PLANE TABLE

• Is a field mapping instrument which consists of a board attached to a tripod in

such a way it can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction? It is the
oldest types of surveying instruments. The board is used as drafting table for
plotting map details and ground contours.
• Plane Table Surveying is the graphical method of surveying that is carried out
to prepare maps, and plans and also to collect details (like topographic
details) through field observations. This surveying is carried out utilizing a
plane table hence it is named as plane table surveying. The plane table
generally refers to the instrument that is used in surveying and provides a
solid and level surface on which drawings, maps and charts are made.
• It is a fast and cheap method of surveying. Another benefit of using this
method in surveying is that the omission of observations is eliminated, as the
surveyor directly plots the details in the field. This surveying is relatively fast
method of surveying. The method employed is also simple and easy to

Definition of terms

perform.
1. Foresight - A foresight is a reading taken on a position of unknown
coordinate(s). Since a survey progresses from a point of known position to
points of unknown position, a foresight is a reading looking "forward" along
the line of progress.
- a procedure wherein distant points sighted with the altitude and a
line is drawn from the plotted point occupied by the table to the point sighted.

2. Backsight - A backsight (BS) is a sight taken with the level to a point X of

known elevation E(X), so that the height of the instrument HI can be found. A
backsight in direct levelling is usually taken in a backward direction, but not
always.
-A sight taken on a benchmark or point of known elevation in order to
determine the instrument height.

3. Orientation - Orientation in plane table surveying is the process of putting

the plane table into some fixed direction so that line representing a
certain direction on the plan is parallel to that direction on the
ground. This is an essential condition to be fulfilled when more than one
instrument station is to be used.

4. Radiation - In the radiation method of plane table surveying, the direction of

the objects or points to be located are obtained by drawing radial lines along
fiducial edge of alidade after getting the objects or points bisected along the
line of sight of the alidade.

5. Traversing - is that type of survey

in which a number of connected
survey lines form the framework
and the directions and lengths of
the survey lines are measured with
the help of an angle measuring
instrument and tape or chain
respectively.

6. Resection - The method of locating a point P from at least three known points
K, L, and M without having occupied the known points is called resection.
- In this system only the point to be
determined is occupied, and the angles between
the known stations are measured.
- A minimum of three known points is
required to determine the position of the unknown
point.
- In order to be able to respect P it is
geometrically important that the known points K, L,
and M don’t lie on the circumference of a circle,
otherwise the danger circle situation results with no
unique position for P being obtained.

7. Intersection - is a method of locating a point on a map by intersecting

lines from two known landmarks on the ground.
- This method is very commonly used for plotting details.
- In this method, two stations are so selected that the other
stations to be plotted are visible from these.
The line joining these two stations is called
base line. The length of this line is measured
very accurately.
- It is referred when the distance
between the stations is too large or the stations
are inaccessible or the ground is undulating.
- The most suitable example is of
broken boundaries which can be very
conveniently plotted by this method.

Advantages and disadvantages of

Plane table surveying

ADVANTAGES
 The plane is drawn by the surveyor himself while the area to be surveyed is
before his eyes. Therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary
measurements.
 The surveyor can compare the plotted work with the actual features of the
area.
Disadvantages (Limitations)
 It is not intended for very accurate work.
 It is not suitable in monsoon.
 It is essentially a tropical instrument.
 Due to heaviness, it is inconvenient to transport.
 Since there are so many accessories, there is likelihood of them being lost.

Equipment and accessories for

Plane tabling

Accessories
 Trough Compass
 Spirt Level
 U-Fork with plump bob
 Water proof cover
 Drawing Paper
 Pins
 Drawing accessories

Error in
Plane tabling
The various sources of error may be classified as;
 Instrumental errors
 Errors in manipulation and sighting
 Errors in plottin
introduction
 The total station was introduced in 1972 and for the for the first-time distance
and angle measurements could be recorded by one instrument.
 The total station is a transit integrated with an EDM (electronic Distance
Measurement), which can read slope distances form the instrument to a
particular point of land.
 Total station has evolved with addition of many features like installation of on-
board computer to robotic total station.
 The robotic total station was introduced with the capability of taking
measurements from long distances by a remote control.

2. Components of Total Station

1. Handle 14.Tubular Compass Slot

2. Handle Securing Crew 15.Optical plummet focusing ring
3. Data input/output terminal 16.Optical plummet reticle cover
(Remove handle to view) 17.Optical plummet eyepiece
18.Horizontal clamp
TOTAL STATION 19.Horizontal fine motion screw
20.Data input/output connector
4.Instrument height mark (Besides the operation panel on
5.Battery Cover SET600/600S)
6.Operation Panel 21.External power source connector
7.Tribrach Clamp (Not included on SET600/600S)
(SET300S/500S/600S: Shifting 22.Plate level
Clamp) 23.Plate level adjusting screw
8. Base Plate 24.Vertical clamp
9. Levelling foot screw 25.Vertical fine motion screw
10.Circular level adjusting screws 26.Telescope eyepiece
11.Circular Level 27.Telescope focusing ring
12.Display 28.Peep sight
13.Objective Lens 29.Instrument center mark

3. How it works? (With prism)

 First the instrument has to be fixed
at a point so that total station area
is visible and cent ring and levelling
has to be done.
 With the prism method, the total station
sends out invisible infrared waves that re
reflected by the prism.
 By measuring the prism’s position and
knowing the precise angle and distance to
that prism. The total station calculates the
prism’s location or coordination.

How it works? (Without reflector/prism)

 We can also measure distance and angles
without prism in some total stations
 Total stations from some companies includes
not only a conventional infrared distancer
that measures to prisms, but also integrated
laser distancer that requires no reflector. You
can switch between these two distancers.
 This arrangement brings may advantages
where points are inaccessible, for example
during the recording of frontages, in
positioning pipes and for measurements across gorges or fences.

4. How to collect points and analyze?

 On the site: Align total station lens with an
object or prism and click measure option, so
elevations and distances are stored inside the
drive.
 Then instrument has to be connected to the
computer and file is converted to cad format (.dwg)
 Joining all points in cad software, we can map the area.
 In this way, points are collected and analyzed.

5. Applications
 Detail survey i.e., data collection.
 Control Survey (Traverse): Traverse is the
method of control survey in providing
horizontal and vertical controls along a pre-
defined route by means of establishing a
series of connected lines joining the traverse
stations.
 Height Measurement (Remote elevation
measurements-REM): The process of finding
the height of objects without actually going to
the top of the object is known as Remote
Elevation Measuring (REM) i.e., a total station
placed remotely (faraway) from the objects is
used to measure the heights.
 Fixing of missing pillars (or) Setting out (or)
Stake out: The process of foxing missing pillars on
the ground using its theoretical coordinates is knows as STAKE OUT. Here
two other known coordinated are required.
 Resection: The process of finding the coordinate of the instrument position
making use of other control points (points whose
coordinates are known) is known as RESECTION.
 Area Calculations: Area can be computed of any figure
just by giving the coordinates of the corner of the
figure.
 Remote Distance Measurement (RDM) or Missing Line
Measurement (MLM): The process of finding
the distance between two points A & B (which
are nit inter-visible from each other) from
another point ‘I’ (instrument position) is
known as RDM.

6. Advantages:
 Quick setting of the instrument on the tripod using laser plummet
 On-board area computation program to compute the area of field.
 Local language support.
 Automatic of old maps.
 Greater accuracy in area computation.
 Graphical view of plots and land for quick
 Integration of data base.
 The area computation at any user required scale.
 It reduces time and also it measures up to 3 to 5 km distance.

8. Disadvantages and Precautions:

 The instrument is costly. And conducting survey using total station, skilled
personnel are required.
 For an over all check of the survey. It will be necessary to return to the
office and prepare the drawings using appropriate software.
Precautions
 Use both hands to hold the total station handle.
 Set up the tripod as stable as possible.
 Do not move or carry a tripod with the total station fixed on it, except for
centering.
 Take maximum care when the tribrach is removed from the total station.

To set up total station

Step 1: Gather the Survey Equipment, Stake, and Tools

Prepare the following items:
a) Tripod
b) Tribrach
c) Total Station
d) Survey Controller
e) Power Cable
f) Communication Cable
g) Battery Pack
h) Stake w/nail and survey marker
i) Hammer
Step 2: Establish a New Step 7: Connect Power
Temporary Benchmark Supply and Communication
Cables.

Step 3: Set-up the Tripod

Step 8: Power-on the

instrument and Controller to
Access the Fine Level.
Step 4: Attach the Tribrach

Triangulation
Step 9: Fine Level the
Instrument and
Compensate.

Step 5: Continue to Level

and Adjust the Tribrach as

Step 10: You’re ready to

necessary. Survey!
Step 6: Set the Instrumental
on the Tripod.

1.1 introduction
The determination of the precise position of a number of stations. Usually
spread over a large area, is referred to as control surveying. Control surveys
can be horizontal or vertical.
The objective of horizontal control surveys is to establish a network of control
stations whose positions is specified in terms of latitude and longitude, where
as the objective od vertical control survey is to provide the elevations of fixed
benchmarks with respect to the mean sea level datum. These control surveys
are located where other surveys can be conveniently and accurately tied in to
them.

The results of the control surveys are used as a basis from which surveys of
smaller exrent can be originated. Boundary surveys, construction, route
surveys, topographic and hydrigraphic surveys and other may be involved.
Horizontal control can be carried out by precise traversing, by triangulation,
by trilateration, and perhaps bu same combination of these methods.
Intersection, resection, and satellite positioning are also the other methods in
horizontal control surveys. The exact method used depends of the terrain,
equipment available, information available, information needed nad economic
factors.

With traversing, a series of horizontal distances and angles are measured.

This is generally cheaper due to shorter sights and convenience to carry it out
under less favorable weather conditions than the other methods. Its
disadvantages is that, there are fewer checks available for locating mistakes
in the work and the whole system can rather easily sway or bend. To check a
traverse it is necessary to foem a loop returning to it’s starting point or to tie
it in to previously established control points.

A triangulation consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which

an occasional line (called the base line) os measured and all other sides of the
triangles are calculated from angles measure at the vertiecs of the triangles.
The lines of a triangulation system form a network that ties together all the
triangulation statios athe the vertices of the triangles. A triangulation has the
following advantages:

1. More redundancies or checks are available i.e more than one route can be
followed to compute the length of a line.
2. There is little tendency for the system to sway or bend i.e azimuths can be
easily and accurately carried or established throughout system.
3. Outstanding landmarks such as steeples, water tanks, etc can be located
by establishing directions from different stations.

It’s disadvantages are it needs long-range intervisibility, which in turn requires

the erection of special towers and signals, making the system the most
expensive. Moreover, a good weather is required to attain intervisibility.

Triangulation as a form of horizontal control is applied when a large area is to

be
surveyed and when the methods of traversing would not be expected to
maintain a
uniformly high accuracy over the entire area. The methods of triangulation
require a
maximum number of precise angle measurements and a minimum number of
distance
measurements. The triangles are developed in to a net of interconnected
figures，and
certain lines. called base lines. must be measured in order to compute the
other sides in
the net.

Triangulation is necessary to control the location of large bridge structures,

state and
federal highways. dams. canals,and other engineering works of a massive
nature. A large
project. such as boundary location. power development water resources
development
flood control, irrigation, or reclamation, requires triangulation in order to
maintain the
necessary accuracy throughout the system.

Once a triangulation system whether large or small has been developed.

measured and
adjusted. the points in the system then furnish control for subsequent
traversingy minor
triangulation trilateration. intersection and resection needed for day-to day
engineering
operations.

Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle

formed by three survey control points.Using trigonometry and the measured
length of just one side, the
other distances in the triangle are calculated.

Triangulation system

A triangulation system consists of a network of connected triangles which

adjoin or overlap each other. The vertices are marked points on the earth’s
surface used to form triangulation systems, which can be used for a particular
survey. Four of the commonly used types includes:

• Chain of single and independent • Chain of quadrilaterals formed

triangles with overlapping triangles
• Chain of polygons or central –
point figures.

• Chain of Triangles
• Chain of Polygons each with an
extra diagonal.

Definition of terms

• Triangulation – a method for extending horizontal control for topographic

and similar surveys which require observations of triangular figures whose
angles are measured and whose sides are determined by trigonometric
computations.
• Triangulation systems- consist of a series of triangles in which one or more
sides of each triangle are also sides of adjacent triangles.
• Baseline – is one of the lines in a triangulation system whose length is
precisely measured and its true direction determined by astronomical
observations. It is usually located at the beginning of triangulation system and
its length is used as the basis for computing the lengths of other lines of the
system.
• Check base- one of the lines in a triangulation system whose length is also
precisely measured and may located at regular intervals or the end of the
triangulation system. It serves as a check for triangulation computation
involving length of lines.
• Trilateration – a method used for horizontal control surveys which is based
exclusively on measured horizontal distances. It consists of a series of joined
or overlapping triangles where sides are measured and the angles are
computed.
• Horizontal Control Surveys – are surveys made to establish geodetic
latitudes and longitudes and plane rectangular coordinates of a fundamental
network of reference stations.
• Vertical Control Surveys- are surveys usually run by barometric,
trigonometric, or differential leveling to establish elevations for a network of
monuments called benchmarks.
• Least squares method- a method of adjustment used in triangulation
systems and other types of traverse surveys. It is based on the theory of
probability and is used to simultaneously adjust the angular and linear
measurements to make the sum of the squares of residuals a minimum.
• Station adjustment – an approximate adjustment used in triangulation
systems of lower orders of precision. It is sometimes referred to as local
adjustment. Its objective is to make the sum of the angles about each
triangulation station equal to 360 degrees.
• Figure adjustment – in this adjustment the objective is to make the sum of
the three angles in each triangle within the triangulation system equal to 180
degrees. The adjustment is an approximate method used in most low order
triangulation systems.
• Approximate Adjustment of a chain of triangles
For the given chain of triangles shown in
the accompanying figure and
tabulation, perform station and figure
adjustment by the approximate
method.

FIGURE 21-2. (Chain of Triangles)

TABULATION OF DATA:
ANGLE OBSERVED ANGLE OSERVED
VALUE VALUE
a 240°21'00" j 189°09'51"
b 60°29'10" k 39°05'01"
c 59°10'05" l 71°40'02"
d 301°34'49" m 60°05'10"
e 58°25'15" n 249°35'30"
f 62°25'10" o 45°10'20"
g 59°25'10" p 65°14'10"
h 63°10'08" q 284°19'47"
i 174°59'24" r 75°40'19"

1) Station Adjustment (Note: The sum of the angles about each station must
equal to 360°. If this condition is not satisfied an error exists and the observed
angles need to be adjusted.)

a) About Station A.

Sum = a + b + c Error = 360° - Sum

Sum = 240°21'00" + 60°29'10" + 59°10'05" Error = 360° - 360°00'15"
Sum =360°00'15" Error = - 15"

Corr = Error/n
Corr = - 15"/3 (Where n is the number of angles observed and
Corr is the correction to be applied to each angle)
Corr = - 05"

Adjusted Angles:
a' = a± Corr = 240°21'00" - 05" = 240°20'55"
b' = b± Corr = 60°29'10" - 05" = 60°29'05"
c' = c± Corr = 59°10'05" - 05" = 59°10'00"
Sum Check = 360°00'00"
b) About Station B.

Sum = d + e Error = 360° - Sum

Sum = 301°34'49" + 58°25'15" Error = 360° - 360°00'04"
Sum = 360°00'04" Error = - 04"

Corr = Error/n
Corr = - 04"/2 (n = 2)
Corr = - 02"
Adjusted Angles:
d' = d± Corr = 301°34'49" - 02" = 301°34'47"
e' = e± Corr = 58°25'15" - 02" = 58°25'13"
Sum Check = 360°00'00"

c) About Station C.

Sum = f + g + h + i
Sum = 62°25'10" + 59°25'10" + 63°10'08" + 174°59'24"
Sum = 359°59'52"

Error = 360° - Sum Corr = Error/n

Error = 360° - 359°59'52" Corr = + 08"/4 (n = 4)
Error = + 08" Corr = + 02"

Adjusted Angles:
f' = d± Corr = 62°25'10" + 02" = 62°25'12"
g' = e± Corr = 59°25'10" + 02" = 59°25'12"
h' = d± Corr = 63°10'08" + 02" = 63°10'10"
i' = e± Corr = 174°59'24" + 02" = 174°59'26"
Sum Check = 360°00'00"

d) About Station D.

Sum = j + k + l + m
Sum = 189°09'51" + 39°05'01" + 71°40'02" + 60°05'10"
Sum = 360°00'04"

Error = 360° - 360°00'04" Corr = Error/n

Error = 360° - 359°59'52" Corr = - 04"/4 (n = 4)
Error = - 04" Corr = - 01"

Adjusted Angles:
j' = d± Corr = 189°09'51" - 01" = 189°09'50"
k' = e± Corr = 39°05'01" - 01" = 39°05'00"
l' = d± Corr = 71°40'02" - 01" = 71°40'01"
m' = e± Corr = 60°05'10" - 01 = 60°05'09"
Sum Check = 360°00'00"

e) About Station E.

Sum = n+ o + p Error = 360° - Sum

Sum = 249°35'30" + 45°10'20" + 65°14'10" Error = 360° - 360°
Sum =360°00'" Error = 0

Adjusted Angles:
n' = n± Corr = 249°35'30" = 249°35'30"
o' = o± Corr = 45°10'20" = 45°10'20"
p' = p± Corr = 65°14'10" = 65°14'10"
Sum Check = 360°00'00"

f) About Station F.

Sum = q + r Error = 360° - Sum

Sum = 284°19'47" + 75°40'19" Error = 360° - 360°00'06"
Sum = 360°00'06" Error = - 06"

Corr = Error/n
Corr = - 06"/2 (n = 2)
Corr = - 03"

Adjusted Angles:
d' = d± Corr = 284°19'47" - 03" = 284°19'44"
e' = e± Corr = 75°40'19" - 03" = 75°40'16"
Sum Check = 360°00'00"

STATION ANGLE OBSERVED CORRECTIO ADJUSTED

VALUE N VALUE
a 240°21'00" - 05" 240°20'55"
A b 60°29'10" - 05" 60°29'05"
c 59°10'05" - 05" 59°10'00"
Sum 360°00'15" - 15" 360°00'00"
d 301°34'49" - 02" 301°34'47"
B e 58°25'15" - 02" 58°25'13"
Sum 360°00'04" - 04" 360°00'00"
f 62°25'10" + 02" 62°25'12"
g 59°25'10" + 02" 59°25'12"
C h 63°10'08" + 02" 63°10'10"
i 174°59'24" + 02" 174°59'26"
Sum 359°59'52" + 08" 360°00'00"
j 189°09'51" - 01" 189°09'50"
k 39°05'01" - 01" 39°05'00"
D l 71°40'02" - 01" 71°40'01"
m 60°05'10" - 01" 60°05'09"
Sum 360°00'04" - 04" 360°00'00"
n 249°35'30" 0 249°35'30"
E o 45°10'20" 0 45°10'20"
p 65°14'10" 0 65°14'10"
Sum 360°00'00" 00" 360°00'00"
q 284°19'47" - 03" 284°19'44"
F r 75°40'19" - 03" 75°40'16"
Sum 360°00'06" -06" 360°00'00"

2) Figure Adjustment (Note: The sum of the three angles in each triangle
should equal to 180°. If this condition is not satisfied, their sum is subtracted
from 180° and to each of the three angles one-third of the difference is added
algebraically.)

a) Considering triangle ABC.

Sum = c' + e' + f' Error = 180° - Sum

Sum = 59°10'00" + 58°25'13" + 62°25'12" Error = 180° - 180°00'25"
Sum = 180°00'25" Error = - 25"

Corr = Error/n
(n = 2)
Corr = - 25"/3
Corr = - 08.33" say -8"

Adjusted Angles: (Note: The correction is applied arbitrarily.)

c" = c" ± Corr = 59°10'00" - 08" = 59°09'52"

e" = e" ± Corr = 58°25'13" - 08" = 58°25'05"
f" = f ± Corr = 62°25'12" - 09" = 62°25'03"
Sum Check = 180°00'0

b) Considering triangle ACD.

Sum = b' + g' + m' Error = 180° - Sum

Sum = 60°29'05" + 59°25'12" + 60°05'09" Error = 180° - 179°58'26"
Sum = 179°58'26" Error = + 34"

Corr = Error/n
(n = 3)
Corr = + 34"/3
Corr = - 011.33" say -11"

Adjusted Angles: (Note: The correction is applied arbitrarily.)

c" = c" ± Corr = 60°29'05" + 12" = 60°29'17"

e" = e" ± Corr = 59°25'12" + 11" = 59°25'23"
f" = f ± Corr = 60°05'09" + 11" = 60°05'20"
Sum Check = 180°00'0

c) Considering triangle CDE.

Sum = h' + l' + o' Error = 180° - Sum

Sum = 63°10'08" + 71°40'01" + 45°10'20" Error = 180° - 180°00'31"
Sum = 180°00'31" Error = - 31"

Corr = Error/n
(n = 3)
Corr = - 31"/3
Corr = - 011.33" say -11"

Adjusted Angles: (Note: The correction is applied arbitrarily.)

c" = c" ± Corr = 63°10'08" -10" = 63°10'00"

e" = e" ± Corr = 71°40'01" - 11" = 71°39'50"
f" = f ± Corr = 45°10'20" - 10" = 45°10'10"
Sum Check = 180°00'0

d) Considering triangle DEF.

Sum = k' + p' + r' Error = 180° - Sum

Sum = 39°05'00" + 65°14'10" + 75°40'16" Error = 180° - 179°59'26"
Sum = 179°59'26" Error = +34"

Corr = Error/n
(n = 3)
Corr = +34"/3
Corr = - 011.33" say -11"

Adjusted Angles: (Note: The correction is applied arbitrarily.)

c" = c" ± Corr = 39°05'00" + 11" = 39°05'11"

e" = e" ± Corr = 65°14'10" + 11" = 65°14'21"
f" = f ± Corr = 75°40'16" + 12" = 75°40'27"
Sum Check = 180°00'0

TRIANGL ANGLE OBSERVED CORRECTIO ADJUSTED

E VALUE N VALUE
c 59°10'05" - 08" 59°09'52"
ABC d 301°34'49" - 08" 301°25'05"
e 62°25'12" - 09" 62°25'03"
Sum 180°00'25" - 25" 180°00'00"
b 60°29'05" + 12" 60°29'17"
ACD g 59°25'12" + 11" 59°25'23"
m 60°05'09" + 11" 60°05'20"
Sum 179°59'26" + 34" 180°00'00"
h 63°10'10" - 10" 63°10'00"
l 71°40'01" - 11" 71°39'50"
CDE o 45°10'20" - 10" 45°10'10"
Sum 179°58'26" - 31" 180°00'00"
k 39°05'00" + 11" 39°05'00"
DEF p 65°14'10" + 11" 65°14'10"
r 75°40'16" + 12" 75°40'16"
Sum 179°59'26" + 34" 180°00'00"