Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC

CONCEPTS
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

• Thermodynamics: The science of

energy.

• Energy: The ability to cause changes.

• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).

• Conservation of energy principle:

During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

2
The first law of thermodynamics:
An expression of the conservation
of energy principle.
The first law asserts that energy is
a thermodynamic property.

The second law of

thermodynamics: It asserts
that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual
processes occur in the
direction of decreasing
quality of energy.

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Application Areas of Thermodynamics

All activities in nature involve some interaction between

energy and matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area
that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner. 4
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized
by dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity
V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various
units in this system are related to each other
rather arbitrarily. 5
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Problems:
i) Convert to SI unit
a) Distance = 40 inches
b) Density = 1.5 g/cm3

ii) A 4-kW electric heater in a water heater system runs for 2 hours to
raise the water temperature to the desired level. Determine the
amount of electric energy used in both kWh and kJ.

7
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
• Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass
can cross its boundary

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• Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass
flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of
a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

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PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the
size—or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive
properties per unit mass.
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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
Specific volume at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system involves
two phases and when the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and
stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical
composition of a system does not change
with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur. 12
The State Postulate
• The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
 The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
• Simple compressible
system: If a system involves The state of nitrogen is
no electrical, magnetic, fixed by two independent,
gravitational, motion, and intensive properties.
surface tension effects.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states, as
well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

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• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
• Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants
or refrigeration systems. 16
Temperature Scales
P versus T plots
• All temperature scales are based on
some easily reproducible states such as of the
the freezing and boiling points of water: experimental
the ice point and the steam point. data obtained
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water from a constant-
that is in equilibrium with air saturated volume gas
with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or thermometer
32°F). using four
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in at different (but
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or low) pressures.
212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit
system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
• A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a A constant-volume gas thermometer would
constant-volume gas thermometer. 17
read -273.15°C at absolute zero pressure.
Comparison of
temperature
scales.

Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
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coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on

the feet of a chubby person is much
greater than on the feet of a slim
person.

Some
basic
pressure 19
gages.
Example:

A vertical, frictionless piston-cylinder device contains a gas

at 180 kPa. The atmospheric pressure outside is 100 kPa,
and the piston area is 25 cm2.
i) Determine the mass of the piston in
kg
ii) If some heat is transferred to the
gas and its volume is doubled, what
happen to the pressure inside the
cylinder ? Increase, decrease or
remains constant ?

20
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout this
text, the pressure
P will denote
absolute
pressure unless
specified
otherwise.

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Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known

Pressure in a liquid at
rest increases
linearly with distance
from the free surface.

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THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The length or the

cross-sectional area of
the tube has no effect
on the height of the
fluid column of a
barometer, provided
that the tube diameter
is large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects. 23
Problems:

i) The pressure at the exit of an air

compressor is 150 psi. What is the
pressure in kPa.

iii) The pressure of the helium inside a toy

balloon is 1250 mmHg. What is the
pressure in kPa and bar. Take density of
mercury 13,600 kg/m3

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The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids such
as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

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The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A
manometer contains one or more fluids such
as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

The basic
manometer.

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Example:
A mercury manometer ( = 13,600 kg/m3) is connected to an air duct
to measure the pressure inside. The difference in the manometer
level is 15 mm. The atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
i) From the Figure, determine if the pressure in the duct is above or
below the atmospheric pressure.
ii) Determine the absolute pressure in the duct.
(2kPa, 102 kPa)

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• Thermodynamics and energy
 Application areas of thermodynamics Summary
• Importance of dimensions and units
 Some SI and English units, Dimensional
homogeneity, Unity conversion ratios
• Systems and control volumes
• Properties of a system
 Continuum
• Density and specific gravity
• State and equilibrium
 The state postulate
• Processes and cycles
 The steady-flow process
• Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
 Temperature scales
 ITS-90
• Pressure
 Variation of pressure with depth
• The manometer
 Other pressure measurement devices
• The barometer and atmospheric pressure
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• Problem solving technique