Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill, 2008

Lecture 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
Energy cannot be created
• The second law of thermodynamics: It or destroyed; it can only
asserts that energy has quality as well as change forms (the first law).
quantity. 2
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

3
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
4
arbitrarily.
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force ´ Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

5
W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit

6
mass at sea level.
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.
• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.
7
• Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
8
inlet and one exit.
PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties per unit mass. and extensive properties.
9
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
at a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
10
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system. A system at two different states.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur. A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium. 11
The state of the system
• A state of a system is a system
condition that has the same
intensive properties.
• The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by two
independent, intensive
properties.
• The state of a multi components
system is completely specified
by more than two independent, The state of nitrogen is
intensive properties fixed by two independent,
intensive properties.

12
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

13
• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
14
The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
• Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
or refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume 15
remain constant.
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure. 16
Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on P versus T plots
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or thermometer
32°F). using four
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or low) pressures.
212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. 17
read 273.15°C at absolute zero pressure.
Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
18
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
ENERGY, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS
• If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or
fan)—as the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the
room is well-sealed and well-insulated, the only energy interaction
involved is the electrical energy crossing the system boundary and
entering the room.
• As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the
device to heat, the room temperature will rise.
A fan running in a
well-sealed and
well-insulated room
will raise the
temperature of air in
the room.

A refrigerator
operating with its
door open in a well-
sealed and well-
insulated room 19
FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their
sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
• Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies.
• Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy

that a system possesses as a result
of its motion relative to some
reference frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result The macroscopic energy of an
of its elevation in a gravitational object changes with velocity and
field. elevation. 20
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy
of a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass 21
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion
of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
The internal energy of a
bonds within the nucleus of the
system is the sum of all forms
of the microscopic energies. atom itself.
The various forms of
microscopic Thermal = Sensible + Latent
energies that make Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
22
up sensible energy.
Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit mass

Rate of mechanical
energy of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

23
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

Temperature difference is the driving

Energy can cross the force for heat transfer. The larger the
boundaries of a closed system temperature difference, the higher is the
in the form of heat and work. rate of heat transfer.
24
Q*: Rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per unit time (J/s or W)
Heat transfer
per unit mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
is constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

Energy is
recognized
as heat
transfer only
as it crosses
the system
boundary.

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings. 25
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
ü A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
Specifying the directions
work done per
of heat and work. 26
unit time (kW)
Heat vs. Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries
of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work
are boundary phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat
or work.
• Both are associated with a process, not
a state.
• Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end
states). Properties are point functions; but
heat and work are path functions
(their magnitudes depend on the
Properties are point functions path followed).
have exact differentials (d ).
Path functions
have inexact
differentials (d )
27
Electrical Work
Electrical work

Electrical power

When potential difference

and current change with time

Electrical power in terms of resistance

R, current I, and potential difference V.
When potential difference
and current remain constant

28
MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
ü there must be a force acting on the boundary.
ü the boundary must move.

When force is not constant

Work = Force ´ Distance

The work done is proportional to the force

applied (F) and the distance traveled (s). 29
A force F acting through
Shaft a moment arm r
generates a torque T
Work
This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time

Shaft work is proportional to the

Energy transmission through rotating shafts torque applied and the number
is commonly encountered in practice. 30
of revolutions of the shaft.
When the length of the spring changes by Spring Work
a differential amount dx under the influence
of a force F, the work done is Substituting and integrating yield

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x1 and x2: the initial and the final
x is proportional to the force applied displacements

k: spring constant (kN/m)

Elongation
of a spring
under the
influence of
a force.

The
displacement
of a linear
spring doubles
when the force
31
is doubled.