Science is a systemized body of knowledge that is based on fact, experiment and research.

scientific method
1. observation 2. Identify the scientific problem
3. Gather information related to the scientific problem 4. Formulate the hypothesis
5. test the hypothesis 6. Data analysis
7. Draw conclusion 8. Results
Formula in finding the distance of the epicenter from the station.
d=Td/8s x 100km (Td= time difference)
Formula in finding the distance on the map scale
d/200 x 1.5cm
Steps on how to locate the epicenter of an earthquake:
1. Obtain data from seismological station
2. Determine the time difference of the arrival of p wave and s wave in each seismological
station
3. Determine the epicenter distance from each seismological station.
4. Locate the epicenter of an earthquake using triangulation method.
Epicenter – point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus/hypocenter.
Earthquake – shaking of the earth’s surface. Seismogram – record
Seismograph – instrument/equipment. Seismology – study of seismic waves and earthquakes
The point of intersection where three circles were drawn represents the epicenter.
The significance of locating the epicenter is to identify the faults that are active.
Distribution of epicenters
-some epicenters are situated at the edges of the continents while some are at the continents
-earthquake epicenters are concentrated in narrow zones.
-epicenters are not randomly distributed.
Distribution of active volcanoes
- some volcanoes are situated at the edges of the continents while some are at the continents
-active volcanoes are concentrated in narrow zones.
-active volcanoes are not randomly distributed.
Distribution of mountain ranges
-some mountain ranges are situated at the edges of the continents while some are at the
continents
-mountain ranges are concentrated in narrow zones.
-mountain ranges are not randomly distributed.
 Earthquake epicenters are located in areas with volcanoes
 Majority of epicenters, active volcanoes, and mountain ranges are in narrow zones.
 Volcanoes and mountain ranges can also be found in oceans.
 Not all areas with epicenters have mountain ranges.
Two kinds of crust: Thicker but less dense = continental crust. Thinner but denser = oceanic
crust. Plates move very slowly but constantly, that movement is called TECTONICS thus the
theory of moving lithospheric plates is called PLATE TECTONICS.
3 TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARY
Convergent – occurs when two plates move towards each other.
Types of converging plate boundaries
 Continental – Oceanic- the following are the geological events that will happen:
subduction, trench, volcano, and earthquake.
 Two oceanic - the following are the geological events that will happen: subduction,
trench, volcanic island arc, tsunami, and earthquake.
 Two continental – the following are the geological events that will happen: mountain
ranges and earthquake.
Divergent – occurs when two plates move away from each other.
 Two Continental - the following are the geological events that will happen: earthquake,
rift valley, linear sea, fissure eruption, and creation of new seafloor.
 Two Oceanic - the following are the geological events that will happen: earthquake,
widening of the ocean basin, fissure eruption, oceanic ridge, and creation of new ocean
floor.
Transform-fault – occurs when two plates slide against each other.
 the only geological event that will take place is an earthquake.
Seismic waves – energy that earthquake releases in the form of waves.
Surface waves- can only travel on the surface of the earth.
 Love wave- the most destructive
-moves the ground side-side in a horizontal motion.
 Rayleigh wave- most of the shaking happens
-moves the ground up and down, side-to-side following the direction
of a wave.
Body waves- can travel through earth’s inner layers.
 Primary wave (p-wave)- pulse energy that travels quickly and can travel through
solid, liquid, and gas.
 Secondary wave (s-wave)- pulse energy that travels slower and can only travel
through solids.
EARTH’S LAYER
Crust- outermost and thinnest layer of the earth. Solid. 40km. T, Si, Al, Fe, Na, Ca, K, H
Mantle- make up about 80% of the earth. Solid. 2,900km. O, Mg, Si, F
Outer core- 2,000°C. Liquid. 2,200km
Core- Fe and Ni
Inner core- 5,000°C. solid. 1,278km.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

-a theory proposed by Alfred Wegener about 200 years ago. It states that the continents were
once one large landmass called Pangaea which means ‘all earth’.
Evidences
Continental jigsaw puzzle – says that the edge of continent surprisingly matches the edge of
another.
Fossil correlation- fossil are preserved remains or traces of organisms from the remote past.
Glossopteris were found in 250 million rocks which were found in the continents which are now
separated by wide oceans. Mesosaurus and Lystosaurus are both fresh water reptiles, fossils of
these reptiles were found in Africa.
Rocks and Mountain correlation- rock formations in Africa line up with that in south America as
if it was a long mountain range.
Paleo-climate data- coal beds were formed from the compaction and decomposition of swamp
plants that lived million years ago. These were found in south America, Africa, India
subcontinent, southeast Asia and even in Antartica.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY
The question as to how the drifting took place the continental drift theory blurry. Harry Hess
and Robert Dietz then suggested an explanation, this is the seafloor spreading theory.
According to this theory, hot, less dense material from bellow the earth’s crust rises towards
the surface at the mid-ocean ridge.
MAGNETIC REVERSAL
-is also called magnetic ‘flip’ of the earth. It happens when south pole becomes the north pole.
It is due to the change in the direction of flow in the outer core.
CONVECTION CURRENT
-rotates very slowly, as they move and drag the plates along. Because of this, the plates are
able to move slowly along the tectonic boundaries.