NATURAL SCIENCE SOLUTION

Accelerating Academic Skills

NA Summary Notes (edexcel A2 Physics unit-4)

Topics:
T UR
AL
1. Circular Motion
2. Momentum SC
3. Electricity
4. Capacitor
I EN
5. Magnetic Field CE
6. Particle Physics
SO
LU
“Knowing the path is good but not enough, T IO the
walking
path with determination leads to destiny” N

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Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform Circular Motion:
V2
A particle moves in a circular path at constant speed V.

✓ Speed V, of the particle remains the same, but due to change in

direction velocity keeps changing (V1 and V2 are velocities). Fig (a). V1

Important Terms:
1. Angular Displacement:

It is the angle subtended at the centre in the given interval of time. a

The displacement is measured in radian (rad). Fig (b).

2. Arc length and angular displacement:

The arc length s in a circle of radius r can be found by using

s = r θ (The angle θ must be in radian).

NA b
TU
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
whose length is equal to that of the radius of the circle. Fig (c).
RA 2π rad = 360⁰ or π rad = 180⁰
For one complete cycle;
L
It follows that,
SC
3. Angular velocity:
IE c

NC
Rate of change of angular displacement. Or angular displacement per unit
time.
𝜽
E
𝝎 = , it is measured in rad s-1
𝒕
SO
LU
If particle completes one cycle then t = T and θ = 2π, the angular velocity can be found by,

𝝎=
𝟐𝝅 TI
Note: 𝑻 =
𝟏
𝒇
𝑻
where, f is the frequency. The angular velocity then can be written as;
ON
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇

The angular velocity is also known as angular frequency.

4. Linear Speed/Tangential velocity, v

The velocity of a particle moving in circle is constantly changing because of the change in the direction.
𝒔
The speed however, is constant and can be calculated. 𝑽 =
𝒕
If we rearrange the top equation by replacing s = r θ and θ = ωt. We have an important relation
between the angular velocity and the linear velocity.

V=rω
Note: particles moving along a same radial line have same angular but different instantaneous velocities

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Centripetal Force:
The direction of velocity of a particle moving in circle is constantly changing. Fig (a). Which means there must be
some force acting on the particle which is causing the change in the direction. This force is called Centripetal
Force.

The centripetal force and is provided by a number of things:

➢ For a satellite orbiting the Earth it is provided by gravitational attraction.

➢ For a car driving around a roundabout it is provided by the friction between the wheels and the road.
➢ For a ball on a string being swung in a circle it is provided by the tension in the string.

✓ The Centripetal Force always acts towards the centre of the circular path.
✓ According to Newton’s second law if there is a net force there must be
acceleration…
✓ The acceleration due to velocity vector change is called centripetal
acceleration a.
NA
✓ The Centripetal acceleration also acts parallel to the force or towards the

TU
centre of the circular path.

RA
The required centripetal force depends on three factors.

I. L
Mass m of the moving object.
II.
III. SC
Speed/velocity v of the moving object.
Radius r of the circular path.

𝒎𝒗𝟐
IE
𝑭=
𝒓
NC
E
The centripetal acceleration is given by the equation. 𝒂 =
𝒗𝟐
𝒓 SO
The centripetal force and acceleration in terms of angular velocity; LU
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒓𝝎𝟐 𝒂 = 𝒓𝝎𝟐
TI
Special cases of centripetal force:
and
ON
Remember, The centripetal force is the resultant of forces acting along the direction of
central line (towards the centre of the circular path).

Case-1 (Conical pendulum):

After resolving tension into its components.

Along the vertical direction; 𝑻𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒎𝒈

𝒎𝒗𝟐
Along the horizontal direction; 𝑻𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
𝒓

Combining the above two equations;

𝒗𝟐
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =
𝒓𝒈

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Case-2 (Pendulum in a vertical circle):

At position 1, tension in the string along with the weight (mg) provides the required
centripetal force.

𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑻 + 𝒎𝒈 =
𝒓
At position 2, the required centripetal force is the resultant of tension and the
weight (mg).

𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈 =
𝒓

NA
TUMomentum in two dimention and Collisions
RA
Momentum in two dimension:
L
Collisions in a straight line or in one
dimension are rare. SC V1
IE
Majority of collisions are two dimensional, u1
NC
i.e. either before or after the collision, the
particles move making some angles with the
x-axis or with the y-axis. E
Important: SO
Velocities/momentums are resolved into their LU V2
components to apply the momentum
conservation law. T IO
In the diagram there are components of velocities V1 and V2 after collision. N
Applying law of conservation of momentum along x-axis (horizontally);

m1u1 = m1V1cosθ1 + m2V2cosθ2

Applying law of conservation of momentum along y-axis (vertically);

0 = m1V1sinθ1 - m2V2sinθ2
Note:
There is only horizontal momentum before collision, no vertical momentum.
If a particle is initially making some angle before collision, then we will have initial horizontal and
vertical momentums.

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Types of collisions:

1. Elastic (Perfectly Elastic) collision:

• The collision in which momentum is conserved.

• The collision in which total K.E is conserved.
• They are rare.
• Collision caused by the Non-Contact forces are elastic.

2. Inelastic collision:

• The collision in which momentum is conserved.

• The collision in which total K.E is not conserved.
• The loss of K.E converts into other forms of energy.
• Collision caused by the Contact forces are elastic.

✓ Momentum is always conserved in all collisions.

✓ Law of conservation of energy holds in inelastic collision. It is because decrease in K.E is equal to
increase in heat and sound energy.

NA
✓ Explosion is an example of inelastic collision. It is because K.E is increased.

TU
RACoulomb’s Law and Electric Fields
Coulomb’s Law:
L
SC q1 r q2

IE
The electrostatic force (Coulomb’s force) between two charges is directly
proportional to the product of magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the charges. NC
E 𝑭=
𝑲𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
SO 𝒓𝟐
LU
Where, K is called Coulomb’s constant which depends upon permittivity of the medium between the two
charges.
TI
➢
ON
The capability of a medium to permit electric fields is called permittivity of the medium.

If the medium between the two charges is Free Space/Vacuum then K =8.98 X109 Nm-2c2.

The value is found by the equation;

𝟏
𝑲=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎
Where, 𝜺𝟎 is the permittivity of the free space/vacuum. (𝜺𝟎 = 8.85X10-12 m2C2N-1 ).

The coulomb’s law for free space/vacuum can also be written as;

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

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✓ The electrostatic force between two charges can be positive or negative.

If the two charges are positive, (+q1)(+q2) = + q1q2 A positive force means the charges repel.
If the two charges are negative, (–q1)(– q2) = + q1 q2 A positive force means the charges repel.
If one is negative and one is positive, (–q1)(+ q2) = – q1 q2 A negative force means the charges attract.

Electric field:
It is a region around a charge in which another charge experiences an electric force.

➢ The electric field causes the charge to accelerate.

Electric field Lines:

The electric field region is modelled as field lines or lines of force.

✓ For an isolated positive charge the field lines start at the charge and go out to infinity (Fig. f).
NA
TU
✓ For an isolated negative charge the field lines end at the centre of a mass and tail back from infinity (Fig.
g).
RA Isolated positive charge
L
SC Isolated negative charge
IE
NC
(f) E (g)
SO
The electric field become more spread out the further from the charge, which means the field is getting
weaker as you go further away from the charge. LU
The electric field lines are in fact path along which the second charge moves.
TI
ON
More configuration:
1. Electric field lines between a positive and a negative charge (Fig. h).
2. Electric field lines between two positive charges (Fig. i).
3. Electric field lines between a negative charge and a positive charged plate (Fig. j).
(j)
(h)
(i)

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Electric field Lines:
✓ Field lines are directed away from the positive electric
charge and towards the negative electric charge.
✓ Electric field lines are continuous curves in a charge-free
region.
✓ Electric field is a vector.
✓ Tangent to any point of field lines give the direction of the
electric field at that point (note the directions at point 1, 2,
and 3).
✓ The field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the
charge. That’s why they are called radial field.
✓ Electric field lines never cross each other.

NA
TU
RA (K)
Electric field strength:
L q

SC
The electric field strength E at a point P due to a charge Q is the force Q
experienced by per coulomb of charge (fig k).
IE +
𝑬=
𝑭
NC
𝒒
E
It is measured in NC-1
SO
Note: q is the charge moving/entering into the field of the charge Q.
LU
If a be the acceleration of charge; 𝒎𝒂 = 𝑬𝒒 TI
𝒂=
𝑬𝒒
𝒎
ON

(l)
The electric field strength E at a distance r from a charge Q (Fig. l ) can be found q
by using the formula.
r
𝑲𝑸 Q
𝑬= 𝟐 +
𝒓
Where, K is called Coulomb’s constant. (K =8.98 X109 Nm-2c2)

Note: Q is the charge causing the electric field.

✓ All the electric fields so far we discussed (fig. f to l) are non-uniform electric field.

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Electric Potential, V:
The work done per unit charge against the field to move a positive point charge from infinity to that point.

The electric potential at a distance r from a charge Q is given by:

𝑲𝑸
𝑽=
𝒓
✓ The value will be positive when work is done against the field (when like charges are repelling).
✓ The value will be negative when work is done by the field (when opposite charges attract).
✓ In both cases the potential at infinity is zero. Electric potential is a scalar quantity.

NA
Electric Potential is measured in Joules per Coulomb, J C-1

TU
Electric Potential Difference ΔV:
RA
If a charge q moves in an electric field of charge Q;
L
The electric potential difference is the work done/Energy per unit charge which can be written as;
SC 𝑾
IE ∆𝑽 =
𝒒
NC
The energy gained by the charge q is given by the equation;

𝑬 = 𝒒∆𝑽 E
SO
Uniform Fields:
LU (m)
➢ The electric field between two charged metal/conducting plates is TI
considered to be uniform (fig. m).
➢ The field lines are parallel in a uniform field.
ON
➢ Between two such plates the field lines leave the positive plate and
enter the negative plate.
(n)
Potential V between the two plates varies with the distance r (fig. n).
r
Electric field between the two charged metal/conducting plates is given
by the equation;

∆𝑽
𝑬=
∆𝒓

Electric Field Strength can be measured in Volts per metre, V m -1

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Important graphs:

The following graphs show how

electric field strength E and
electric potential V vary with
distance r from the centre of a
charged sphere. In both cases R
is the radius of the sphere.

• The gradient of the electric potential graph gives the electric field strength at that point.

NA 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
∆𝑽
TU ∆𝒓
RA
The gradient is the electric field strength E at that point.
L
SC
IE
Electric and Gravitational Fields Comparison
Gravitational FieldNC Electric Field

Constant of proportionality G E 𝑲=
𝟏

SO 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎
1 Q1Q2
F =−
Gm1 m2
r2 LU F=
4 0 r 2
Equation for force
newton (N) TI
newton (N)

Nature of force Attractive only

Vector Vector
ON
Like charges repel
Different charges attract
Definition of field strength Force per unit mass Force per unit charge
GM Q
g=− E=
Field strength in radial field r2 4 0 r 2
newtons per kilogram (N/kg) newtons per Coulomb (N/C)
Vector Vector
The work done in bringing a unit The work done in bringing a unit
Definition of potential mass from infinity to the point in charge from infinity to the point in
the field the field
GM Q
V =− V=
Potential r 4 0 r
Joules per kilogram (J/kg) Joules per Coulomb (J/C)
Scalar Scalar

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Capacitors
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electronic component that can store electrical charge so the electrical energy,
and then release it.

The charge that is stored by the capacitor is due to the potential difference across the plates.

𝑸∝𝑽
The charge than can be found by using;

𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽
Where the C is capacitance of the capacitor measured in CV-1 (CV-1 = farad/F).

The charge stored per unit volt is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
Q
✓ Q-V graph is a straight line passing through origin.
✓ The gradient of the graph gives capacitance.
NA
TU
Energy stored in a capacitor:
V
RA
Work is done to store charge in a capacitor, the work is stored as energy is the capacitor.
The soterd energy canbe found by using the equation;
L
SC 𝑬=
𝟏
𝟐
𝑸𝑽
IE
The area under Q-V graph is the energy stored.

NC
Using the equation Q = CV, the stored energy can also be found as;
E 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑬=
𝟏
𝟐
𝑪𝑽 𝟐
and 𝑬=
𝟐 𝑪 SO
LU
TI
✓ When a capacitor is connected to a battery is sends out electrons to one of the plates, this becomes
ON
negatively charged. The same amount of electrons move from the second plate and enter the battery,
leaving the plate positively charged. The capacitor is now storing a charge or is ‘charged’.

✓ If the charged capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to a lamp it will give out the
stored charge or will ‘discharge’. The electrons on the negative plate move through the circuit and onto
the positive plate. The plates now have no charge on them. The energy stored by the capacitor is
transferred to the bulb whilst the electrons move (whilst a current flows).

Charging and discharging a capacitor:

In the circuit a capacitor can be charged by the battery if the switch is
moved to position A. It can then be discharged through a resistor by
moving the switch to position B.

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Charging A capacitor:
When the switch is moved to A the lower plate gets electron this leaves the lower plate negatively charged and the
upper plate positively charged. In result an electric field is build up between the plates.

✓ Current: As the capacitor starts charging, the amount of charge increases quickly at the beginning
because a large current is flowing. As the current drops the rate at which the charge increases also drops.
A maximum charge is reached.

✓ Charge: As the capacitor starts charging, the amount of charge increases quickly at the beginning because
a large current is flowing. As the current drops the rate at which the charge increases also drops. A
maximum charge is reached.

✓ Potential difference (Voltage): As the capacitor starts charging, the voltage increases quickly at the
beginning because a large current is flowing. As the current drops the rate at which the voltage increases
also drops. A maximum voltage is reached.

NA
TU
RA
L
SC
Charging of a capacitor is an exponential process.

Discharging the capacitor and Time constant: IE

NC
E
When the switch is moved to B, the electrons on the negative plate
repel each other and move back into the circuit. Eventually both
plates lose their charge and the electric field between them
disappears. SO
LU
✓ Current: As the capacitor starts discharging, there is
initially a large current as the electrons leave the negative TI
ON
plate. As the number of electrons on the negative plate falls the current fall at a slower rate. When no more
electrons move in the circuit the current drops to zero.

✓ Charge: As the capacitor starts discharging, the amount of charge decreases quickly at the beginning
because a large current is flowing. As the current drops the rate at which the charge decreases also drops.

✓ Potential difference (Voltage): As the capacitor starts discharging, the voltage decreases quickly at the
beginning because a large current is flowing. As the current drops the rate at which the voltage decreases
also drops.

Discharging of a capacitor is an exponential process or exponential decay.

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In order to delay the discharging process we should use a capacitor of a larger capacitance, it means it can
hold more charge, this means it will take longer to discharge.
We can also use a large resistance, the larger resistance means it is harder to move the electrons around
the circuit, this also means it will take longer to discharge.

The amount of charge Q remains in the capacitor after time t can be found by using the following equation.

𝑸 = 𝑸𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪
The equation is called the decay equation for charge where;
t is the time that has elapsed since discharge began
Q is the remaining charge
Q0 is the initial (or starting) charge
R is the resistance through which the capacitor is discharging
C is the capacitance of the capacitor

✓ The term RC is called the time constant, it is the time taken for the charge or p.d. of a capacitor to fall to
NA
37% of the initial value. OR the time taken for the charge or p.d. of a capacitor to fall by 63% of the

TU
initial value. It is given by the equation:

RA 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪

L
✓ 𝟓𝝉 is the time considered for a capacitor to discharge completely.
SC
The other decay equations (for the current and the voltage) are given as;
IE
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆 −𝒕/𝑹𝑪
NC 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪
E
✓ The Q – t, V-t, and I - t graphs are exponential decay graphs as mentioned in discharging process.
SO
LU
TI
ON

✓ In this case the time constant 𝝉 is 4 seconds. The capacitor will take 20s to discharge completely.

The exponential equations of the charge, Voltage and current can be rearranged in the form of y = mx + c as
follows;
lnQ
𝟏
ln Q = - 𝑹𝑪 𝒕 + ln Q0

The graph of lnQ against t is a straight line with negative gradient.

1
The gradient of the line is − 𝑅𝐶 and the y-intercept is lnQ0
t

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The similar equations for the voltage and the current can be written as;

𝟏 lnV
ln V = - 𝒕 + ln V0 lnI
𝑹𝑪

𝟏
ln I = - 𝒕 + ln I0
𝑹𝑪

t t

Magnetic Field of Current Carrying Wire and Coil

Current and magnetic field:
✓ Current causes a magnetic field.

NA
Magnetic field of a current carrying straight wire:

TU
When a current flows through a straight wire it creates a magnetic field in the form of concentric circles. The
circles spaced away from each other.
RA
L
✓ The Right Hand Grip Rule is used to show the direction of the magnetic
field.
SC
✓ If we imagine holding wire in our right hand such that the thumb is in the
direction of the conventional current (positive current), the fingers point
the direction of the field lines. IE
NC
✓ A tangent to the circle represents direction of the magnetic field at that
point.

Current flow representation in a wire:

E A tangent to the circle

SO
LU
Consider current is flowing upward through a wire as shown in figure. The flow of current can be represent in the
form of dot-cross model as follows.
TI
✓ If the wire is viewed from the top. The dot is used to show the flow of current out of the page. The
magnetic fields are in the form of anticlockwise circles spaced away from each other. ON
✓ If the wire is viewed from the bottom. The cross is used to show the flow of current going into the page.
The magnetic fields are in the form of clockwise circles spaced away from each other.

Force between two parallel current carrying conductors:

Force between two parallel conductors in which current is flowing depends upon the direction of the current.
They either attract or repel each other.

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✓ Two parallel conductors in which current flow in same direction attract each other. It is because net
magnetic field between the two conductors is weaker than the magnetic field of outer region.

Weak magnetic field

Strong magnetic field

✓ Two parallel conductors in which current flow in opposite direction repel each other. It is because net
magnetic field between the two conductors is stronger than the magnetic field of outer region.

Strong magnetic field

NA Weak magnetic field

TU
RA
L
SC
IE
Magnetic field of a circular coil/one loop of a wire:
NC
The face of the coil behaves as a north and as south pole of a magnet. The
right-hand rule again gives the direction of the field at any point. E
SO
✓ If the current in a coil is flowing clockwise the face you are looking at
is south face and vice versa.
LU
✓ At the centre of the coil the field lines are straight and at right TI
angles to the plane of the coil.

Magnetic field of a solenoid:

ON
A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil. It produces a field similar to that of a bar
magnet.

✓ The direction of the magnetic field can be found by using the right
hand grip rule.

✓ One end of the coil is the north face and the other end is the south
face.

✓ If a soft iron rod is inserted into the solenoid the rod becomes a
magnet. Such magnet is called electromagnet.

The strength of an electromagnet increases if

i. the current in the coil increases,

ii. the number of turns on the coil increases,
iii. the poles are moved closer together.

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Magnetic Flux and Flux Density
Magnetic Flux:
Number of magnetic field lines passing through an area, denoted by ϕ (phi)
measured in weber (Web). OR

The amount of magnetic field lines within a loop or coil.

Magnetic Flux Density/Magnetic field strength:

Magnetic flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density or Magnetic field
strength denoted by B.

∅
𝑩=
𝑨
The SI unit of B is webm-2 which is called tesla (T) { T = webm-2}

From the above equation the magnetic flux can be found as; ∅ = 𝑩𝑨.
NA
TU
The above formula is used if A is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

RA
If area A is making some angle with the magnetic field B.

L ∅ = 𝑩𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Flux Linkage:
SC
IE
Flux linked with one coil is defined as; ∅ = 𝑩𝑨
NC
E
If there are N turns the total amount of flux linked with the N turns is called flux linkage is defined as;

𝑵∅ = 𝑩𝑨𝑵 SO
LU
TI
Force on a Current Carrying Wire
Force on a current carrying wire:
ON
When a (conventional) current flows through the wire placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force due to the
net magnetic field of the magnet and the wire.

Magnetic field of the Magnetic field of the

magnet current carrying wire Strong magnetic field

Weak magnetic field

Force acting downward

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✓ The magnetic field lines above are more compact than below. This forces the wire downwards.
✓ The direction of the force can be determined by using Flaming’s left hand rule.

Flaming Left Hand Rule:

This rule links the magnetic field, conventional current and directions of the force which are all at right angles to
each other.

✓ Your first finger points from North to South (in the direction of the magnetic field).
✓ Your middle finger points from positive to negative or in the direction of the current
flow.
✓ Your thumb points in the direction of the force or direction of the motion of the
conductor.

Strength of the force:

If a current carrying wire of length l is placed in a magnetic field of strength B
making at an angle θ with the magnetic field, the force acting on the wire can be
found by using;
NA
TU 𝑭 = 𝑩𝑰𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 θ B

RA
✓ If the wire is perpendicular (𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎⁰) to the magnetic field the force will be maximum. 𝑭 = 𝑩𝑰𝒍

L
✓ If the wire is parallel to the magnetic field the force will be zero. 𝑭 = 𝟎
SC
IE
Wire is perpendicular the
magnetic field θ = 90⁰
l I
NC
Wire is Parallel the E
B magnetic field θ = 0⁰
SO B

LU
Motor Effect/ Rotating Coil in a Magnetic Field: TI
ON
If a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field then the force acting on the coil causes the coil to rotate.

If we have a rectangle of wire that has an area of A and we place it in a magnetic field of flux density B, we have
seen that the amount of flux flowing through the wire depends on the angle θ between it and the flux lines.

The flux linkage at an angle θ from the perpendicular to the magnetic field is
given by: 𝑵∅ = 𝑩𝑨𝑵𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

𝜽
The angular speed is given by 𝝎 = .
𝒕

The flux linkage is then written as; 𝑵∅ = 𝑩𝑨𝑵𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)

When t = 0 the wire is perpendicular to the field so there is a maximum

amount of flux.

Complete cycle of the coil is shown in the figure below;

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At 1 the flux linkage is a maximum in one direction. There is the lowest rate of change at this point.

At 2 the flux linkage is zero. There is the biggest rate of change at this point

At 3 the flux linkage is maximum but in the opposite direction. The lowest rate of change occurs here too.

At 4 the flux linkage is zero. There is the biggest rate of change at the point too but in the opposite direction.

Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field: B

If a charge q enters in a magnetic field of strength B with velocity v and it makes an

angle θ with the magnetic field, the force acting on the moving charge can be found v
by using;
NA 𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 θ
TU
RA
✓ If the wire is perpendicular (𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎⁰) to the magnetic field the force
𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗
will be maximum.
L
SC
✓ If the wire is parallel to the magnetic field the force will be zero.
𝑭=𝟎
IE
NC
✓ The direction of the force can be determined by using Flaming’s left hand rule.
Magnetic field

E
1. Your first finger points from North to South (in the direction of the magnetic into the page
field).
SO
2. Your middle finger points from positive to negative or in the direction of
the current flow.
3. Your thumb points in the direction of the force acting on the moving LU
charge.
✓ The force acting on the charge in the 2nd diagram is upward.
TI
✓ If the charge moves perpendicularly to the magnetic field, the magnetic force on the moving charge acts
ON
as a centripetal force. The charge then moves along a circular path of radius r.

𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒎𝒗
𝑩𝒒𝒗 = OR 𝑩𝒒 =
𝒓 𝒓

✓ The above equation can be rearrange to make r as a subject of the equation to find the
radius of the circular path.
Less curvature, large radius.
𝒎𝒗
𝒓=
𝑩𝒒
From the above equation it is evident that radius of the circular path;

1. Directly proportional to the mass (m) of the charged particle.

2. Directly proportional to the speed (v) of the charged particle.
More curvature, small radius.
3. Inversely proportional to the strength of the magnetic field (B).
4. Inversely proportional to the amount of the charge (q).

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Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)
Electromagnetic Induction:
If a wire/coil placed in a magnetic field moves, an e.m.f is induced which cause a current in the wire/coil.

There are two possibilities to induce e.m.f. across the ends of a conducting wire:

1) Move the wire through a magnetic field or 2) Move a magnet through a coil of the wire

✓ In both cases magnetic field lines and wires are cutting through each other. We say that the wire is
cutting through the magnetic field lines (although it is fair to say that the field lines are cutting through the
wire).
✓ If the conductor is part of a complete circuit a current will be induced through it as well as an e.m.f.
across it.

Faraday’s Law of Induction:

The magnitude of the e.m.f. E induced in a conductor equals the rate of change of flux linkages or the rate at

NA
which the conductor cuts a magnetic flux.
𝑵∆∅
TU 𝑬=
∆𝒕
Lenz’s Law:
RA
L
The direction of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor is such that it opposes the change producing it.

SC
✓ When we push the North Pole of a magnet the induced current in the A
B

IE
solenoid flows to make the end A of the coil as a North Pole to repel
the magnet.
NC
E
✓ When we pull the North Pole out of the solenoid the induced current
flows to make the end A as a South Pole to attract the magnet. B

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule/Direction of the induces e.m.f:

SO A

LU
✓ Your first finger points in the direction of the field from North to South.
✓ Your thumb points in the direction the wire is moved. TI
✓ Your middle finger points in the direction of the conventional current. ON
Transformers
Transformer:
It is a device to increase or decrease the voltage/current using
electromagnetic induction.

Working Principle:

An A.C current flows through the primary coil which creates an alternating magnetic field. The field lines cut
through the turns of wire on the secondary coil. This induces an e.m.f. (voltage) and a current in the second coil.

There are two types of transformers:

1. Step Up:
The voltage in the secondary coil is larger than the voltage in the primary coil.
The current in the secondary coil is smaller than the current in the primary coil.

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There will be more turns of wire on the secondary coil meaning more flux linkage. 𝑵𝒔 > 𝑵𝒑

2. Step Down

The voltage in the secondary coil is smaller than the voltage in the primary coil.
The current in the secondary coil is larger than the current in the primary coil.

There will be fewer turns of wire on the secondary coil meaning less flux linkage. 𝑵𝒑 > 𝑵𝒔

The voltage VP, current IP, and the number of turns NP in the primary coil is linked to the voltage Vs, current Is,
and the number of turns Ns in the secondary coil by the following equations:

𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝒔 𝑵𝒔 𝑰𝒑 𝑽𝒔 𝑰𝒑
= ; = ; =
𝑵𝒑 𝑽𝒑 𝑵𝒑 𝑰𝒔 𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒔

Nuclear and Particle Physics

NA
In Search of Fundamental Particles:

TU
✓ Till 19th century atom was supposed to be a fundamental and indivisible particle from which everything
else is constructed.
RA
✓ 1857 W. Crooks discovered electron as one of the fundamental particle.

L
✓ 1897 J.J Thomson found the e/m ratio for electron.
✓ Later positive rays discovered and gave proof of existence of protons.
SC
✓ Chadwick discovered Neutron in his artificial radioactive experiment.

Structure of an Atom: IE Constituent Charge (C) Mass (kg)

NC
After discovery of the three fundamental particles of that time;
Proton
Neutron
1.6 x 10-19
0
1.673 x 10-27
1.675 x 10-27

✓ J.J Thomson gave his Plum Pudding model for atom.

E Electron - 1.6 x 10-19 9.11 x 10-31

SO
✓ Rutherford performed scattering of alpha particle from a gold foil and gave his model for structure of
atom.
LU
✓ Niels Bohr refined the model giving idea about existence of fixed energy level.
TI
Alpha scattering experiment:
In 1911, Rutherford and co-workers Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden initiated a series of ground-breaking
ON
experiments that would completely change the accepted model of the atom.

✓ They bombarded very thin sheets of gold foil with fast moving alpha particles.

✓ Alpha particles, a type of natural radioactive particle, are positively charged particles with a mass about
four times that of a hydrogen atom.

Observation and conclusion:

1. Most of the α particles passed straight through the gold foil, which showed that atoms are mostly empty
space.

2. Some of the α particles were deflected at various angles hence the positive charge in an atom is not
uniformly distributed. The positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a very small volume.

3. Very few α particles were bounced back from the gold foil, so the volume occupied by the positively
charged particles in an atom is very small as compared to the total volume of an atom.

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Note: Nucleus has positive charge was not valid assumption from the above observation.
NA
TU
Nuclear Notation:
RA
L
✓ Collectively protons and neutrons are called Nucleons.
✓ Number of protons is called proton number or charge number denoted by Z.
SC
✓ Number of protons + number of neutrons is called Mass number or nucleon number denoted by A.

IE 𝑨
If X is a nucleus of an element, we write the following notation to represent the nucleus; 𝒁𝑿.
NC
Where A = Z + n {n = number of neutrons}.
E
SO
Isotopes: LU
TI
Isotopes are atoms of same element with same
atomic number but different mass number. Or
atoms of same element with same protons
𝟏
𝟏𝑯
𝟐
𝟏𝑯
ON 𝟐
𝟏𝑯

number but different nucleons number. Hydrogen-1/Protium Hydrogen-2/Deuterium Hydrogen-3/Tritium

electrons = 1 electrons = 1 electrons = 1

Three Important Isotopes: protons = 1 protons = 1 protons = 1
neutron = 0 neutron = 1 neutron = 2
There are three Isotopes of Hydrogen.

Interesting Facts:
If we shrunk the Solar System so that the Sun was the size of a gold nucleus the furthest electron would be
twice the distance to Pluto.

If the nucleus was a full stop it would be 25 m to the first electron shell, 100m to the second and 225m to the
third.

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Mass-Energy Conservation

Mass-Energy Equation:
According to Einstein energy E linked the rest mass of a particle as follows:

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
8 -2
Where c is the speed of light (c = 3x10 ms ).

✓ So whether you have mass or energy you still have the same amount.
The law of conservation of energy can now be referred to as the conservation of mass-energy.

The total mass-energy before is equal to the total mass-energy after.

Mass Energy associated with 1 Kg of mass: 9x1016 J = 5.63x1035 eV. {eV = electronvolt}

Mass Energy associated with mass of one electron: 8.199x10-14 J = 0.51MeV.

NA
Photon:
TU
Photon is a discrete energy packet of electromagnetic wave.
RA
L
The energy carried by a photon is given by the equation: 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇

SC
Where h is the Plank’s constant: h = 6.625x10-34 Js, and f is the frequency of the photon (electromagnetic wave).

IE
Since c = f λ we can also write the above equation as: 𝑬 =
𝒉𝒄

NC 𝝀

E
Particles and Antiparticles SO
Positron/Antielectron/positive electron: LU
✓ In 1932, Caltech physicist Carl Anderson discovered the positron (A TI
positive electron, a particle of same mass but opposite charge of that of
electron).
ON
✓ Positron was the first particle of antimatter to be identified.
✓ Anderson had not set out to hunt antimatter.
✓ He had built a cloud chamber to determine the composition of cosmic rays,
high-energy particles that rain down from space.

Pair Production:
If an attempt is made to stop a photon of energy E (generally
absorption in nucleus) a pair of particle and antiparticle
produced.

✓ In order to conserve momentum, the produced pair

always moves in opposite direction.
✓ The energy E of the absorbed photon must be greater
than the double of the rest mass energy of the photon.

E > mass energy of e- + mass energy of e+

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Pair production is in consequence of mass-energy conservation in which energy of a photon is
converting into mass (particle and antiparticle).

Annihilation:
When a pair of particle and antiparticle collides they
annihilate each other in result two photons are produced
which move in opposite direction produced.

✓ In order to conserve momentum, the produced

photons always move in opposite direction.

Annihilation is in consequence of mass-energy conservation in which mass of particle and an

antiparticle is converting into energy.

Electron Beams:
✓ Electron can be emitted by gaining enough energy simply through heating of the metal.
✓ The release of electrons from the surface of metal as it is heated is known as Thermionic Emission.
✓ Once electrons emitted they find themselves in an electric field that accelerates these electrons.
✓ NA
At sufficient high P.D the emitted electrons then move as beam of fast moving electrons.
✓
✓ TU
The kinetic energy gained by an electron under p.d of V is Ek = eV.
The electron beam is deflected by a magnetic field.
RA
L
Particle accelerators:
SC
IE
✓ A beam of particles is accelerated inside a tubes (straight or circular) and allow to collide at very high
speed (very high energy).
NC
✓ High energy is necessary because at lower energies the particles just bounce off each other keeping their
internal secrets.
E
✓ If we collide particles hard enough they will breakup, ravelling their structure.
SO
✓ In most cases additional particles are created from the energy of the collision

LU
At CERN protons are accelerated and fired into each other. If they have enough kinetic energy when they collide
particle-antiparticle pair may be created from the energy.
TI
The following are examples of the reactions that have occurred: ON
p+ p→ p+ p+ p+ p p + p → p + p + + + − p+ p → p+ p+n+n

In all the above reaction, we can see that the conservation laws of particle physics are obeyed.

There are two types of particle accelerators.

1. Linear accelerator
2. Circular accelerators.

Linear accelerators (LINAC):

A linear accelerator (linac) is a type of particle
accelerator in which charged particles/electron are
accelerated in a straight line.

It consist of drift tubes of increasing length.

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✓ Electrons are emitted through thermionic emission, which are then accelerated towards the first drift tube
because of their negative potential and drift tube’s positive potential.
✓ When electrons come inside the tube, at that moment radio frequency (RF) source shifts its polarity.
✓ First drift tube then becomes negatively charged and second drift tube positively charged.
✓ Electrons come outside of the tube because of its inertia and at that moment they are pushed with the first
drift tube and attracted by the second one in the same direction.
✓ As electrons are accelerating, their velocity becomes bigger and they travel a longer distance in the same
time.
✓ That is the reason why drift tubes must be longer as electrons come closer to target; because of their
greater velocity.
✓ If the very great velocity is needed, because of long drift tubes and a big number of drift tubes, linac must
be very long.

Circular accelerators (Cyclotron):

✓ The first major component of a cyclotron consists of two
hollow metal parts/containers each resembles as a shape
letter D.
NA
✓ The two parts of the cyclotron are known as dees.
✓ At any one time, one dee in the cyclotron is given appositive
TU
potential and the other negative.

RA
✓ The dees are connected to a source of high frequency
alternating voltage so that the polarity on both dees changes
L
back and forth many times per second.
✓ The second major component of a cyclotron is a large magnet that is situated above and below the dees.
SC
✓ The presence of the magnet means that any charged particles moving within the dees will travel in circular
path.
IE
✓ The electric field causes the charge particle to accelerate and gain energy.
NC
✓ The magnetic field causes the magnetic force acts as a centripetal force due to which the charge particle
moves along a circular path.
E
Cyclotron frequency:
SO
LU
The frequency of the voltage is set so that particles make one circuit during a single cycle of the voltage. To
achieve this condition, the frequency must be set to particle’s cyclotron frequency.
TI
𝒇=
𝒒𝑩
𝟐𝝅𝒎
ON
Where,
B is the magnetic field strength
q is the electric charge of the particle
m is the relativistic mass of the charged particle

Note: In a magnetic field, if a charge q of mass m moves with velocity v in circular path of radius r then;
𝒎𝒗 𝒑
𝒓= =
𝑩𝒒 𝑩𝒒
✓ At slow speed the radius of the path is proportional the momentum of the charge.

✓ When the speed of the particle approaches to the speed of light, relativistic effect need to be accounted
for.
✓ In particular, at such speed the particle’s mass increases, which would also alter its momentum.

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✓ The overall effect of increasing mass is that a particle increasing speed would travel along an outwardly
spiralling path.
An important unit of mass and conversion:
To measure the energy of sub atomic particles electron volt (eV) is used.

The atomic mass unit (u) is the unit use to measure the atomic Constituent Charge (C) Mass (u)
masses. Proton 1.6 x 10-19 1
Neutron 0 1
1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg Electron - 1.6 x 10-19 1/1836
Since energy and mass are related by the equation ΔE = Δmc2

We can also have mass unit which are measured of E/c2, such as MeV/ c2 and GeV/c2

1u = 931.5 MeV

NA The Four Forces

The Four Forces:TU
RA
✓ All the known forces in the universe can be grouped into four basic types.
L
✓ In order of increasing strength these are;

❖ Gravitation: SC
• IE
In the subatomic realm (fundamental interaction b/w particles) it is of no importance at all.
•
NC
The gravitational force b/w two protons just touching their surface is about 10-38 of the strong
force
E
❖ The weak nuclear force:
SO
•
LU
Responsible for nuclear beta decay and other similar decay processes involving fundamental
particles Electromagnetism.
• The weak force b/w two binding protons is about 10-7 of the strong force. TI
•
•
It does not play a major role in the binding of nuclei.
Its range is smaller than 1fm. ON
❖ The Electromagnetic force/Electromagnetism:

• Play important role in the structure and interaction of fundamental decay.

• The EM force b/w two binding protons is about 10-2 of the strong force
• Due to shielding generally diminishes.
• But within the nucleus can act cumulatively because there is no shielding, therefore can compete
with the strong force in determining the stability of the nucleus.

❖ Strong nuclear force:

• Responsible for the binding of nuclei.

• Most of the fundamental particles decay through strong force.
• It’s a short range force i.e. can’t act more than 1fm.
• Some particles such as electron (Leptons) do not feel this force at all.

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Standard Model
Twelve fundamental particles:
✓ After discovery of many particles a theory about matter was developed known as Standard Model.
✓ The current theory, which identifies 12 fundamental particles from which all matter is made of.
✓ After probing inside the two nucleons the idea that proton and neutron as fundamental particles has been
overturned.
✓ Proton and Neutron are composed of three particles known as Quarks.
✓ The electron so far survived as being fundamental particle.
✓ Electron (e) along with its two partners Muon (μ) and Tauon (τ) forms a family of fundamental particles
called LEPTON.
✓ Each of the three lepton also have other three particles associated with them called neutrino.
1. Electron neutrino ve, 2. Muon neutrino vμ 3. Tauon neutrino vτ

NA
Note: electron, muon, and tau are always emitted with their associated neutrino.

TU
✓ The table on the left shows the six leptons. For every lepton there is anti-lepton.

RA Lepton Family:

Leptons Symbol
L Charge Anti-Leptons Symbol Charge
Electron e-1 SC
-1 Anti-electron/Positron e+1 +1
Electron neutrino
Muon
ve
μ-1
0
-1 IEAnti-electron neutrino
Anti-muon
𝑣̅𝑒
𝜇̅
0
+1
Muon neutrino vμ 0 NC
Anti-muon neutrino 𝑣𝜇
̅̅̅ 0
Tauon
Tauon neutrino
τ-1
vτ
-1
0
Anti-tauon
E
Anti-tauon neutrino
𝜏̅
𝑣̅𝜏
+1
0
SO
LU
The fundamental particles from which proton, neutron (and some other particles) are made. There are six
type of Quarks.
Quark Family:
TI
Up
Down
Quark Symbol
u
d
Charge
+(2/3)e
-(1/3)e
Anti-Quark
Anti-up
Anti-down
Symbol
𝑢̅
𝑑̅
ON Charge
-(2/3)e
+(1/3)e
Strange s - (1/3)e Anti-strange 𝑠̅ + (1/3)e
Charm c +(2/3)e Anti-charm 𝑐̅ - (2/3)e
Bottom b -(1/3)e Anti-bottom 𝑏̅ +(1/3)e
Top t +(2/3)e Anti-top 𝑡̅ -(2/3)e

✓ Protons and neutrons are composed of two lightest quarks (up and down).
✓ The heavier quarks are found in more exotic particles.
✓ Quarks can undergo interactions via strong nuclear force. You will not be asked about
the last three quarks.
➢ Protons composed of two u and one d quark; [quark composition is uud].
➢ Neutron composed of two d and one u quark; [quark composition is ddu].
➢ ̅𝒖
Anti-Protons composed of two anti-up and one anti-down quark; [quark composition is 𝒖 ̅ ].
̅𝒅
➢ ̅ ̅ ̅ ].
Neutron composed of two d and one u quark; [quark composition is 𝒅 𝒅 𝒖

The quark composition tells us about the charge on the particle.

✓ Charge on a proton: +(2/3)e +(2/3)e –(1/3)e = + 1e

✓ Charge on a neutron: -(1/3)e –(1/3)e +(2/3)e = 0

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The Lone Quark?
Quarks never appear on their own/isolated state.

✓ The energy required to pull two quarks apart is so massive that

according to E = mc2 the used energy is enough to make two new
particles.
✓ A quark and an antiquark are created, another example of pair
production.
✓ A particle named a neutral pion (π0) is made from an up quark and an
anti-up quark.
✓ Moving these apart creates another up quark and an anti-up quark.
✓ We now have two pairs of quarks.
✓ Trying to separate two quarks made two more quarks.

Particles classification: Particles which can be obtained in an isolated state are categorized as;
Hadrons – Heavy and made from quarks.
Leptons – Light and not made from smaller particles.

NA
TU
RA Hadrons
✓ Hadrons are not fundamental particles they are all made from smaller particles, quarks.
L
✓ The properties of a hadron are due to the combined properties of the quarks that it is made from.

SC
✓ There are two categories of Hadrons: Baryons and Mesons.

Baryons Made from three quarks.

IE
Baryon NC Baryon
Proton Charge
(Q)
Number
(B)
Strangeness
(S) E
Neutron Charge
(Q)
Number
(B)
Strangeness
(S)
u +⅔ +⅓ 0 d SO -⅓ +⅓ 0
u
d
+⅔
-⅓
+⅓
+⅓
0
0
u
d
+⅔
-⅓
LU +⅓
+⅓
0
0
P +1 +1 0 n 0 +1TI 0

The proton is the only stable hadron, all others eventually decay into a proton. ON
Mesons Made from a quark and an antiquark
Baryon Baryon
Pion Charge Number Strangeness Pion Charge Number Strangeness
Plus (Q) (B) (S) Minus (Q) (B) (S)
u +⅔ +⅓ 0 ū -⅔ -⅓ 0
d̄ +⅓ -⅓ 0 d -⅓ +⅓ 0
π+ +1 0 0 π- -1 0 0

Baryon Baryon
Pion Charge Number Strangeness Pion Charge Number Strangeness
Zero (Q) (B) (S) Zero (Q) (B) (S)
U +⅔ +⅓ 0 d -⅓ +⅓ 0
ū -⅔ -⅓ 0 d̄ +⅓ -⅓ 0
π0 0 0 0 π0 0 0 0

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Baryon Baryon
Kaon Charge Number Strangeness Kaon Charge Number Strangeness
Plus (Q) (B) (S) Minus (Q) (B) (S)
U +⅔ +⅓ 0 ū -⅔ -⅓ 0
s̄ +⅓ -⅓ +1 s -⅓ +⅓ -1
K+ +1 0 +1 K- -1 0 -1

Baryon Anti- Baryon

Kaon Charge Number Strangeness Kaon Charge Number Strangeness
Zero (Q) (B) (S) Zero (Q) (B) (S)
D -⅓ +⅓ 0 d̄ +⅓ -⅓ 0
s̄ +⅓ -⅓ +1 s -⅓ +⅓ -1
K0 0 0 +1 K̄0 0 0 -1

Anti-Hadrons
✓ Anti-hadrons are made from the opposite quarks as their Hadron counterparts, for example a proton is made
from the quark combination uud and an antiproton is made from the combination ūūd̄
✓ We can see that a π+ and a π- are particle and antiparticle of each other.
NA Baryon Anti Baryon
Anti
Proton TU
Charge
(Q)
Number
(B)
Strangeness
(S)
Neutro
n
Charge
(Q)
Number
(B)
Strangeness
(S)
ū -⅔ RA -⅓ 0 d̄ +⅓ -⅓ 0
ū
̄d
-⅔
+⅓
-⅓
-⅓
L 0
0
ū
d ̄
-⅔
+⅓
-⅓
-⅓
0
0
̄p -1 -1 SC 0 n̄ 0 -1 0
IE
You need to know all the quark combination shown on this page as they may ask you to recite any of
them. NC
E
SO
Reactions Conservation properties:
Particles interaction
LU
TI
ON
For interaction/reaction to be possible in addition to mass/energy/momentum and charge conservation;

✓ Lepton and Baryon number must be conserved.

Baryon Number (B): The baryon number is one third of the difference between the number of quarks and the
number of anti-quarks within a system.

✓ Baryons are assigned a baryon number B = +1.

✓ Anti-baryons are assigned a baryon number B = -1
✓ All non-baryons are assigned the baryon number B = 0

Lepton Number (L):

✓ A lepton is assign a lepton number L = +1, for an antilepton; L = - 1.

✓ For hadrons lepton number is zero, L = 0.

Strangeness (S):

If a strange quark is involved then we also check the conservation of strangeness, the strangeness of strange
quark s is -1 (S = -1) and strangeness of anti-strange quark s̄ is +1 (S = +1)

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Some important Decay and Interactions:

1. β-1 Decay:

A neutron decays into a proton by decaying β-1 particle as follows;

𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏
+𝟏𝒑 + 𝟎𝟎̅̅̅
𝒗𝒆 + 𝟎
−𝟏𝜷

Checking the validity:

Q: 0 → +1 + 0 + -1 0 → 0 (charge is conserved)
B: +1 → +1 + 0 + 0 +1 → +1 (Baryon number is conserved)
L: 0 → 0 - 1 +1 0 → 0 (Lepton number is conserved)

Charge, Baryon number, and Lepton number is conserved. The decay is valid
2. β Decay:
+1

NA
A proton decays into a neutron by decaying β+1 particle as follows;
TU 𝟏
+𝟏𝑷 → 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗𝒆 + 𝟎
+𝟏𝜷
RA
Checking the validity: L
Q: +1 → 0 + 0 +1 SC +1 → +1 (charge is conserved)
B: +1 → +1 + 0 + 0 IE +1 → +1 (Baryon number is conserved)
L: 0 → 0 + 1 -1 NC
0 → 0 (Lepton number is conserved)

E
Charge, Baryon number, and Lepton number is conserved. The decay is valid

3. A neutron-neutrino interaction:
SO
LU
TI
A neutron interacts with an electron neutrino and turns into a proton along with emission of β-1
particle as follows;
ON
𝟏
𝟎𝒏 + 𝟎𝟎𝒗𝒆 → 𝟏
+𝟏𝒑 + 𝟎
−𝟏𝜷

Checking the validity:

Q: 0+0 → +1 + -1 0 → 0 (charge is conserved)

B: +1 +0 → +1 + 0 +1 → +1 (Baryon number is conserved)
L: 0+1 → 0 + 1 +1 → +1 (Lepton number is conserved)

Charge, Baryon number, and Lepton number is conserved. The interaction is valid

4. A neutron-neutrino interaction:

A proton interacts with an anti-electron neutrino and turns into a neutron along with emission of
β+1 particle as follows;

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𝟏
+𝟏𝑷 + 𝟎𝟎̅̅̅
𝒗𝒆 → 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + 𝟎
+𝟏𝜷

Checking the validity:

Q: +1 + 0 → 0 +1 +1 → +1 (charge is conserved)
B: +1 + 0 → +1 + 0 +1 → +1 (Baryon number is conserved)
L: 0 + -1 → 0 -1 -1 → -1 (Lepton number is conserved)

Charge, Baryon number, and Lepton number is conserved. The decay is valid

Exchange Particles/Bosons
The process by which the forces interact has been modelled as an exchange of other non-material particle called
Boson.

NA
✓ Each of the interactions/forces has its own exchange particles.
TU
RA
Interaction/Force Exchange Particle
Gluons between
What is acts upon
Strong Nuclear
L quarks
Pions between Baryons Nucleons (Hadrons)

Electromagnetic
SC Virtual Photon
W–
Charged particles
Weak Nuclear W+
IE Z0 All particles
Gravitational
NC
Graviton Particles with masses

E
In fact Bosons are carrier of these forces

SO
ALL THE BEST
LU
TI
ON

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