle directions. Convergency = change in longitude X sin (mean
latitude).
It is zero at equator and maximum at poles.

42. Coriolis force – The Coriolis force is an Inertial Force that acts on objects that are in motion relative to a
rotating reference frame.

A commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth.

This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the
direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal
deflection effect is greater near the poles and smallest at the equator, since the rate of change in the
diameter of the circles of latitude when travelling north or south, increases the closer the object is to the
poles.

Coriolis force is given by - 2ΩVρSinɸ

Where Ω - Angular velocity of Earth

V – Velocity of wind

ρ – Density of atmosphere

ɸ - Latitude

43. Cost Index – The cost index is a number used in the Flight Management System (FMS) to optimize the
aircraft's speed. It gives the ratio between the unit cost of time and the unit cost of fuel.
It is a performance management function that optimizes the a/c speed for the minimum cost. Cost Index
form part of a company’s stored route and are inserted into the FMC. Higher Cost Index means higher Mach
No.

44. Counter Rotating Propeller – They generally spin clockwise on the left engine and counter-clockwise on the
right (as viewed from behind the engine). The advantage of such designs is that counter-rotating propellers
balance the effects of Torque and P-factor, meaning such aircraft does not have a critical engine.

45. CP (Center of Pressure) – It is the point on the chord where aerodynamic forces may be considered. It is the
point on the chord where maximum lift is achieved.

46. ILS Critical Area – An area of defined dimensions about the localiser and glide path antennas where vehicles,
including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations. Such presence of vehicles and aircraft will cause
unacceptable disturbances to the ILS signal.
ILS Sensitive Area – An area extending beyond the critical area where the parking and/or movement of
vehicles including a/c, is controlled to prevent the possibility of unacceptable interference to the ILS signal
during ILS operations.

47. Critical Engine – Critical engine is that engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance or
handling abilities of an aircraft. Left engine is usually the critical engine on propellers rotating in the same
direction. There is no critical gas turbine engine because the engines are positioned symmetrically with
opposing revolution direction.

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48. CRM (Crew Resource Management) – A set of training procedures for use in environments where human
errors can have devastating effects. Used primarily for improving air safety. CRM focuses on Interpersonal
communication, leadership and decision making in the cockpit. It began as a recommendation by NTSB
(National Transportation Safety Board) after UA 173 crash.

49. Density Altitude – Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature and pressure. It is used for a/c
performance. It is also defined as the altitude at which the prevailing density occurs.

50. Departure – Distance in E-W direction in ‘NM’ at given latitude. It is maximum at the equator and zero at the
poles.
Distance = change in longitude X cosine of latitude X 60.

51. Derated Thrust – A derate selection electronically reduces the rated thrust of the engine to either one or
more pre-specified values or by a selectable percentage of a normal flat rated thrust. Two main reasons for
using it:-
 To protect engine life and to improve reliability
 To reduce noise generated by the a/c

52. Derated Engine – They are used to reduce engine wear and for noise abatement.

53. Descent Profile – An uninterrupted descent from cruising altitude/FL to the interception of the glide slope or
to a minimum altitude specified for the initial or intermediate approach segment of a non-precision
approach. It usually terminates at Glide slope intercept.

54. Doppler Effect – It is the change of frequency between the transmitted and received signals known as
Doppler shift, due to the movement of transmitter. The frequency decreased as transmitter moves away
from the receiver and vice versa.

55. Drag – It is the retarding force which opposes thrust and is produced by disruption of airflow by the wing,
fuselage and other objects.
Drag

(Non-Lifting)Parasite Induced (Lifting)

Profile Interference

Form Skin Friction

56. Drift Down – In the event of an engine failure, a/c has to lose height till it reaches a lower flight level where
cruise on a single engine is possible. This shallow descent path covers maximum distance for a loss of height.
The a/c has to maintain best L/D speed. This profile is termed as drift down profile and speed is called drift
down speed.

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57. Dutch Roll – It is an oscillatory instability associated with swept back wings. It is a combination of yawing and
rolling motion. Too much positive dihedral introduces lateral directional oscillations. When yaw motion is
induced, either commanded or through turbulence on a swept wing, it causes the outer wing to travel faster
into the wind, which also creates lift and starts a bank. This marked bank occurs to a point where the outer
wing stalls and loses lift and drops the wing in the opposite direction and leading the sequence to be
repeated with the outer wing.
Pilot should use the ailerons in opposite direction to correct Dutch Roll. Yaw damper is used to prevent
Dutch Roll.

58. E2B Compass – The magnetic compasses of the E2 series are miniature instruments, developed for use as
emergency or standby compasses where lack of space precludes the installation of the larger standby
compass. They are of the vertical card-type, the compass card being graduated every 10 degrees with figures
every 30 degrees. The cardinal points are marked by the appropriate letter. The compasses are designed to
give a bench accuracy of ±½° and an operational accuracy of ±10°. The E2B compass is a variant of the E2A
compass, the difference being that the E2B compass incorporates direct red lighting of the compass bowl.
This lighting is achieved by means of a miniature 28 v DC non-magnetic lamp and a red filter. The intensity of
illumination of the lamp can be varied by means of a standard pattern dimmer switch. The E2B compass is
used in aircraft where the cockpit lighting is red.
Properties of the Compass Liquid –
 Wide temperature range - +50°C to -50°C.
 Low co-efficient of expansion. Generally about 12% over the range.
 Low specific gravity.
 Non-corrosive.
 Provision for expansion of liquid – expansion chamber / sylphon tube
 Good clearance between damping wires and the wall of the bowl to reduce the swirl effect.

59. EDTO – EDTO is abbreviated for Extended Diversion Time Operation and applies to all aircraft. ETOPS has
now evolved to EDTO (Extended Diversion Time Operations) to accommodate aircrafts with two or more
engines and the intent of the current regulation is to avoid a diversion and if it occurs, to ensure that the
diversion is safe.
 Operators cannot operate a twin-engine aircraft of AUW more than 5700 kg beyond 60 minutes on
single engine inoperative cruise speed unless approved by DGCA for EDTO.
 The aircrafts need to be approved for EDTO in the airworthiness certificate.
 The pilots also need to be EDTO trained.
 The segment of operation beyond 60 minutes for twin engines will be termed as extended diversion
time operations and this will require prior approval of DGCA.
 For aircrafts with more than 2 engines, the segment of operation beyond 120min will be termed as
EDTO.

60. GPWS - Ground Proximity Warning System is an equipment which warns the aircraft from coming in close
proximity to the ground. It was developed in 1984 because of CFIT. It gives visual and aural warning to the
pilot when the aircraft is entering a potentially dangerous ground proximity situation. Audio warning is a
must and may be supplemented by a visual warning.
It works from 50 ft. AGL to 2450 ft. AGL.

Inputs to GPWS –
 Height input from radio altimeter
 Glide slope input (Captain’s side)
 IVSI
 Flap position
 Landing gear
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Modes –
 Mode 1 – Excessive Rate of Descent
When the aircraft is at 2450 ft. AGL or less.
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Sink Rate, Sink Rate
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Whoop Whoop, Pull up

 Mode 2A – Excessive Rate of Terrain Closure (Not in Landing Configuration)

When the aircraft is at 1800 ft. AGL or less
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Terrain, Terrain
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Whoop Whoop, Pull Up

 Mode 2B – Excessive Rate of Terrain Closure (Landing Configuration)

When the aircraft is at 790 ft. AGL to 220 ft. AGL
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Terrain, Terrain
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Whoop Whoop, Pull Up

 Mode 3 - Negative Climb Rate or Altitude Loss After Take-off

When the aircraft is at 50 ft. AGL to 700 ft. AGL
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Don’t Sink, Don’t Sink

 Mode 4A – Unsafe Terrain Clearance (Configuration – Landing Gear UP)

When the aircraft is at 500ft. AGL or less
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Too Low Gear
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Too Low Terrain

 Mode 4B – Unsafe Terrain Clearance (Configuration – Flaps UP)

When the aircraft is at 200 ft. AGL or less
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Too Low Flaps
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Too Low Terrain

 Mode 5 – Excessive Deviation from Glide Slope

When the aircraft is at 1000 ft. AGL or less. When performing an ILS approach, aircraft is not on
profile (below glideslope) and the deflection is 1.5 dots.
Alert – Amber Flashing Light
Audio – Glideslope, Glideslope
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Glideslope, Glideslope (Higher Pitch and Volume)

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*The audio cannot be silenced, you have to rectify situation unless you pull CB out of position*
*You can disregard GPWS warning provided you have visual contact or it’s a false warning.*
*If RA is unserviceable, GPWS will also be unserviceable because GPWS takes input from RA.*

EGPWS: - Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System performs all the functions of the GPWS. GPWS was
modified and called EGPWS.
Modifications –

 Mode 5 – Excessive Deviation from Glide Slope

Soft Alert - It is activated when aircraft is below 1000 ft. AGL and deviation from glide slope is 1.3
dots. It comes in half of full volume.
Hard Alert – It comes when the aircraft is 2.5 dots below glide slope. It comes in full volume and is to
be treated as a Warning.
*No alert is generated if aircraft is below 150 ft.*
 Mode 6 – Audio Call outs, Bank Angle
Provides callouts based on the specified decision-height and radio altitude. This includes a
'Minimums' alert based upon the decision-height, and callouts while descending through various
radio altitudes (1000', 500', 200', 100', 50', 40', 30', 20' and 10').
It gives alert for bank angle and the envelope reduces as aircraft descends below 150 ft.
Audio – Bank Angle
 Mode 7 – Wind shear
When the aircraft is at 1500 ft. AGL or less.
Continuous comparisons is made between TAS, Groundspeed and the rate of change of both. It also
measures the static air temperature and changes if any.
Wind shear Alert – Displayed on ND
Alert – Amber flashing light
Audio – Caution Wind shear or Wind shear ahead.
When the headwind component increases or the tailwind component decreases along with updraft
this is defined as caution wind shear (Alert Phase).
Warning – Red Flashing Light
Audio – Wind shear, Wind shear
When the headwind component decreases and the tailwind component increases along with
downdrafts this constitutes to wind shear warning (Warning Phase).

*Mandatory for all aircrafts with AUW of more than 5700kg to install this equipment *

61. EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio) – The ratio between exhaust pressure to the inlet pressure. It indicates the
thrust of the engine.

62. FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) – It is a system that automatically controls the engine
functions, i.e. start procedures, engine monitoring, fuel flow, ignition system and power levels required.
FADEC computers can be found on the A320.
FADEC is a system consisting of a digital computer, called an electronic engine controller (EEC) or engine
control unit (ECU), and its related accessories that control all aspects of aircraft engine performance.

Advantages
 Better fuel efficiency
 Automatic engine protection against out-of-tolerance operations
 Safer as the multiple channel FADEC computer provides redundancy in case of failure
 Care-free engine handling, with guaranteed thrust settings
 Ability to use single engine type for wide thrust requirements by just reprogramming the FADECs
 Provides semi-automatic engine starting

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 Better systems integration with engine and aircraft systems
 Can provide engine long-term health monitoring and diagnostics
 Number of external and internal parameters used in the control processes increases by one order of
magnitude
 Reduces the number of parameters to be monitored by flight crews
 Due to the high number of parameters monitored, the FADEC makes possible "Fault Tolerant
Systems" (where a system can operate within required reliability and safety limitation with certain
fault configurations)
 Saves weight

Disadvantages
 Full authority digital engine controls have no form of manual override available, placing full authority
over the operating parameters of the engine in the hands of the computer.
 If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails.
 Upon total FADEC failure, pilots have no manual controls for engine restart, throttle, or other
functions.
 Single point of failure risk can be mitigated with redundant FADECs (assuming that the failure is a
random hardware failure and not the result of a design or manufacturing error, which may cause
identical failures in all identical redundant components).
 High system complexity compared to hydro mechanical, analogue or manual control systems
 High system development and validation effort due to the complexity
 Whereas in crisis (for example, imminent terrain contact), a non-FADEC engine can produce
significantly more than its rated thrust, a FADEC engine will always operate within its limits.

63. Fail Operational Automatic Landing System - An automatic landing system is fail-operational if, in the event
of a failure, the approach, flare and landing can be completed by the remaining part of the automatic
system.
A Fail Operational system must have at least two autopilots engaged for the approach. The failure of one
autopilot will still allow an auto land to be carried out. This allows a “no decision height” approach to be
conducted.
NOTE: In the event of a failure, the automatic landing system will operate as a fail-passive system.
The following are typical arrangements:
 Two monitored automatic pilots, one remaining operative after a failure.
 Three automatic pilots, two remaining operative (to permit comparison and provide necessary
failure detection and protection) after a failure.

64. Fail Passive Automatic Landing System - An automatic landing system is fail-passive if, in the event of a
failure, there is no significant out-of-trim condition or deviation of flight path or attitude - but the landing is
not completed automatically.
NOTE: For a fail-passive automatic landing system the pilot assumes control of the aircraft after a failure and,
unless he has sufficient visual reference to land, carry out a missed approach. The lowest allowable decision
altitude (DA) for a fail passive system is normally 50’.
The following are typical arrangements:
 A monitored automatic pilot in which automatic monitors will provide the necessary failure
detection and protection.
 Two automatic pilots with automatic comparison to provide the necessary failure detection and
protection.

65. Fail Safe – It is a design that the airplane can survive the failure of an element of a system or in some
instances one or more entire systems, with catastrophic consequences.

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66. Flex Thrust – It is used as an assumed temperature thrust reduction to preserve engine wear and thereby
prolong engine life. It is used on Airbus Aircraft unless Runway is contaminated or temperature is not
suitable (in that case we use TOGA).

67. Flight Envelope Protection – Flight envelope protection is a human machine interface extension of an
aircraft’s control system that prevents the pilot of an aircraft from making control commands that would
force the aircraft to exceed its structural and aerodynamic operating limits. It is used in some form in all
modern commercial fly-by-wire aircraft. Its advantage is that it restricts pilots in emergencies so they can
react quickly without endangering the safety of their aircraft.

68. Fly-by-wire – Fly-by-wire (FBW) is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an
aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals
transmitted by wires (hence the fly-by-wire term), and flight control computers determine how to move the
actuators at each control surface to provide the ordered response. The fly-by-wire system also allows
automatic signals sent by the aircraft's computers to perform functions without the pilot's input, as in
systems that automatically help stabilize the aircraft, or prevent unsafe operation of the aircraft outside of
its performance envelope.

69. Fog - Fog is the suspension of water droplets or ice crystals in the atmosphere.
It occurs due to condensation of water vapour present in the layers of air close to the ground.
The RH is nearly 100%. It is a major aviation hazard as the visibility drops below 1000m.
Conditions for the formation of fog:
RH = 100%
Clear Sky
Stable atmosphere
Light winds (3-7knots)

RADIATION FOG: Radiation fog occurs due to the nocturnal cooling of ground and the adjacent layer.
The conditions favourable for radiation fog are:-
• Clear Sky – Clear sky permits maximum nocturnal cooling and adjacent layers of the air
• Moist air - With a high relative humidity so that little cooling is required to reach its dew point
temperature and condensation of water vapour to occur.
• Light winds – Wind speed between 2 to 8 knots which enables turbulent mixing close to the ground
and bring the temperature to dew point
• Stability – A stable atmosphere so that mixing and cooling are confined to shallow layer
Radiation fog occurs only over land and vertical extent is up to 1500ft.

ADVECTION FOG: The term advection means heat transfer by the horizontal flow of air. Fog formed in this
manner is called advection fog and occurs when the warm moist air is transported over cold surface where
the surface temperature is less than dew point of the air (Advected) the advection fog forms over both land
or sea and during day or night.

SEA FOG: Sea smoke occurs when the cold air flows over warm sea surface often in an inversion, passes over
a warmer sea that causes evaporating moisture to condense out giving an appearance of fog. This type of fog
occurs when prevailing temperature is very low below 0°C. It is common over frozen lands and ice covered
polar region

FRONTAL FOG: Usually forms in the cold air ahead of a warm occluded front as a prefrontal widespread fog.
It forms due to the interaction of two air masses. Frontal fog forms near the front due to saturation of the air
near the surface in the area of continuous rain ahead of front. It also forms due to lowering of cloud due to
passage of front.

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70. Fowler Flaps – These are trailing edge wing flaps (usually triple slotted) used to increase the wing area and
the camber which increases the CLmax for low flap settings. High flap settings increase drag predominantly
more than lift and therefore are used to lose speed and/or height, most commonly during an approach to
land.

71. Fuel Injection System – This system delivers metered fuel directly into the induction manifold and then into
the combustion chamber (or cylinder of a piston engine) without using a carburetor.
Advantages – Free from icing, increases engine efficiency
Disadvantages – Expensive, vapour locking in the fuel line, more susceptible to contamination in the fuel.

72. Fuel Planning – The pre-flight calculation of usable fuel required shall include:
a) Taxi fuel
b) Trip fuel,
c) Contingency fuel, which shall be the amount of fuel required to compensate for unforeseen factors. It
shall be 5 per cent of the planned trip fuel.
d) Destination alternate fuel, which shall be where a destination alternate aerodrome is required
e) Minimum reserve fuel -
 For a reciprocating engine aeroplane, the amount of fuel required to fly for 45 minutes.
 For a turbine engine aeroplane, the amount of fuel required to fly for 30 minutes.

73. Great Circle / Orthodromic –

 It is the largest possible circle on the surface of the earth having same radius and centre as that of the
earth.
 It divides earth into two equal parts.
 There is only one great circle between any two non-diametric opposite points and infinite between any
two diametric opposite points.
 It is the shortest distance between any two points.
 It appears as a straight line on the earth.
 Radio signals follow great circle track.
 Meridians and equator are great circles.

*If the difference between the initial great circle tracks is more than 180°, the points lie in the Northern
Hemisphere.
*If the difference between the initial great circle tracks is less than 180°, the points lie in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Rhumb Line – A curved line drawn on the surface of the earth cutting all meridians at equal angles. Along a
rhumb line the aircraft flies a constant direction. It is not the shortest distance between any two points.

74. Girt Bar / Escape Slide – An evacuation slide is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an aircraft quickly. An
escape slide is required on all commercial (passenger carrying) aircraft where the door sill height is such that,
in the event of an evacuation, passengers would be unable to step down from the door uninjured (DGCA
requires slides on all aircraft doors where the floor is 6 feet (1.8 m) or more above the ground).
Escape slides, are packed and held within the door structure inside the slide bustle, a protruding part of the
inside of an aircraft door that varies with aircraft size, door size and door location. In many modern planes,
to reduce evacuation time, evacuation slides deploy automatically when a door is opened in an "armed"
condition. Modern planes often indicate an armed condition with an indicator light. Many slides are also
designed to double as life rafts in case of a ditching (landing on water)

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75. GPS – Global Positioning System
Consists of 24 satellites out of which 21 are operational and 3 on standby at any one time.
6 orbital planes each consisting of 3-4 satellites
Orbital plane is 55 degrees to the equator.
Height – 20200 km.
Orbit the earth every 12 hours.
Four satellites will always be in Line of sight range of an aircraft receiver at any position on the earth at any
one time. The orbiting satellites transmit accurately timed radio signals and the receiver equipment uses the
time delay between transmission and reception to calculate the distance from the satellite. The distance
measured from the two satellite will establish a latitude and longitude fix. The distance measured from third
satellite will confirm the fix and the fourth satellite will give altitude information.

76. Gradient Wind – (PGF + Coriolis Force + Cyclostrophic Force)

Winds blowing parallel to curved isobars. The equation gives a close approximation to the real world winds.

77. Grid MORA – The pilot should be aware of the existence of two variations in this category: the MORA and
the GRID MORA.
The minimum off route altitude named MORA is an altitude, which provides 2,000 feet of terrain clearance
in mountainous areas and 1,000 feet in non-mountainous regions; at the same time it provides a reference
point of clearance of 10 nm from the route centreline.
The GRID MORA provides terrain and man-made structure clearance within the section outlined by latitude
and longitude lines. The Grid MORA value clears all terrain and man-made structures by 1000ft in areas
where the highest elevations are 5000ft MSL or lower and by 2000ft in areas where the highest elevations
are 5001ft MSL or higher.

78. Grid Navigation – In grid navigation maps are overlaid with a grid of lines indicating gyro north to which
gyroscope is aligned. It is used to overcome the difficulties of flying near the poles.
Difficulties of flying near the poles are rapid change of:
 True direction (due to convergency)
 Variation (due to proximity to the magnetic poles)

79. Gross Performance – It is the average performance that a fleet of aircraft should achieve if maintained
satisfactorily and flown in accordance with the techniques established during flight certification and
subsequently described in the aircraft performance manual.
Net Performance – 'Net' performance is that 'gross' performance degraded by a small percentage, to take
into account 'real-world' variables (handling skill, wear and tear of engine and airframe, accuracy of data,
e.g. meteorological, runway).

80. Ground Effect – Ground Effect is the name given to the positive influence on the lifting characteristics of the
horizontal surfaces of an aircraft wing when it is close to the ground. This effect is a consequence of the
distortion of the airflow below such surfaces attributable to the proximity of the ground. It applies to both
fixed and rotary wing aircraft.

81. Gyro Precession – If an external force (or more correctly, torque) is applied to change the direction of the
rotor axis, the gyro resists angular movement in the plane of the torque applied and instead moves in a
plane at right angles to that of the torque, the resulting movement being called ‘precession’. This is the
second fundamental property of a gyroscope.

82. HST (High Speed Taxing) – A long radius taxiway designed and provided with lighting or marking to define
the path of the aircraft travelling at high speed (up to 60 kts) from the runway centre to a point on the
centre of a taxiway. The HST is designed to expedite aircraft turning off the runway after landing, thus
reducing the runway occupancy time. It’s not more than 45°, not less than 25° and ideally it is 30°.

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83. Hydraulic System – Study of fluids under pressure is called hydraulics. The system which controls such fluids
is called Hydraulic System.

84. Hyperventilation – Abnormal loss of CO2 due to excessive rate of breathing. Can happen in a stressful, shock
situation, anxiety. It will make the blood alkaline.
Symptoms: - Dizziness, hot and cold sensations, excessive rate of breathing, visual impairment,
unconsciousness, muscle pain

Cure:-Breathe normally in paper bag to restore the CO2 level in the body.

85. Hypoxia –
State of deficiency of oxygen in blood. Types:-

 Hypoxic Hypoxia (General condition) - Insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole. Can be
caused by blocked airway tube, drowning, no / less oxygen or its pressure in the air to breathe etc.

 Hypemic / Anemic Hypoxia - The blood is not able to absorb and transport the oxygen in the body.
Can be caused due to low volume of blood in body, severe bleeding, CO poisoning, smoking etc.

 Stagnant Hypoxia - Oxygen rich blood is not flowing to the body parts. Can happen due to shock
when the heart is not able to pump the blood, blocked artery, pulling G’s, cold temperatures etc.

 Histotoxic Hypoxia Inability of the body cells to effectively use the oxygen from the blood. Can
happen due to alcohol consumption, medication, drugs, poisons etc.

Symptoms: - Personality change, Feeling of wellness (Euphoria), Visual impairment, Blue fingernails and lips
(Cyanosis), shortness of breath, Headache, Impaired Judgment, Drowsiness, Dizziness

Cure: - Use supplemental oxygen if available or descent down to lower altitudes

86. ILS (Instrument Landing System) –

Components of the ILS System are –
 Localiser – Azimuth Guidance (Brings the aircraft on Runway centreline) – 108 – 111.975 MHz
 Glideslope – Elevation Guidance (Proper downward approach) – 328.6 – 335.4 MHz
 Markers (Outer, Middle and Inner) – Range (Distance check and height check) – 75MHz

Marker Outer Marker Middle Marker Inner Marker

Frequency 75 MHz 75 MHz 75 MHz
Frequency 400 cycles/sec 1300 cycles/sec 3000 cycles/sec
Mode
Morse Code 2 dashes/sec 3 alternate dashes and 6 dots/sec
dots/sec

Color Blue Amber White

Total number of channels – 40 channels

Emission Designator – A8W
Principle – Line of equi-signal or difference in depth of modulation is 0.

Coverage –
 Localiser – up to 17NM the coverage is +-35°
17NM – 25NM the coverage is +-10°
 Glide path – up to 10NM the coverage is +-8°
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87. Induced Drag – Induced Drag is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an
aerofoil (e.g. wing or tail plane) through the air.
It is caused by creating lift with a high angle of attack that exposes more of the aircraft’s surface to the
relative airflow and is associated with wing tip vortices. Induced drag is greatest at low speeds and high
angles of attacks.

88. ISA Deviation – It is the measurement of the actual temperature against the ISA temperature for the
corresponding altitude. (ISA Deviation = Actual – ISA)
ISA Conditions - Air is dry at mean sea level
Temperature – 15°C
Pressure – 29.92 in of Hg / 1013.25 hPa
Density – 1.225 kg/m3
Lapse Rate – 2°C/1000 ft. up to 36090 ft.

89. ITT (Interstage Turbine Temperature) – It is the temperature of the exhaust gases between the high
pressure and the low pressure turbines. The gas temperature is measured by a number of thermocouples
mounted in the exhaust stream and is presented on a flight deck gauge in either degrees Fahrenheit or
degrees Celsius.

90. Jet Engine – Works on Brayton Cycle which works on the principle of CONSTANT PRESSURE.
It consists of four parts – Compressor, Combustion Chamber, Turbine Section and the Exhaust.
The air is sucked in from the front of the engine and the compressor compresses the air and sends it to the
combustion chamber at high speeds where it is ignited with the fuel. The burning gases expand and blast out
through the nozzle at the back of the engine. As it passes through the nozzle it goes through another group
of blades called turbine. The turbine is attached to the same shaft as the compressor and the cycle is
continued. (Induction, Compression, Combustion, Expansion and Exhaust)

91. Jet Streams – Jetstream is a strong, narrow current along a semi-horizontal axis in the upper tropopause or
stratosphere characterized by strong vertical and/or lateral wind shear (CAT). The wind speed must be
greater than 60 knots for a wind to be classified as a Jetstream. Jetstream’s typically are 1500 nautical miles
long, 200 nautical miles wide, and 12,000 ft. deep, and their speed is directly proportional to the thermal
gradient; i.e., the greater the thermal gradient, the greater is the speed of the Jetstream

There are 4 types of Jetstream in the troposphere:-

• Artic Jetstream

It is westerly Jetstream at 7 to 8 km height over the arctic region, close to polar tropopause

• Polar front Jetstream

It is westerly Jetstream in the middle latitudes, at about 9 km close to the middle latitude tropopause. The
PFJ migrates in winter to 30°N and in summer to 70°N. The core speeds are stronger in winter than in
summers. The main direction is westerly although on many occasion it maybe north-westerly or south-
westerly. Normal speeds are 80 to 100 km in winter

• Sub-tropical Jetstream

It is westerly Jetstream over sub-tropical high pressure belt, hence the name. In winter its normal position is
about 27°N and is strong. It is southernmost position is south of 22°N in February. While in summers it
moves to 35°N and weakens. The STJ lies close to the middle tropopause. STJ affects India in Non-monsoon
months (Oct to May). Speed in STJ 100 knots to over 200 knots.

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• Tropical Jetstream

It is more commonly known as easterly Jetstream. It is found at mean height of about 14 to 15 km. It is
prominent during monsoon and becomes very weak in winters. The average core speed varies from 60 to 80
knots with maxima of 150 kt. The axis is in July – August near latitude 13°N over Chennai in India.

• Stratospheric Jetstream – A stratospheric Jetstream is found at levels above 20 km in the Arctic and
Antarctic region. These are westerly in winters and easterly in summers.

92. Krueger Flaps – These are inboard leading edge flaps used to increase the wing camber and therefore
increase the co-efficient of lift and increase the angle of attack.

93. Lift – It is the force which acts underneath the wings and pushes it in the upward direction. Generated by
aerofoils due to the pressure difference above and below the aerofoil (Pressure below the wing is greater
than pressure above the wing).

Lift = ½ X Density X TAS2 X Coefficient of Lift X Surface Area

Weight – It is the force of gravity which acts in the downward direction and opposes the lift.

Thrust – It is the forward force produced by the power plant / propeller to move the aircraft through air.

Drag – It is the aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft’s motion through air and is parallel to the relative
airflow and opposite to the flight path.

94. Limiting Weights – If the limiting weights are exceeded,

 Performance is reduced – T/O and Landing distance is increased, ROC and ceilings are reduced,
Range and endurance are reduced, maximum speed is reduced.
 Stalling speed is increased
 Manoeuvrability is reduced
 Wear on tires and brakes is increased
 Structural safety margins are reduced

95. LPV – A localizer performance with vertical guidance (LPV) approach is a modern instrument approach
procedure that uses wide area augmentation system (WAAS) and very precise GPS capabilities to attain an
airplane's position, offering the most accurate position available today. An LPV approach can get a pilot
down to a 200-foot or 250-foot decision altitude, making it possible for aircraft to land at runways in very
low visibility.

96. LVP (Low Visibility Procedures) – Procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of ensuring safe
operations during lower than standard category I, other than standard category II, category II and III
approaches and low visibility take-offs.

97. LVTO (Low Visibility Take-Off) – A term used in relation to flight operations referring to a take-off on a
runway where the RVR is less than 400m.

98. MABH (Minimum Approach Break-off Height) – It is the lowest height above the ground measured by the
radio altimeter at which it is demonstrated that a go-around can be carried out without external visual
references according to the standard procedure, with an acceptable level of safety. In case of a critical
engine failure, it can be demonstrated that an accident is improbable during the go-around procedure
initiated at this height.

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99. Mach Trim – The Mach trimmer is a system that artificially corrects for tuck above the a/c's Mcrit by sensing
the speed of the a/c and signalling a proportional upward movement of the elevator or variable incidence
stabilizer to maintain the a/c's pitch attitude throughout its speed range up to its max Mach demonstrated
diving speed (MDF).

100. Mach Tuck – It is the nose down pitching moment an aircraft experiences as it passes its Mcrit. It is a form
of longitudinal instability which occurs due to the rearward movement of CP (CP moves behind CG).

101. Magnetic Dip – The angular difference between the ground and the magnetic needle. It is maximum at
Magnetic North Pole and magnetic South Pole.
Tan =Z
H
Isoclinal Lines are lines joining places of equal magnetic dip and Aclinic lines are lines joining places of zero
dip.

102. Mass Flow Meter – It is also known as inertial flow meter which is a device that measures mass flow rate of
a fluid travelling through a tube. It measures mass per unit time (kg/sec).

103. Mayday Fuel – The PIC shall declare a situation of fuel emergency by broadcasting MAYDAY MAYDAY
MAYDAY fuel, when the calculated usable fuel estimated to be available upon landing at the nearest
aerodrome where a safe landing can be made is less than the planned final reserve fuel.

104. MDA (Minimum Descent Altitude) – A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling
approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual reference.
MDA is referenced to mean sea level and MDH is referenced to the aerodrome elevation or to the
threshold elevation if that is more than 2 m (7 ft.) below the aerodrome elevation. An MDH for a circling
approach is referenced to the aerodrome elevation.

105. MEA (Minimum En-route Altitude) - The altitude for an en-route segment that provides adequate
reception of relevant navigation facilities and ATS communications complies with the airspace
structure and provides the required obstacle clearance.
Pilots should know that MEA will assure:
 proper reception of navigation aids
 two-way communication with ATC
 safe clearance or margin from obstacles
 adherence to ATC or local procedures
E.g.: 12000

106. MEL (Minimum Equipment List) – The MEL is used for EQUIPMENT failures (e.g. Pack Inoperative, FMC,
Rad Alt etc.) and specifies the Minimum Equipment you can depart with. It is approved by DGCA which will
enable a pilot to determine whether a flight may be commenced or continued from any intermediate stop
should any instrument, equipment or system become inoperative. It is issued by an Operator.

107. MEL Exceptions – The ‘O’ symbol indicates a requirement for a specific operations procedure that must be
accomplished in planning for and/or operating with the list item inoperative.
The ‘M’ symbol indicates a requirement for a specific maintenance procedure, which must be
accomplished prior to operation with the listed item inoperative.
Category A – Items in this category shall be repaired within the time interval specified in the remarks
column of the MEL.
Category B – Items in this category shall be repaired within three (3) consecutive calendar days, excluding
the day the malfunction was recorded in the aircraft maintenance record/logbook.
Category C – Items in this category shall be repaired within ten (10) consecutive calendar days, excluding
the day the malfunction was recorded in the aircraft maintenance record/logbook.

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Category D – Items in this category shall be repaired within one hundred and twenty (120) consecutive
calendar days, excluding the day the malfunction was recorded in the aircraft maintenance log and/or
record.

108. Minimum Fuel – It indicates that an aircraft’s fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the
destination, it can accept little or no delay. This is not an emergency situation but merely indicates an
emergency situation is possible should any undue delay occur. The PIC shall advice ATC by declaring
MIMIMUM FUEL, when having committed to land at a specific aerodrome. The pilot calculates that any
change to the existing clearance to the aerodrome may result in landing with less than the landed reserve
fuel.

109. MMEL (Master Minimum Equipment List) – Manufacturer (is a categorized list of on-board systems,
instruments and equipment that may be inoperative for flight).
A list established for a particular aircraft type by the organisation responsible for the type design with the
approval of the state of design containing items, one or more of which is permitted to be unserviceable at
the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated with special operating conditions, limitations
or procedures. MMEL is used by operators to develop the MEL. MEL cannot be less restrictive than the
MMEL.

110. MOCA – (Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude) – The minimum altitude for a defined segment that
provides the required obstacle clearance. The MOCA is determined and published for each segment of the
route. Charts will provide the proper horizontal and vertical separation at those areas where the existence
of obstacles could be a factor for the safety of flights. At the same time, certain aspects could affect this
value, factors like terrain or mountainous areas could change this value according to the following
circumstances.

The MOCA will specify minimum vertical separation:

1000ft separation when the obstacle elevations is below 3000ft
2000ft separation when the obstacle elevations is greater than 5000ft
The MOCA is always related with one MEA.
E.g.: 6000T

111. MORA (Minimum Off-Route Altitude) – The minimum off route altitude named MORA is an altitude, which
provides 2,000 feet of terrain clearance in mountainous areas and 1,000 feet in non-mountainous regions;
at the same time it provides a reference point of clearance of 10 nm from the route centreline.

The GRID MORA provides terrain and man-made structure clearance within the section outlined by latitude
and longitude lines. The Grid MORA value clears all terrain and man-made structures by 1000ft in areas
where the highest elevations are 5000ft MSL or lower and by 2000 ft. in areas where the highest elevations
are 5001ft MSL or higher.

112. MSA (Minimum Sector Altitude) – It is the lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a
minimum clearance of 300m (1000ft) above all objects located in the area contained within a sector of a
circle of 46km (25NM) radius centred on a radio navigation aid.

113. MTOW (Maximum Take-off Weight) – DOM + TL + TOF/M

It is the maximum weight given by the manufacturer which cannot be exceeded in any circumstance. It is
the weight of the aircraft at take-off run.
.
114. MZFW (Maximum Zero Fuel Weight) - Dry Operating Mass + Traffic Load.
The maximum permitted mass of the aeroplane with full traffic load but no usable fuel. It is a structural
limit imposed by the manufacturer to ensure that the wing roots are not subject to excessive bending
stress.

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115. Noise Abatement – It is a procedure or a set of procedures adopted to reduce noise pollution.
Many airports implement noise mitigation techniques, including the following:
 Defining noise abatement procedures that avoid residential areas as far as possible and avoid over-
flying sensitive sites such as hospitals and schools
 Using continuous descent approaches and departure noise abatement techniques
 Ensuring that the optimum runway(s) and routes are used as far as conditions allow
 Avoiding unnecessary use of auxiliary power units by aircraft on-stand
 Building barriers and engine test-pens to contain and deflect noise
 Towing aircraft instead of using jet engines to taxi
 Limiting night operations
 Limiting the number of operations or the extent of a critical noise contour
 Providing noise insulation for the most severely affected houses
 Applying different operational charges based on the noisiness of the aircraft
 Monitoring individual noise levels and track keeping and penalising any breach
 Aircraft experiencing an emergency situation are not expected to comply with noise abatement
procedures.

116. Normally Aspirated – A normally aspirated engine is an engine that relies solely on the ambient
atmospheric density. It does not rely on forced induction through a turbocharger or a supercharger.
Therefore the power output is restricted by its cylinder capacity.

117. Norwesters – North West winds affecting the east/north-east part of India during hot weather period.
These are line squalls consisting of regenerating CB’s caused by intense INSOLATION over East/N-E India.
Locally they are called Kalbaisakhi in India.

118. Optimum Altitude – The optimum cruise altitude is that at which a given thrust setting results in the
corresponding maximum range speed. The optimum altitude is not constant and changes over the period
of a long flight as atmospheric conditions and the weight of the aircraft change. A large change in
temperature will significantly alter the optimum altitude with a decrease in temperature corresponding to
an increase in altitude. At the optimum altitude, operating costs will be minimum when operating in the
most economical (ECON) mode; it is also the cruise altitude for minimum fuel burn when in the Long Range
Cruise (LRC) mode. In both cases, optimum altitude increases with reducing aircraft weight. If the aircraft is
at its maximum certified level or the altitude is operationally capped, speed reduction as weight decreases
will help to maintain a minimum fuel burn profile.

119. Oxygen Requirements –

Unpressurized Cabin –
 Flight Crew – Entire time above 10000ft.
 Cabin Crew – More than 30 minutes between 10000ft and 13000ft cabin altitude.
Any time spent above 13000ft.
 Passengers – More than 30 minutes, 10000ft – 13000ft – 10% of passengers.
Above 13000ft, all passengers.

Pressurized Cabin –
 Flight Crew – More than 30 minutes between 10000ft and 13000ft.
Greater than 30 minutes if aircraft is certified to fly up till 25000ft.
Greater than 2 hours if aircraft is certified to fly above 25000ft.
Above 25000ft quick donning mask.
Entire time above 13000ft.
 Cabin Crew – More than 30 minutes between 10000ft and 13000ft
 Passengers – 10000ft – 14000ft – 10% of passengers after 30 mins
14000ft – 15000ft – 30% of passengers
Above 15000ft – 100% of the passengers (Minimum 10 mins supply)

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120. PCN (Pavement Classification Number) – The bearing strength of a pavement.

70/R/A/W/T
70 – Strength of Runway
R – Type of pavement (R – Rigid, F – Flexible)
A – Sub-grade Strength (A – High, B – Medium, C – Low, D – Ultra-low)
W – Tyre Pressure (W – Unlimited Tyre Pressure, X – High, Y – Medium, Z - Low)
T – Pavement Evaluation Method (T – Technical, U – User)

ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) – The value assigned to an aeroplane to show its load force.
LCN (Load Classification Number) - Same as PCN but is a UK system and can be converted to PCN.

121. Pitot tube blockage – A pitot line blockage means that the total pressure in the ASI/MM instrument
capsule remains a constant value. Therefore,
 At a constant altitude, the ASI/MM reading will not change even if the airspeed does due to the
trapped pitot pressure in the capsule against a constant altitude static pressure.
 During descent, the ASI/MM will under read due to an increase in the static pressure in the case
against a constant pitot pressure.
 During climb, the ASI/MM will over read due to a decrease in the static pressure in the case against
a constant pitot pressure.

122. Pneumatic System – They are also known as vacuum or pressure systems and uses compressed air as a
working fluid to power many functions in an aircraft.

123. Pressure Altitude – Pressure altitude is defined as the altitude above or below the standard 29.92″ Hg
standard datum plane.

124. Pressurized Cabin – Cabin pressurization is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of
an aircraft, in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew flying at high
altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage. The
air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary, before it is distributed to the cabin by
one or more environmental control systems. The cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve.

125. Propeller Theory – The purpose of a propeller is to convert the power delivered by an engine into
propulsive thrust in order to propel an aircraft. This is achieved by the acceleration of a comparatively large
mass of air rearwards, thereby producing forward thrust according to Newton’s third law of motion
• Blade Angle or Pitch Angle – The angle between the blade chord and the plane of rotation. Blade
angle decreases from the root to the tip of the blade (twist) because rotational velocity of the blade
increases from root to tip. For reference purposes, the blade angle is measured at a point 75% of the blade
length from the root OR the angle of attack of the blade + Helix angle
• Geometric Pitch – The geometric pitch is the distance the propeller would travel forward in one
complete revolution if it were moving through the air at the blade angle.
• Effective Pitch – The actual distance the propeller travels forward in each revolution is called the
“effective pitch” or “advance per revolution”.
• Propeller Slip – The difference between the Geometric and the Effective Pitch is called the
Slip.
• The Helix Angle or Angle of Advance – Angle between the Plane of Rotation and actual path of the
propeller (Relative airflow)
• Angle of Attack – The path of the propeller through the air determines the direction of the relative
airflow. The angle between the blade chord and the relative airflow is the angle of attack (α)
The angle of attack (α) is the result of propeller rotational velocity (RPM) and aircraft forward velocity (TAS).

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• Propeller Washout – The geometric twist given to the propeller which decreases from root to tip
keeps the angle of attack of the Propeller constant.
• Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) – Due to the centrifugal force acting on the blade, produces a
moment around the pitch change axis which tends to ‘fine’ the blade off.
• Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) – Because the blade CP is in front of the pitch change axis,
aerodynamic force generates a moment around the pitch change axis acting in the direction of coarse pitch.

126. Radio Altimeter – Radio Altimeter gives the height of the aircraft by measuring the time difference by
transmitting regularly and constantly changing Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW).
Frequency – 4.2 GHz to 4.4 GHz
It gives height of the aircraft up to 2500 feet in steps of 5 feet with aircraft in landing configuration.
It gives height information to GPWS.

127. Resolution Advisory – It is a warning which is generated when an aircraft is considered to be on a collision
course. RA is displayed 20-25 secs after a TA. Audio given is CLIMB CLIMB or DESCEND DESCEND. It is a
reportable incident means the DGCA needs to be informed and an air miss needs to be filed.
Action taken – Disengage auto-pilot, comply with RA. If ROC is not adequate, audio given is INCREASE
CLIMB INCREASE CLIMB.
At 1000ft AGL no descent RA is given.
At 500ft AGL RA is inhibited.
RA can be disregarded when you have visual contact of the aircraft and there is a false RA generated.

128. RNAV (Area Navigation) – A navigation method that allows an aircraft to operate on any desired flight path
within the coverage of ground-based or space-based navigation aids or self-contained aids or a
combination of both methods. Area navigation specification does not require any performance monitoring
and alerting requirements. It is designated by the prefix RNAV. E.g. RNAV 1, RNAV 5.
This method of navigation doesn’t require to fly over the fix and it helps to travel less distance, less time,
less fuel and less cost.

129. RNP (Required Navigation Performance) – Area navigation specification that includes the performance
monitoring and alerting requirements and designated by the prefix RNP. E.g. RNP 1, RNP 4.
RNP is a statement of required navigation accuracy in the horizontal plane (lateral and longitudinal position
fixing) necessary for operation in defined airspace.
RNP 1 refers to required navigation performance accuracy within 1 NM (from centreline to boundary) of
the desired flight path at least 95% of the time flying.
In order to meet a particular performance level, number of requirements must be met:-
Accuracy
Integrity
Availability
Continuity

130. ROD Jet/Propeller – Transport pilots adopted this formula to assure a slow, steady and comfortable
descent for their passengers. Rule 3:1 – this rule implies 3NM of travel should be allowed for every 1000ft
of descent.

131. RTLU / Rudder Deflection Limiter – A rudder travel limiter, or rudder limiter, is a controlling device in an
aircraft used to mechanically limit the maximum rudder deflection.
The rudder limiter system limits rudder travel at high speeds in order to prevent rudder/stabilizer overload.
The rudder limiter mechanism consists of an electric actuator which blocks rudder travel according to
indicated airspeed. The system monitors airspeed obtained from the air data computer and the standby
airspeed indicator and restricts rudder travel as follows:
• Full rudder travel (to 30°) is permitted at speeds up to 150 knots
• Intermediate travel (to 15°) is permitted at speeds between 150 to 200 knots
• Minimum travel (to 5.7°) is permitted at speeds above 200 knots
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132. RTOW (Regulated Take-off Weight) – The maximum permitted take-off weight of the aeroplane at the
start of the take-off run, derived by complying with all the requirements of the weight and performance
regulations appropriate to the flight.

133. Runway Slope (V1) – A downward slope allows the aircraft to accelerate faster therefore the take-off run
and distance required for a given aircraft weight are reduced or a higher take-off weight is possible for a
given runway length therefore it reduces V1.
An upward slope hinders the aircraft’s acceleration therefore the take-off run and distance required for a
given aircraft weight are increased therefore it increases V1 or the maximum take-off weight is reduced.

134. RVR (Runway Visual Range) – It is the range at which, the pilot of an aircraft on the centreline of the
runway can see the runway markings or lights delineating the runway or identifying the centreline.
RVR is reported when visibility drops below 1500m.
It is measured at a height of 2.5m AGL, using a TRANSMISSOMETER.
It is measured along the touchdown point, mid-point and stop end of the runway.
Between 1500 and 800m it is reported in steps of 100m.
Between 800 and 200m it is reported in steps of 50m.
Between 200 and 0 it is reported in steps of 25m.

135. RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Minima) – FL 290 – FL 410

Two primary altimeters (Independent of each other so that the failure of one doesn’t affect the other)
Altitude Alerting Device
Automatic Altitude Keeping Device
TCAS
Mode C Transponder

The pilot has to be RVSM trained.

The aircraft has to be RVSM approved.
The airspace has to RVSM compliant.

Separation:-
1000 ft. – Reciprocal Track
2000 ft. – Same Track

136. Screen Height – The minimum height achieved over the runway before the end of the clearway should an
engine failure occur at take-off. It marks the end of the take-off distance.

137. Servo Assisted Altimeter – Both simple and sensitive altimeter suffer from Lag error due to mechanical
linkages. In Servo-assisted altimeter, lag error is virtually removed by ‘Electro-magnetic pick-off device’
The pick-off device consists of two vanes, i.e. ‘E’ Vane (which moves the indicator) and ‘I’ Vane which
moves the capsule.

138. Specific Fuel Consumption – It is the quantity/weight of fuel consumed per hour divided by the thrust of an
engine in pounds.
SFC = Fuel Burn per Hour
Engine Thrust

139. Specific Gravity – The specific gravity is the ratio between the density of an object, and a reference
substance. The specific gravity can tell us, based on its value, if the object will sink or float in our reference
substance. Usually our reference substance is water which always has a density of 1 gram per millilitre or 1
gram per cubic centimetre.

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140. Stabilized Approach – All aircraft must be stabilized in IFR approach below 1000 feet and in VFR approach
below 500 feet.
Aircraft is stabilized when –
A/C in landing configuration.
A/C in correct approach speed.
All checklists completed.
Within 1 dot of ILS g/s & localiser.
A/C is in correct flight path (Alt/Heading/Speed correct)

141. Suitable Airport – It is an adequate airport with weather reports or forecast or any combination thereof
indicating that the weather conditions are at or above operating minima as specified in the operations
specification and the field condition report indicates that a safe landing can be accomplished at the time of
intended operations.

142. South West Monsoons – The monsoon period is also known as south west monsoon (June to September).
The south east trade winds after crossing the equator are deflected to the right by Coriolis force. They pick
up moisture when traveling from sea to land and causes orographic rains once they hit the INDIAN
peninsula forming the SOUTH-WEST MONSOON. After reaching the Indian Peninsula they split into two
branches – Arabian Branch (Affecting the West Coast) and the Bay of Bengal Branch (Affecting the Bay of
Bengal Coast). They merge with each other and cause rainfall in Punjab and northern parts of India. The
south west monsoons hit the coast of Kerala by the 1st of June and the entire country receives rainfall by
15th July. The weather condition change all over the country with the onset of monsoons. (High humidity,
extensive clouding, several spells of moderate and heavy rain and strong surface winds)

*Break in Monsoon – It occurs when the axis of trough of low pressure are at the foothills of Himalayas *

143. Take-off Segments – There are 4 segments.

Info Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4

Starts 35ft Gear up Climb to 400ft Flaps up, minimum clean
agl speed, climb thrust
Actions Gear up Climb to 400ft AGL Retract flaps, Climb to security altitude
Vfto, mct 1500ft AGL
Speed V2 V2 Vfto Minimum clean speed
Ends Gear up Climb to 400ft AGL Flaps up, Vfto, Climb to security altitude
climb thrust 1500ft AGL
Twin Eng. gradient More than 0% Not less than 2.4% Na Not less than 1.2%
Three Eng. gradient Not less than 0.3% Not less than 2.7% Na Not less than 1.5%
Four Eng. gradient Not less than 0.5% Not less than 3.0% Na Not less than 1.7%

144. TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) – TCAS gives AURAL and VISUAL alerts for proximate traffic on
NAVIGATION DISPLAY (ND) or TCAS Indicator.
Principle – Secondary Surveillance Radar.
Frequency – UHF Band. (1030 MHZ and 1090 MHZ.)
Airborne Equipment – Interrogator and Transponder. Airborne equipment of aircrafts communicate with
each other to generate traffic advisories and if aircraft is equipped with MODE C/MODE S transponder, it
also generates RESOLUTION ADVISORY
Maximum Range – 30 NM
TCAS 1 – Traffic Advisory
TCAS 2 – Traffic Advisory + Resolution Advisory (Vertical Plane only).

*RA is generated 40 secs before the potential collision. No vertical RA is generated 1000 ft. above Ground
Level. *
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Visual Indication -
Hollow White Cyan Diamond – Any other traffic
Solid Cyan White Diamond – Proximate Traffic (6NM or +/-1200 ft.)
Solid Yellow Circle – Traffic Potential Threat
Solid Red Square – Collision Threat

145. Thrust Setting/Rating – Engines are certified to deliver standard thrusts depending upon flight conditions.
A 'rating' is a predefined power setting that the pilot can select which may be appropriate for particular
flight conditions. Rating terminology differs between civil and military aircraft, reflecting the different
requirements of these types of aviation.
 Maximum Take-off Thrust – It is the maximum permissible thrust setting for take-off. Also called as
TO/GA. It is used, as the name suggests, for take-off when the aircraft is at its heaviest and has to
be accelerated to take-off speed in a finite runway distance. The higher the thrust available from
the engine, the shorter the runway can be, or the greater the aircraft payload can be.
 Maximum Continuous Thrust – It is the maximum permissible thrust setting for continuous use.
 Maximum Climb Thrust – It may be same as maximum continuous thrust, usually for a 3 or 4 engine
aircraft.
 Maximum Cruise Thrust – Sometimes defined, but not a particularly useful rating since in cruise the
pilot/autopilot will use the thrust required to maintain constant altitude and air speed to meet
with air traffic control requirements.
 Flight Idle – The idle rating is the minimum thrust that can be used whilst the aircraft is in flight. It
is largely defined by the requirement to keep the engine running, possibly supplying secondary
services to the aircraft such as hydraulic and electrical power, and, especially at high altitude, to
supply passenger air at a minimum pressure. The flight idle rating is important in that the lower it
is, the quicker the aircraft can descend (without going into a dive). It is often determined by
stability considerations such as flutter and surge margin.
 High / Approach Idle – In the final phases of approach to landing it is important to be able to
provide rapid response to throttle movements, this may require the engine to be running at a
higher speed than ideal to be able to provide rapid acceleration if required. There may be a
maximum response time requirement to achieve 'TOGA' thrust if a landing is aborted.
 Ground Idle – Used for manoeuvring on the ground. Typically defined by the need to keep the
engine running and supplying power and services to the aircraft. Generally, the lower this value the
better, since brake wear is a significant factor in aircraft running/maintenance costs.

146. Time of Useful Consciousness – It is defined as the amount of time an individual is able to perform flying
duties efficiently in an environment of inadequate Oxygen supply.

Altitude Moderate Sitting Quietly

Activity
42000 12 seconds 18 seconds
40000 18 seconds 30 seconds
35000 30 seconds 45 seconds
30000 45 seconds 1 ¼ minutes
28000 1 minute 1 ½ minutes
25000 2 minutes 3 minutes
22000 5 minutes 4 minutes

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147. Trim Tab – They are fitted on the control surface which can be adjusted by pilot during flight, if required.
These tabs help the pilot to relieve pressure from the controls.

148. Turbulence Speed – Vra/Mra is an airspeed for rough air conditions or turbulence penetration speed. This
speed is recommended for flight in turbulence that is based on the aircraft Vb speed (design speed for
maximum gust). Vra/Mra speed is high enough to allow an adequate margin between the aircraft stall
speed and also low enough to protect against structural damage from a high speed gust disturbance.

149. V Speeds – V speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of
all aircraft. Using them is considered a best practise to maximise aviation safety and aircraft performance.

150. V1 – Action Initiation Speed. It is the maximum speed during take-off at which the pilot must take the first
action to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. If there’s any failure before V1, the take-off
is aborted and if there’s any failure after V1, the take-off should be continued.

151. V1 Wet – It is the maximum speed for abandoning a take-off on a contaminated runway. Wet V1 = Dry V1 –
10 knots. A wet V1 improves the stopping capabilities.

152. Vapp – It is the safest approach and landing speed taking into account – Aircraft gross weight, wind
conditions, slat/flaps configuration, icing conditions, and use of auto thrust/auto land.

153. Variable Incidence Tail plane / Stabiliser – A stabilator, more frequently all-moving tail or all-flying tail, is a
fully movable aircraft stabilizer. It serves the usual functions of longitudinal stability, control and stick force
requirements otherwise performed by the separate fixed and movable parts of a conventional horizontal
stabilizer. Apart from a higher efficiency at high Mach number, it is a useful device for changing the aircraft
balance within wide limits, and for mastering the stick forces.

154. Variation – Angular difference between magnetic direction and true direction. If magnetic north lies east of
true north, it is called easterly variation and vice versa.
*Variation East, Magnetic Least*
*Variation West, Magnetic Best*
*Variation value changes 1° in 5 years*
*Maximum value of variation is 180°*
*Isogonal lines are lines joining places of equal variation and Agonal lines are lines joining places of zero
variation. Isogonal lines are depicted as green dotted lines on a chart*
*Presently there are two agonic lines – 1). Passing through Western Europe 2). Passing through Central
America*

155. Virga – It is rain that falls from the base of a cloud but evaporates at a lower level in drier warmer air
before it reaches the ground. This shows signs of temperature inversion, which in form is an indication of
possible wind shear.

156. Visual Approach –A visual approach is an approach when either part or all of an instrument approach
procedure is not completed and the approach is executed with visual reference to the terrain.

Circling Approach – A circling approach is an extension of an instrument approach procedure which

provides for visual circling of the aerodrome prior to landing.
A circling approach is the visual phase of an instrument approach to bring an aircraft into position for
landing on a runway which is not suitably located for a straight-in approach.

157. Vmbe (Maximum Brake Energy Speed) – It is the maximum speed on the ground from which a stop can be
accomplished within the energy capabilities of the brakes.
It is the maximum speed an aircraft can initiate a rejected take off from and remain within heat limitations
of the braking system.
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158. Vmca – Vmca is the minimum control speed in the air for a multiengine aircraft
in the take-off and climb-out configuration, at and above which it is possible to maintain directional control
of the aircraft around the normal/vertical axis by use of the rudder within defined limits after the failure of
an off-centre engine.

159. Vmcg – Vmcg is the minimum control speed on the ground for a multiengine aircraft at a constant power
setting and configuration, at and above which it is possible to maintain directional control of the aircraft
around the normal/vertical axis by use of the rudder to maintain runway heading after failure of an off-
centre engine

160. VOLMET – VOLMET is MET information for aircraft in flight, it is a continuous broadcast made at fix time on
a VHF/HF frequency from Mumbai and Kolkata that includes TAF, METAR, SPECI, SIGMET and if available
AIRMET. This is especially to aid long distance flights.
It is of 2 types
 Datalink VOLMET (D-VOLMET)
 VOLMET Broadcast

161. Vortex Generator – These are very small plates, about an inch deep standing on the leading edge of the
wing. They tend to generate vortices which in turn prevents or delays the breakaway of the boundary layer
by re-energising it and prevent buffeting.
They lower the stall speed while increasing the airplane’s low speed performance and also helps in
increasing aileron efficiency.

162. Vr (Rotation Speed) – The speed at which the aircraft’s nose wheel leaves the ground during take-off. It is
the speed at which the pilot initiates rotation during take-off.

163. Vref (Reference Speed) – Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed. This is the speed required
as the landing runway threshold is crossed at a height of 50 feet in landing configuration if the calculated
aircraft performance is to be achieved
Vref = 1.3 Vs in the landing configuration.

164. Vs1g – It is the stall speed at 1g load factor. It is defined as the 1g stall speed at which the airplane can
develop a lift force (Normal to the flight path) equal to its weight.

165. VSI (Vertical Speed Indicator) – It measures differential static pressure directly into the diaphragm (aneroid
capsule) and the instrument casing through a calibrated leak by a delay unit choke.
Errors - B – Blockage
L – Lag
I – Instrument
P – Position/Pressure
T – Transonic Jump – VSI shows a climb when aircraft reaches transonic speed because pressure
behind shockwave is lesser which will contract the capsule and show a climb.

IVSI (Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator) – It is an upgradation of VSI, which removes Lag Error by a
device called ‘Dash-Pot Accelerator’.
IVSI has a few drawbacks, i.e. it oscillates during turbulent conditions and during steep turns, shows a climb
due to centrifugal force.

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166. Wake Turbulence – It is a term used to describe the effect of rotating air mass generated behind the wing
tips of a large jet aircraft.
Categories –
 Heavy (H) – More than 136000 kg.
 Medium (M) – More than 7000 kg. And less than 136000 kg.
 Light (L) – Less than 7000 kg.

167. Wet Runway – A runway is considered 'wet' when the runway surface is covered with water or equivalent,
less than 3mm or when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear reflective,
but without significant areas of standing water.

168. Wind milling Propeller – It causes a drag force, which is opposite to the direction of flight. This drag ca be
quite high and in addition to its decelerating effects, it can also cause a large yawing movement on a multi
engine aircraft with asymmetric thrust.

169. Veering / Backing –

Backing – Change of wind direction anti-clockwise (090° to 060°)
Veering – Change of wind direction clockwise (060° to 090°)

In a low pressure area, the wind blows in an anti-clockwise direction (backs), whereas in a high it blows
clockwise (veers) in the Northern Hemisphere.

170. Wind shear – The variation in wind vector along the path of an aircraft, which can displace the aircraft from
its intended path is referred to as WIND SHEAR.

There are 3 types of wind shear:

Low Level Wind shear: Takes place during take-off, landing, initial climb out or Final approach.
Vertical Wind Shear: The change in horizontal wind vector with height.
Horizontal Wind Shear: The change in horizontal wind vector with distance.

171. Wing Fences – Wing fences, also known as boundary layer fences and potential fences are fixed
aerodynamic devices attached to aircraft wings. Not to be confused with wingtip fences, wing fences are
flat plates fixed to the upper surfaces (and often wrapping around the leading edge) parallel to the airflow.
They are often seen on swept-wing aircraft. They obstruct span-wise airflow along the wing, and prevent
the entire wing from stalling at once.

172. WOCL (Window of Circadian Low) – It is best estimated by the hours between 0200 and 0600 for
individuals adapted to a usual day‐wake/ night sleep schedule. Deepest sleep / the urge to sleep is really
strong & body temperature is lowest during this period.

173. Yaw Damper – A yaw damper is a device used on many aircraft (usually jets and turboprops) to damp
(reduce) the rolling and yawing oscillations known as the Dutch roll. It requires yaw rate sensors and a
processor that provides a signal to an actuator connected to the rudder. The use of a yaw damper helps to
provide a better ride for passengers. On some aircraft the yaw damper must be operational at all times
during flight above a specified altitude.

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