1) ARCHITECTURE & BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 8051 MICROCONTROLLER:

 It has hardware architecture with RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) concept.
 The block diagram of 8051 microcontroller is shown in Fig 3.
 8051 has 8-bit ALU.
 ALU can perform all the 8-bit arithmetic and logical operations in one machine cycle.
 The ALU is associated with two registers A & B
A and B Registers:
 The A and B registers are special function registers.
 A & B registers hold the results of many arithmetic and logical operations of 8051.
 The A register is also called the Accumulator.
 A register is used as a general register to accumulate the results of a large number of instructions.
 By default, it is used for all mathematical operations and data transfer operations between CPU and
external memory.
 The B register is mainly used for multiplication and division operations along with A register.
 Ex: MUL AB : DIV AB.
 It has no other function other than as a store data.

R registers:
 "R" registers are a set of eight registers that are named R0, R1, etc. up to R7.
 These registers are used as auxiliary registers in many operations.
 The "R" registers are also used to temporarily store values.

Fig.3. Block Diagram of 8051 Microcontroller

Program Counter (PC) :
 8051 has a 16-bit program counter.
 The program counter holds address of the next instruction to be executed.
 After execution of one instruction, the program counter is incremented.
Data Pointer Register (DPTR):
 It is a 16-bit register which is the only user-accessible.
 DPTR is used to point the data. 8051 will access external memory at the address indicated by DPTR.
 DPTR can also be used as two 8-registers DPH and DPL.
Stack Pointer Register (SP) :
 It is an 8-bit register which stores the address of the stack top.
 When a value is pushed onto the stack, the 8051 first increments the value of SP and then stores the
value.
 Similarly when a value is popped off the stack, the 8051 returns the value from the memory location
indicated by SP and then decrements the value of SP.
 Since the SP is only 8-bit wide.
 It is incremented or decremented by two.
 SP is modified directly by the 8051 by six instructions: PUSH, POP, ACALL, LCALL, RET, and RETI.
 It is also used intrinsically whenever an interrupt is triggered.

Fig 3a: Internal architecture diagram of 8051 Microcontroller

Fig: Structure of registers

Program Status Register (PSW):
Give PSW of 8051 and describe the use of each bit in PSW. (NOV 2015)
 The 8051 has an 8-bit PSW register which is also known as Flag register.
 In the 8-bit register only 6-bits are used by 8051.The two unused bits are user definable bits.
 In the 6-bits, four of them are conditional flags. They are Carry –CY, Auxiliary Carry-AC, Parity-P, and
Overflow-OV.
 These flag bits indicate some conditions of result after an instruction was executed.

 The bits PSW3 and PSW4 are denoted as RS0 and RS1.

 These bits are used to select the bank registers of the RAM location.

 The meaning of various bits of PSW register is shown below.

CY PSW.7 Carry Flag

AC PSW.6 Auxiliary Carry Flag
FO PSW.5 Flag 0 available for general purpose
RS1 PSW.4 Register Bank select bit 1
RS0 PSW.3 Register bank select bit 0
OV PSW.2 Overflow flag
--- PSW.1 User definable flag
P PSW.0 Parity flag .set/cleared by hardware.

 The selection of the register Banks and their addresses are given below.

RS1 RS0 Register Bank Address

0 0 0 00H-07H

0 1 1 08H-0FH

1 0 2 10H-17H

1 1 3 18H-1FH

RAM & ROM:

 The 8051 microcontroller has 128 bytes of Internal RAM and 4KB of on chip ROM.
 The RAM is also known as Data memory and the ROM is known as program (Code) memory.
 Code memory holds program that is to be executed.
 Program Address Register holds address of the ROM/ Flash memory.
 Data Address Register holds address of the RAM.
I/O ports:
 The 8051 microcontroller has 4 parallel I/O ports, each of 8-bits.
 So, it provides 32 I/O lines for connecting the microcontroller to the peripherals.
 The four ports are P0 (Port 0), P1 (Port1), P2 (Port 2) and P3 (Port3).

1)b) PIC MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE:

PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller. PIC microcontroller was developed by microchip technology in
1993. It was developed for supporting PDP computers to control its peripheral devices and that’s why it was
named Peripheral Interface Controller. PIC microcontrollers are of low cost, very fast and easy for the
programming and execution of program. Their interfacing with other peripherals is also very easy. PIC
Microcontrollers from Microchip Company are divided into 4 large families.

 First family: PIC10 (10FXXX) called Low End

 Second family: PIC12 (PIC12FXXX) called Mid-Range
 Third family: PIC16 (16FXXX)
 Fourth family: PIC 17/18 (18FXXX)
Each family has a variety of components along with built in special features. It offers a lot of memory sizes and
pin packages and different clock ratings.

ARCHITECTURE:
PIC Microcontroller architecture is based on Harvard architecture and supports RISC architecture (Reduced
Instruction Set Computer). PIC microcontroller architecture consists of memory organization (ram, rom, stack),
CPU, timers, counter, ADC, DAC, serial communication, CCP module and I/O ports. PIC microcontroller also
supports the protocols like CAN, SPI, UART for interfacing with other peripherals.
PIC MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE block diagram

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit):

PIC microcontroller’s CPU consists of
 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
 Memory unit (MU)
 Control unit (CU)
 Accumulator
ALU is used for arithmetic operations and for logical decisions. Memory is used for storing the instructions after
processing. Control unit is used to control the internal and external peripherals which are connected to the CPU
and accumulator is used for storing the results.

2. MEMORY ORGANIZATION:
PIC microcontroller memory module consists of mainly 3 types of memories:
 PROGRAM MEMORY:
It contains the written program after we burned it in microcontroller. Program Counter executes commands stored
in the program memory, one after the other. Pic microcontroller can have 8K words x 14 bits of Flash program
memory that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Whenever we burn program into the micro, we erase
an old program and write a new one.
 DATA MEMORY:
It is a RAM type which is used to store the data temporarily in its registers. The RAM memory is classified into
banks. Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). Number of banks may vary depending on the microcontroller.
PIC16F84 has only two banks. Banks contain Special Function Registers (SFR) and General Purpose Registers
(GPR). The lower locations of each bank are reserved for the Special Function Registers and upper locations are
for General Purpose Registers.

General Purpose Registers (GPR):

These registers don’t have any special function. These are used for general purpose for multiplying, addition or
subtraction and then storing the results in other registers. CPU can easily access the data in these registers.

Special Function Registers (SFR):

These registers are used for special purposes and they cannot be used as normal registers. Their function is set at
the time of manufacturing. They perform the function assigned to them and user cannot change the function of
SFR. Three important SFRs for programming are:

STATUS register: It changes the bank

PORT registers: It assigns logic values 0 or 1 to the ports

TRIS registers: It is a data direction register for input and output

 DATA EEPROM:
This memory allows storing the variables as a result of burning the written program. It is readable and writable
during normal operation (over the full VDD range). This memory is not directly mapped in the register file. It is
indirectly addressed through the SFRs. There are six SFRs which are used to read and write to this memory
(EECON1, EECON2, EEDATA, EEDATH, EEADR, EEADRH).

3. SERIAL COMMUNICATION:
The transfer of one bit of data at time consecutively over a communication channel is called Serial
Communication. There are three protocols of serial communication:

 USART: It stands for Universal synchronous and Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter which provides a
serial communication in two devices. In this protocol data is transmitted and received bit by bit through a single
wire according to the clock pulses. To send and receive data serially the PIC microcontroller has two pins TXD
and RXD.
 SPI Protocol: SPI stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. It is used to send data between PIC microcontrollers and
other peripherals like sensors, shift registers and SD cards. Three wire SPI communications is supported in PIC
microcontroller between two devices on a common clock source. SPI protocol has greater data handling
capability than that of the USART.
 I2C Protocol: I2C stands for Inter Integrated Circuit, and this protocol is used to connect low speed devices like
microcontrollers, EEPROMS and A/D converters. PIC microcontroller support two wire Interface or I2C
communication between two devices which can work as both Master and Slave device.

Serial Communication
4. INTERRUPTS:
There are 20 internal interrupts and three external interrupt sources in PIC microcontrollers which are related with
different peripherals like ADC, USART, Timers, and CCP etc.

5. I/O PORTS:
Let us take PIC16 series, it consists of five ports, such as Port A, Port B, Port C, Port D and Port E.

 Port A: This port is 7-bit wide and can be used for both input and output. The status of TRISA
register decided whether it is used as input or output port.
 Port B: It is an 8-bit port. This port also can be used as input and output. Moreover in input mode four
of its bits are variable according to the interrupt signals.
 Port C: It is also an 8-bit port and can be used as both input and output port which is determined by
the status of the TRISC register.
 Port D: This 8-bit port, unlike Port A, B and C is not an input/output port, but is used as acts as a
slave port for the connection to the microprocessor When in I/O mode Port D all pins should have Schmitt
Trigger buffers.
 Port E: It is a 3-bit port which is used as the additional feature of the control signals to the A/D
converter.
6. CCP MODULE:
A CCP module works in the following three modes:

 Capture Mode: In this mode time is captured when a signal is arrived, or we can say that, when the CCP pin
goes high it captures the value of the Timer1.
 Compare Mode: It works same as an analog comparator, which means that when timer 1’s value reaches some
reference value it will give an output signal.
 PWM Mode: This mode provides a 10 bit resolution pulse and duty cycle that is programmable.
7. Timers:
Timers and counters are important as timers can tell the time and count. PIC microcontroller can have up to four
timers (depending upon the family) Timer0, Timer1, Timer2 and Timer3. Timer0 and Timer2 are of 8-bits while
the Timer1 and Timer3 are of 16-bits, which can also be used as a counter. These timers work according to the
selected modes.
8. D/A CONVERTER:
There are no analog outputs in PIC Microcontroller. To get analog output we have to use external Digital-to-
Analog Converter (DAC). It can convert 8 bits of digital number from the eight digital outputs of PIC

microcontroller.
9. A/D CONVERTER:
It converts the analog voltage levels to digital voltage values. In PIC Microcontroller, ADC has 8-channels and
has resolution of 10-bit, which means that if we have to convert an analog voltage between 0V to 5V the
converter will divide it to 2^10 levels (1024 levels). The special function registers ADCON0 and ADCON1
control the operation of ADC. The converter stores the lower 8 bits in ADRESL register and the upper bits in the
ADRESH register. Reference voltage of 5V is required for the operation of the converter.

2) Stepper Motor Interfacing with 8051 Microcontroller

Stepper motor is brushless DC motor, which can be rotated in small angles, these
angles are called steps. Generally stepper motor use 200 steps to complete 360
degree rotation, means its rotate 1.8 degree per step. Stepper motor used in many
devices which needs precise rotational movement like robots, antennas, hard
drives etc. We can rotate stepper motor to any particular angle by giving it proper
instructions.

Stepper motors are used to translate electrical pulses into mechanical movements. In some
disk drives, dot matrix printers, and some other different places the stepper motors are used.
The main advantage of using the stepper motor is the position control. Stepper motors
generally have a permanent magnet shaft (rotor), and it is surrounded by a stator.
Normal motor shafts can move freely but the stepper motor shafts move in fixed repeatable
increments.

Some parameters of stepper motors −

 Step Angle − The step angle is the angle in which the rotor moves when one pulse is
applied as an input of the stator. This parameter is used to determine the positioning of a
stepper motor.
 Steps per Revolution − This is the number of step angles required for a complete
revolution. So the formula is 360° /Step Angle.
 Steps per Second − This parameter is used to measure a number of steps covered in each
second.
 RPM − The RPM is the Revolution Per Minute. It measures the frequency of rotation. By this
parameter, we can measure the number of rotations in one minute.

The relation between RPM, steps per revolution, and steps per second is like below:

Steps per Second = rpm x steps per revolution / 60

Stepper motors are basically two types: Unipolar and Bipolar. Unipolar
stepper motor generally has five or six wire, in which four wires are one end of
four stator coils, and other end of the all four coils is tied together which represents
fifth wire, this is called common wire (common point). Generally there are two
common wire, formed by connecting one end of the two-two coils as shown in
below figure. Unipolar stepper motor is very common and popular because of its
ease of use.
In Bipolar stepper motor there is just four wires coming out from two sets of coils,
means there are no common wire.

Stepper motor is made up of a stator and a rotator. Stator represents the four
electromagnet coils which remain stationary around the rotator, and rotator
represents permanent magnet which rotates. Whenever the coils energised by
applying the current, the electromagnetic field is created, resulting the rotation of
rotator (permanent magnet). Coils should be energised in a particular sequence to
make the rotator rotate. On the basis of this “sequence” we can divide the working
method of Unipolar stepper motor in three modes: Wave drive mode, full step
drive mode and half step drive mode.

Wave drive mode: In this mode one coil is energised at a time, all four coil are
energised one after another. It produces less torque in compare with Full step drive
mode but power consumption is less. Following is the table for producing this mode
using microcontroller, means we need to give Logic 1 to the coils in the sequential
manner.

Steps A B C D

1 1 0 0 0

2 0 1 0 0

3 0 0 1 0
4 0 0 0 1

Full Drive mode: In this, two coil are energised at the same time producing high
torque. Power consumption is higher. We need to give Logic 1 to two coils at the
same time, then to the next two coils and so on.

Steps A B C D

1 1 1 0 0

2 0 1 1 0

3 0 0 1 1

4 1 0 0 1

Half Drive mode: In this mode one and two coils are energised alternatively,
means firstly one coil is energised then two coils are energised then again one coil
is energised then again two, and so on. This is combination of full and wave drive
mode, and used to increase the angular rotation of the motor.

Steps A B C D

1 1 0 0 0

2 1 1 0 0

3 0 1 0 0

4 0 1 1 0

5 0 0 1 0

6 0 0 1 1
7 0 0 0 1

8 1 0 0 1

Interfacing Stepper Motor with 8051 Microcontroller

Interfacing with 8051 is very easy we just need to give the 0 and 1 to the four wires
of stepper motor according to the above tables depending on which mode we want
to run the stepper motor. And rest two wires should be connected to a proper 12v
supply (depending on the stepper motor). Here we have used the unipolar stepper
motor. We have connected four ends of the coils to the first four pins of port 2 of
8051 through the ULN2003A.

8051 doesn’t provide enough current to drive the coils so we need to use
a current driver IC that is ULN2003A. ULN2003A is the array of seven NPN
Darlington transistor pairs. Darlington pair is constructed by connecting two bipolar
transistors to achieve high current amplification. In ULN2003A, 7 pins are input pins
and 7 pins are output pins, two pins are for Vcc (power supply) and Ground. Here
we are using four input and four output pins. We can also use L293D IC in place of
ULN2003A for current amplification.

You need to find out four coil wires and two common wires very carefully otherwise
motor will not rotate. You can find it out by measuring resistance using multimeter,
multimeter won’t show any readings between the wires of two phases. Common
wire and the other two wire in the same phase should show the same resistance,
and the two end points of the two coils in the same phase will show the twice
resistance in compared with resistance between common point and one end point.
Interfacing stepper motor with 8051

STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that converts digital pulses into mechanic
rotation. Every revolution of the stepper motor is divided into a discrete number of steps, and the motor must b
separate pulse for each step.

Stepper motors can be used in various areas of your microcontroller projects such as making robots, robo
and automatic door lock system.

Fig. shows how to interface the Stepper Motor to microcontroller. As you can see the stepper motor is co
with Microcontroller output port pins through a ULN2803A array. So when the microcontroller is giving puls
particular frequency to ls293A, the motor is rotated in clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step Angle

 Step angle of the stepper motor is defined as the angle traversed by the motor in one step.

 To calculate step angle, simply divide 360 by number of steps a motor takes to complete one revolution.

 Motor rotating in full mode takes 4 steps to complete a revolution ,so step angle can be calculated as step a
360° / 4 =90.

 By knowing the stepper motor step angle helps to move the motor in correct angular position.
 As you can see the stepper motor is connected with Microcontroller output port pins through a ULN2803A
 So when the microcontroller is giving pulses with particular frequency to ls293A, the motor is rotated in cl
or anticlockwise
Program to interface Stepper motor with 8051
 To control a stepper motor in 8051 trainer by turning ON & OFF a four I/O port lines generating at a pa
frequency.
 The 8051 trainer kit has three numbers of I/O port connectors, connected with I/O Port lines (P1.0 – P1.7),
P3.7) to rotate the stepper motor.
 LS293D is used as a driver for port I/O lines, drivers output connected to stepper motor, connector prov
external power supply if needed.

By giving the excitation as indicated above through port 1 we can rotate stepper motor in clockwise or anticlockwi
direction.

NOTE: To turn the motor in the reverse direction enter as (RL A instead of RR A). The schematic sections given i
stepper motor connected to port 1 and the sample program is given based on 8255.
Example 4: Describe the 8051 connection to the stepper motor of figure shows and code a
program to rotate it continuously.

Figure : Interfacing Stepper Motor with 8051

Solution:

MOV A, #66H Load step sequence

BACK: MOV P1, A Issue sequence to
motor
RR A Rotate right
clockwise
ACALL DELAY Wait
SJMP BACK Keep going
…………….
DELAY
MOV R2, #100H
H1: MOV R3, #255H H1:
H2: DJNZ R3, H2 H2:
DJNZ R2, H1
RET

3)PIC16F877A Interrupt

Interrupts are special events that require immediate attention, it stops a microcontroller/microprocessor from the
running task and serves a special task known as Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) or Interrupt Handler.

PIC16F877A has the following 15 interrupt sources :

 External
 Timer 0
 Timer 1
 RB Port Change
 Parallel Slave Port Read/Write
 A/D Converter
 USART Receive
 USART Transmit
 Synchronous Serial Port
 CCP1 (Capture, Compare, PWM)
 CCP2 (Capture, Compare, PWM)
 TMR2 to PR2 Match
 Comparator
 EEPROM Write Operation
 Bus Collision
In this tutorial, we will see USART Interrupts, Timer Interrupts, and External Interrupts.

Registers Used for Interrupts

 INTCON
 OPTION_REG
 PIE1
 PIR1
 PIE2
 PIR2
INTCON Register

The INTCON register is a readable and writable register, which contains various enable and flag bits for the
TMR0 register overflow, RB port change and external RB0/INT pin interrupt.

GIE: Global Interrupt Enable bit

1-Enables all unmasked interrupts

0-Disables all interrupts

PIE: Peripheral Interrupt Enable bit

1-Enables all unmasked peripheral interrupts

0-Disables all peripheral interrupts

TMR0IE: TMR0 Overflow Interrupt Enable bit

1-Enables the TMR0 interrupt

0-Disables the TMR0 interrupt

INTE: RB0/INT External Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the RB0/INT external interrupt

0 = Disables the RB0/INT external interrupt

RBIE: RB Port Change Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the RB port change interrupt

0 = Disables the RB port change interrupt

TMR0IF: TMR0 Overflow Interrupt Flag bit

1-TMR0 register has overflowed (must be cleared in software)

0-TMR0 register did not overflow
INTF: RB0/INT External Interrupt Flag bit

1 = The RB0/INT external interrupt occurred (must be cleared in software)

0 = The RB0/INT external interrupt did not occur

RBIF: RB Port Change Interrupt Flag bit

1 = At least one of the RB7:RB4 pins changed state; a mismatch condition will continue to set the bit. Reading
PORTB will end the mismatch condition and allow the bit to be cleared (must be cleared in software).
0 = None of the RB7:RB4 pins have changed state

OPTION_REG Register

The OPTION_REG Register is a readable and writable register, which contains various control bits to configure
the TMR0 Prescaler/WDT Postscaler (single assignable register known also as the Prescaler), the external INT
interrupt, TMR0, and the weak pull-ups on PORTB.

RBPU: PORTB Pull-up Enable bit (This bit is not used for timers)

1 = PORTB pull-ups are disabled

0 = PORTB pull-ups are enabled by individual port latch values

INTEDG Interrupt Edge Select bit

1 = Interrupt on the rising edge of RB0/INT pin

0 = Interrupt on the falling edge of RB0/INT pin

T0CS: TMR0 Clock Source Select bit

1 = Transition on T0CKI pin

0 = Internal instruction cycle clock (CLKO)

T0SE: TMR0 Source Edge Select bit

1 = Increment on high-to-low transition on T0CKI pin

0 = Increment on low-to-high transition on T0CKI pin
PSA: Prescaler Assignment bit

1 = Prescaler is assigned to the WDT

0 = Prescaler is assigned to the Timer0 module

PS2:PS0: Prescaler Rate Select bits

Note: There is only one Prescaler available which is mutually exclusively shared between the Timer0 module and
the Watchdog Timer. A Prescaler assignment for the Timer0 module means that there is no Prescaler for the
Watchdog Timer and vice versa. This Prescaler is not accessible but can be configured using PS2:PS0 bits
of OPTION_REG.

PIE1 Register
The PIE1 register contains the individual enable bits for the peripheral interrupts.

PSPIE: Parallel Slave Port Read/Write Interrupt Enable bit(1)

1 = Enables the PSP to read/write interrupt

0 = Disables the PSP read/write interrupt

Note (1): PSPIE is reserved on PIC16F873A/876A devices; always maintain this bit clear.

ADIE: A/D Converter Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the A/D converter interrupt

0 = Disables the A/D converter interrupt

RCIE: USART Receive Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the USART to receive interrupt
0 = Disables the USART receive interrupt

TXIE: USART Transmit Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the USART to transmit interrupt

0 = Disables the USART transmit interrupt

SSPIE: Synchronous Serial Port Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the SSP interrupt

0 = Disables the SSP interrupt

CCP1IE: CCP1 Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the CCP1 interrupt

0 = Disables the CCP1 interrupt

TMR2IE: TMR2 to PR2 Match Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the TMR2 to PR2 match interrupt

0 = Disables the TMR2 to PR2 match interrupt

TMR1IE: TMR1 Overflow Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the TMR1 overflow interrupt

0 = Disables the TMR1 overflow interrupt

PIR1 Register
The PIR1 register contains the individual flag bits for the peripheral interrupts.

Note: Interrupt flag bits are set when an interrupt condition occurs regardless of the state of its corresponding
enable bit or the global enable bit, GIE (INTCON<7>). User software should ensure the appropriate interrupt bits
are clear prior to enabling an interrupt.

PSPIF: Parallel Slave Port Read/Write Interrupt Flag bit(1)

1 = A read or a write operation has taken place (must be cleared in software)
0 = No read or write has occurred

Note (1): PSPIF is reserved on PIC16F873A/876A devices; always maintain this bit clear.

ADIF: A/D Converter Interrupt Flag bit

1 = An A/D conversion completed

0 = The A/D conversion is not complete

RCIF: USART Receive Interrupt Flag bit

1 = The USART receive buffer is full

0 = The USART receive buffer is empty

TXIF: USART Transmit Interrupt Flag bit

1 = The USART transmit buffer is empty

0 = The USART transmit buffer is full

SSPIF: Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) Interrupt Flag bit

CCP1IF: CCP1 Interrupt Flag bit

TMR2IF: TMR2 to PR2 Match Interrupt Flag bit

1 = TMR2 to PR2 match occurred (must be cleared in software)

0 = No TMR2 to PR2 match occurred

TMR1IF: TMR1 Overflow Interrupt Flag bit

1 = TMR1 register overflowed (must be cleared in software)

0 = TMR1 register did not overflow

PIE2 Register
The PIE2 register contains the individual enable bits for the CCP2 peripheral interrupt, the SSP bus collision
interrupts, EEPROM writes operation interrupt, and the comparator interrupt.
CMIE: Comparator Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the comparator interrupt

0 = Disable the comparator interrupt

EEIE: EEPROM Write Operation Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enable EEPROM write interrupt

0 = Disable EEPROM write interrupt

BCLIE: Bus Collision Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enable bus collision interrupt

0 = Disable bus collision interrupt

CCP2IE: CCP2 Interrupt Enable bit

1 = Enables the CCP2 interrupt

0 = Disables the CCP2 interrupt

PIR2 Register
The PIR2 register contains the flag bits for the CCP2 interrupt, the SSP bus collision interrupt, the EEPROM
write operation interrupt, and the comparator interrupt.

CMIF: Comparator Interrupt Flag bit

1 = The comparator input has changed (must be cleared in software)

0 = The comparator input has not changed

EEIF: EEPROM Write Operation Interrupt Flag bit

1 = The write operation completed (must be cleared in software)

0 = The write operation is not complete or has not been started

BCLIF: Bus Collision Interrupt Flag bit

1 = A bus collision has occurred in the SSP when configured for I2C Master mode
0 = No bus collision has occurred

CCP2IF: CCP2 Interrupt Flag bit

4)

5)Detail the methodology of transferring/receiving a serial data with 8051 microcontrollers with a real time example.

5) SERIAL COMMUNICATION
RS232
 It is an interfacing standard RS232.
 It was set by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960.
 The standard was set long before the advent of the TTL logic family.
 Its input and output voltage levels are not TTL compatible.
 In RS232, a 0 is represented by -3 to -25 V, while a 1 bit is +3 to +25 V.
 IBM introduced the DB-9 version of the serial I/O standard.
Handshake signals of MODEM DTR (data terminal ready)
 When DTR =1, indicate that it is ready for communication.
DSR (data set ready)
 When DSR =1, indicate that it is ready for communication.
RTS (request to send)
It asserts RTS to signal the modem that it has a byte of data to transmit.
CTS (clear to send)
 It is to receive, it sends out signal CTS,

DCD (data carrier detect)

 The modem asserts signal DCD to inform the DTE that a valid carrier has been detected.
RI (ring indicator)
 An output from the modem and an input to a PC indicates that the telephone is ringing.

MAX232
A line driver ( MAX232) is required to convert RS232 voltage levels to TTL levels, and vice versa.
 8051 has two pins that are used specifically for transferring and receiving data serially.
 These two pins are called TxD and RxD and are part of the port 3 (P3.0 and P3.1).
 These pins are TTL compatible.
 They require a line driver to make them RS232 compatible.

Baud rate:
 The baud rates in 8051 are programmable.
 8051 divides the crystal frequency by 12 to get machine cycle frequency.
 8051 UART circuitry divides the machine cycle frequency by 32.
 Timer 1 is used to set baud rate using TH1 register

Baud rate TH1 (decimal) TH1(Hex)

9600 -3 FD
4800 -6 FA
2400 -12 F4
1200 -24 E8

serial communication registers of the 8051.

SBUF:
 It is an 8-bit register used for serial communication.
 For a byte data to be transferred via the TxD line:
 Byte must be placed in the SBUF register.
 Bytes are framed with the start and stop bits and transferred serially via the TxD line.
 SBUF holds the byte of data when it is received by 8051 RxD line.
 When the bits are received serially via RxD.
 8051 de-frames byte by eliminating the stop and start bits.

SCON:
 It is an 8-bit register used to program the start bit, stop bit and data bits of data framing.
SM0 SM1 SM2 REN TB8 RB8 TI RI

Bit Bit Description

Number Mnemonic
SCON.7 SM0 Serial port mode specifier
SCON.6 SM1 Serial port mode specifier
SCON.5 SM2 Used for multiprocessor communication
SCON.4 REN Set/Cleared by software to enable/disable reception
SCON.3 TB8 Not widely used
SCON.2 RB8 Not widely used
SCON.1 TI Transmit interrupt flag. Set by hardware at the begin of the stop bit mode 1.
And cleared by software
SCON.0 RI Receive interrupt flag. Set by hardware at the begin of the stop bit mode 1.
And cleared by software

SM0, SM1: Serial port mode specifiers

SM0 SM1
0 0 Serial Mode 0
0 1 Serial Mode 1; 8-bit data, 1 stop bit, 1 start bit
1 0 Serial Mode 2
1 1 Serial Mode 3

In programming the 8051 to transfer character bytes serially

1. TMOD register is loaded with the value 20H, indicating the use of timer 1 in mode 2 (8-bit
auto- reload) to set baud rate.
2. The TH1 is loaded with one of the values to set baud rate for serial data transfer.
3. The SCON register is loaded with the value 50H, indicating serial mode 1, where an 8-bit data is
framed with start and stop bits.
4. TR1 is set to 1 to start timer 1
5. TI is cleared by CLR TI instruction.
6. The character byte to be transferred serially is written into SBUF register.
7. The TI flag bit is monitored with the use of instruction JNB TI, xx, to see if the character has
been transferred completely.
8. To transfer the next byte, go to step 5.

Write a program for the 8051 to transfer letter “A” serially at 4800 baud, continuously.

Solution:

MOV TMOD, #20H ;timer 1, mode 2 (auto reload)

MOV TH1, #-6 ;4800 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ;8-bit, 1stop, REN enabled
SETB TR1:start timer 1
AGAIN:MOV SBUF, #”A” ;letter “A” to trtansfer
HERE: JNB TI, HERE ;wait for the last bit
CLR TI ;clear TI for next char
SJMP AGAIN ;keep sending A
The steps that 8051 goes through in transmitting a character via
TxD
The byte character to be transmitted is written into the SBUF
register
1. The start bit is transferred
2. The 8-bit character is transferred on bit at a time
3. The stop bit is transferred
 It is during the transfer of the stop bit that 8051 raises the TI flag, indicating that the last
character was transmitted
4. By monitoring the TI flag, we make sure that we are not overloading the SBUF
 If we write another byte into the SBUF before TI is raised, the un-transmitted portion of the
previous byte will be lost.
5. After SBUF is loaded with a new byte, the TI flag bit must be forced to 0 by CLR TI in order for
this new byte to be transferred

By checking the TI flag bit, we know whether or not the 8051 is ready to transfer another byte
 It must be noted that TI flag bit is raised by 8051 itself when it finishes data transfer
 It must be cleared by the programmer with instruction CLR TI
 If we write a byte into SBUF before the TI flag bit is raised, we risk the loss of a portion of the byte
being transferred
 The TI bit can be checked by the instruction JNB TI,xx Using an interrupt.
Write a program for the 8051 to transfer “YES” serially at 9600 baud, 8-bit data, 1 stop bit do this
continuously. (May 2006)

Solution:
MOV TMOD, #20H ;timer 1, mode 2 (auto reload) MOV
TH1, #-3 ;9600 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ;8-bit, 1 stop, REN enabled SETB
TR1 ;start timer1
MOV P1, A ;send to port 1
CLR RI ;get ready to receive next byte
SJMP HERE ;keep getting data

In receiving bit via its RxD pin, 8051 goes through the following steps.
1. It receives the start bit
 Indicating that the next bit is the first bit of the character byte it is about to receive
2. The 8-bit character is received one bit at time
3. The stop bit is received
 When receiving the stop bit 8051 makes RI = 1,indicating that an entire character
byte has been received.
5. After the SBUF contents are copied into a safe place.
 The RI flag bit must be forced to 0 by CLR RI in order to allow the next received character byte to be
placed in SBUF.
 Failure to do this causes loss of the received character.

There are two ways to increase the baud rate of data transfer
 To use a higher frequency crystal

PCON
 PCON regist
 er is an 8-bit register
 When 8051 is powered up, SMOD is zero.
 We can set it to high by software and thereby double the baud rate.
 GF1, GF0: General flag bits
 PD: Power down mode
IDL: Ideal mode
Real-time example: Reading temperature from a sensor and displaying it on a PC:
Connecting a 8051 microcontroller to a sensor like a temperature sensor, where the
sensor sends data serially to the 8051 for processing and display.

 Hardware setup:
 Connect a temperature sensor (like a LM35) to the 8051's analog input pins.
 Wire the 8051's TX pin to the RX pin of a USB-to-serial converter connected to a PC.
 Software implementation:
 Initialization:

 Configure the A/D converter to read the sensor data.

 Set up Timer 1 to generate the desired baud rate for serial communication.
 Configure the SCON register for 8-bit data transmission with appropriate parity and stop
bits.
 Main loop:
 Read the analog sensor data using the A/D converter.
 Convert the raw ADC value to temperature using the sensor's conversion formula.
 Store the temperature value in a variable.
 Send the temperature data (formatted as a string) to the PC via the serial port using the
SBUF register.
 Add a small delay to allow for data transmission and avoid overloading the PC.
Key code snippets (assembly language):
Setting baud rate (Timer 1 configuration).
Code
MOV TMOD, #20H ; Set Timer 1 to Mode 2 (8-bit auto-reload) [6, 11]

MOV TH1, #FDH ; Load TH1 register for desired baud rate [6]

SETB TR1 ; Start Timer 1 [6]

Sending data through serial port.

Code
MOV A, #'T' ; Load data to be sent into accumulator [6]
MOV SBUF, A ; Send data to serial port buffer [2, 3, 6]

JNB TI, HERE ; Wait for transmission complete flag (TI) [6, 10]

CLR TI ; Clear transmission flag [6, 10]

Important considerations:
 Data formatting:
Ensure the data sent to the PC is formatted in a way that can be easily interpreted by
the receiving application (e.g., ASCII characters, comma-separated values).
 Error checking:
Depending on the application, you might want to implement parity checking or other
error detection mechanisms to ensure data integrity.
 Interrupts:
For high-speed data transfer or real-time applications, consider using interrupts to
handle serial data reception.

Real-time example: A basic digital thermometer

Hardware Setup:
 Connect the LM35 sensor's output to the ADC input pin on the 8051.
 Connect the 8051's TX pin (transmit) to the RX pin of the computer's serial port (or a
suitable USB-to-serial adapter).
Software Implementation (C code example):
#include <reg51.h> // 8051 header file
// Function to read ADC value
unsigned int read_adc() {

// Set up ADC control register

// Start ADC conversion
// Wait for conversion to complete

return AD_RESULT; // Read ADC result

}

// Function to convert ADC value to temperature

float adc_to_temp(unsigned int adc_value) {

return (adc_value * 5.0) / 1023 * 100; // Assuming 10-bit ADC, adjust for your setup
}

void serial_init() {

// Configure SCON register for desired baud rate and mode [1, 4, 10]
// Set Timer 1 register for baud rate calculation [1, 3, 10]

void send_data(unsigned char data) {

SBUF = data; // Send data to serial buffer [1, 4, 10]

while (!TI); // Wait for transmission complete flag [1, 4]

TI = 0; // Clear transmission flag [1, 4]

}

void main() {

serial_init();
while (1) {

unsigned int adc_reading = read_adc();

float temperature = adc_to_temp(adc_reading);

// Convert temperature to ASCII string for serial transmission

// (implementation depends on your chosen data format)

// Send temperature data serially

for (int i = 0; i < strlen(temperature_string); i++) {

send_data(temperature_string[i]);

// Optional delay for refresh rate

// ...

}
Explanation:
 ADC reading:
The read_adc() function reads the analog value from the temperature sensor using the
8051's ADC module.
 Temperature conversion:
The adc_to_temp() function converts the ADC value to a temperature reading using the
known conversion factor for the LM35 sensor