Natural Hazard

- a naturally occurring event that threatens human lives and causes damage to properties
Types of Natural Hazards
Tectonic Natural Hazards Climate-related natural hazards

- plate movements when continental crusts and ocean floors move - caused by severe and extreme weather and climate conditions
- earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis - storms, floods, droughts, wildfires
- concentrated near the coastlines of the Pacific Ocean - more widely distributed

Impacts of Natural Hazards

- impact places at different scales, large scale or small scale
Internal Structure of The Earth
- a layered structure where each layer has a different composition and physical properties
Core (outer core + inner core) Mantle (upper mantle + lower mantle) Crust

- centre of the Earth - lies above the core - Earth’s outermost layer, the layer we
- composed mostly of iron and nickel - occupies 80% of Earth’s total volume live on, makes up Earth’s rigid outer
- 3500 km thick radius - made up of mostly solid rock that flows shell
- 3000°C to 5000°C under high temperature and pressure - occupies <1% of Earth’s total volume
- inner core: 1400 km thick, solid - 2900 km thick - made up of basalt (denser) and granite
because of extreme pressure exerted - 800°C to 3000°C (less dense) rocks
on it by surrounding layers - asthenosphere (weak sphere): high - a few km to more than 70 km thick
- outer core: 2100 km thick, liquid layer temperature and pressure bring the - when rocks in the lithosphere melt, hot
rocks close enough to their melting molten rock called magma is formed
point for them to be easily deformed,
some melting may actually occur
- upper mantle: layer below lithosphere
- lithosphere (uppermost mantle +
overlying crust): rigid and brittle, floats
on softer asthenosphere
Tectonic Plate
- pieces of the Earth’s crust that is broken down into several pieces of tectonic plates that move in relation to one another
- part of the lithosphere (crust & uppermost mantle)
- either oceanic crust, continental crust or both

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Types of Crust (depending on the main type of crust found)
Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

- found beneath the Earth’s continental land masses and under - found beneath deep oceans
shallow seas close to continents - very thin, between 5km and 8km
- very thick, between 35 km and 70 km - consists of mainly basalt, a younger, denser and heavy rock
- consists of a lighter and older rock, including granite formed from magma which has cooled quickly
- wide range of rock ages, with some nearly 4 billion years old - rock of less than 200 million years old
- e.g: African, Antarctic, N & S American plates - e.g: Pacific, Philippines, Cocos, Nazca plates
- 7 major crustal plates (N American, S American, Pacific, African, Eurasian, Indo-Australian and Antarctic Plates) which floats on the upper
mantle of the Earth
- move at different speeds (2cm to 10cm yearly) and at different directions

Why do tectonic plates move?

- caused by a combination of convection currents (tectonic plates theory) and slab pull force
- convection currents are movements of heat within the mantle caused by heat from the Earth’s core
- material in the mantle (magma) is heated by the core, causing the material to expand, rise and spread out beneath the plates
- this pulls the plates apart as they are dragged along and move away from each other
- as the hot mantle material spreads further away, it cools slightly and sinks, pulling the tectonic plates towards each other
- the sinking mantle material heats up again as it nears the core, repeating the entire process
- this constant rising and sinking of the mantle material, known as convection currents, causes the movement of plates over the surface
- slab-pull force occurs when the denser, sinking oceanic plates sinks at subduction zones, and pulls the rest of the plate behind it
- the subducting plate drives the downward moving portion of convection currents
- the mantle material which is found away from where the plates subducts drives the rising portion of convection currents

Different Types of Plate Boundaries

- majority of Earth’s tectonic hazards occur at edges/boundaries of plates
- different type of plate movements occur at different type of plate boundaries
- within plates, particularly developing plate boundaries, there is also evidence of plate movement in different directions, leading to fractures
and intense earthquake and volcanic activity

DIVERGENT Plate Boundary

- areas where 2 plates move away from each other
- magma moves upwards to the surface where it cools to form new oceanic crust along these boundaries
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[DIVERGENT] Oceanic - Oceanic Plate Divergence (mid-oceanic ridges)
1. when 2 oceanic plates move apart due to convection currents rising and spreading under the Earth’s crust, tension and stress causes
fractures to develop at the lithosphere (crust)
2. these fractures widen and magma rises from the mantle, cools and solidifies to form new seafloor, known as sea floor spreading
3. when more magma rises at the spreading zone and solidifies, it forms a chain of mountains known as mid-oceanic ridges on either side of
the spreading zone
4. the newly formed rocks are closest to the mid-oceanic ridge and therefore younger than those further away
5. when the mid-oceanic ridges rise above sea level, volcanic islands are formed
6. earthquakes may also occur during divergent movements as it results in tensional forces, placing the rocks under a lot of stress
7. when the rocks can no longer take the stress they fracture, releasing the stored energy in the form of seismic waves, causing earthquakes
8. e.g: Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, where N American and Eurasian Plate moved apart

[DIVERGENT] Continental - Continental Plate Divergence (rift valley)

1. As the plates diverge, they are stretched, causing fractures to form on the continental crust. sometimes continents can also break apart
2. as the crust continues to be pulled apart, the land in between the 2 continental plates sink as it is denser, as a result of the divergent
movement, to form a linear depression known as a rift valley
3. earthquakes may also occur during divergent movements as it results in tensional forces, placing the rocks under a lot of stress
4. when the rocks can no longer take the stress they fracture, releasing the stored energy in the form of seismic waves, causing earthquakes
5. e.g: East African Rift Valley formed when the African plate of the Nubian boundary moved away from the Somalian boundary

CONVERGENT Plate Boundary

- areas where plates move towards each other and become faulted, folded and sometimes subducted

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[CONVERGENT] Oceanic - Oceanic Plate Convergence (deep oceanic trench/island arc)
1. when 2 oceanic plates converge, the denser oceanic plate subducts under the other less dense plate, forming a deep and narrow oceanic
trench at the point of subduction
2. the subducted oceanic plate causes the mantle material above it to melt, due to fractures on the crust and ocean floor, forming magma
3. magma rises through the crack to form volcanoes, and eventually a chain of islands called island arc when volcanoes rise above sea level
4. earthquakes may also occur during convergent movements, due to friction created between the moving rock masses when a plate subducts
beneath the other, placing the rocks under a lot of stress
5. e.g: Pacific Plate converging with slower moving Philippine Plate, subducts, forming Mariana Trench and Mariana Islands

[CONVERGENT] Continental - Continental Plate Convergence (fold mountains)

1. 2 continental plates may collide and push against each other, resisting subduction as both plates are too thick and buoyant due to similar
densities
2. this causes the plates to break, slide along, causing layers of rocks on the upper part of the crust to be compressed together, fold upwards or
sideways, forming fold mountains
3. convergent movement also causes compressional forces, releasing the stored energy in the form of seismic waves, causing earthquakes
4. e.g: convergence of Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate, forming the Himalayas

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[CONVERGENT] Oceanic - Continental Plate Convergence (fold mountains/ oceanic trench/ volcanoes)
1. when an oceanic plate converges with a continental plate, the denser oceanic plate subducts under the less dense continental plate
2. a deep and narrow oceanic trench forms at the subduction zone
3. as the less dense continental plate rides over the denser oceanic plate, its rock edges at the plate boundary are compressed together and
buckle, fold upwards to form fold mountains on the continental plate
4. this causes the solid mantle material to melt and from magma
5. the magma rises through the cracks on the crust, cools and solidifies, forming volcanoes
6. earthquakes may occur on the continental plate as the convergent movement causes compressional forces, releasing the stored energy in
the form of seismic waves
7. e.g: convergence of the Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, forming the Sunda Trench and Barisan Mountains

TRANSFORM Plate Boundary (earthquakes)

- areas where 2 plates slide past each other
- can take place in any kind of plate movement but normally C-C
1. plates slide past each other along transform plate boundaries, forming a transform fault
2. this process builds up a lot of stress on the rocks, resulting in the build up of stored energy in the rocks
3. when the rocks can no longer take the stress, they jerk free, releasing the stored energy in the form of seismic waves, causing earthquakes
4. e.g: North Anatolian fault, USA, between the southern section of the Eurasian Plate and the Anatolian Plate

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Formation of Various Landforms at Different Plate Boundaries due to Movement of Plates
(A) Fold Mountains (convergent)
1. fold mountains are formed along convergent plate boundaries, where plates move towards each other and collide
2. the resultant compressional force creates immense pressure which causes the layers of rocks to fold and buckle sideways (process: folding)
3. at the most basic level, folding involves the compression of rock layers into wave like structures known as folds
4. upfold: anticline
5. downfold: syncline
6. when there is increasing compressional force on one limb of a fold, the rocks may buckle until a fracture forms
7. the limb may then move forward to ride over the other limb
8. over millions of years, the folding and compressing of layers of rock forms fold mountains, which can grow to impressive heights and lengths
9. folding is more common in sedimentary rocks, as more flexible than igneous or metamorphic rocks
10. e.g: The Himalayas, Southern Asia (Indian Plate collided with Eurasian Plate), Mount Everest
– considered young fold mountains, located along active plate boundaries + still growing taller
11. e.g: The Rocky Mountains, The Andes, The Alps

(B) Rift Valleys and Block Mountains (divergent)

1. rift valleys and block mountains formed at divergent plate boundaries, where plates are pulled apart,
giving rise to faults
2. a fault is a fracture in the rocks along which the rocks are displaced
3. the tensional forces from these movements result in parts of the crust being fractured (process: faulting)
4. along these faults, sections of the crust can extend

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5. rift valley is a valley with steep sides formed along fault lines
6. when sections of the crust extend along fault lines, tensional forces can cause a central block of land to subside between a pair of parallel
faults, forming a rift valley
7. e,g: East African Rift Valley (divergent movement between Somalian and Nubian boundary of African Plate)

8. however, when tensional forces cause the land masses surrounding a block of land to subside, a block mountain is formed between a pair of
parallel faults
9. block mountain is a block of land with steep slopes left standing higher than the surrounding land
10. e.g: Black Forest in Germany (divergent movement between Eurasian and N American Plate)

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(C) Volcanoes
1. a volcano is a landform formed by magma ejected from the mantle onto the Earth’s surface
2. magma is molten rock found below the Earth’s surface and builds up within the crust to form a magma chamber, a reservoir of molten rock
beneath the Earth’s crust
3. volcanoes can be found at divergent and convergent plate boundaries, where there is subduction
4. mantle material melts at these subduction zones forming magma
5. magma rises as it is less dense than the surrounding rock
6. as more magma seeps into the magma chamber, the amount of pressure in the chamber builds up, giving rise to a volcanic eruption
7. during a volcanic eruption, magma forces its way onto the Earth’s surface through vents, which as openings in the Earth’s surface with a
pipe leading to the magma chamber
8. when a stratovolcano erupts, pyroclasts are released
9. the force of the volcanic eruption depends on the amount of pressure built up within the volcano
10. magma that is ejected onto the surface is known as lava
11. a new eruption of lava covers the pyroclasts and builds up the volcano
12. lava builds around the vent, solidifying to form a volcanic cone called the crater
13. during the formation of the volcano, the vent may become blocked, forcing the magma to find a new exit route to the surface
14. a secondary cone of newer volcanic material will then develop
15. the summit of the volcano may be blown off during an explosive eruption, causing the sides of the crater to collapse inwards due to the loss
of structural support
16. as a result a large depression known as a caldera is formed

Characteristics and Formation of Volcanoes

- volcanoes vary in shapes and sizes due to the characteristics of lava
- viscosity refers to the stickiness of lava, its resistance of flow

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criterion SHIELD Volcanoes STRATOvolcanoes

characteristics

type of lava - low-silica lava (low silica level) (runny lava) - high-silica lava (high silica level) (thick lava)
ejected - lower viscosity = less explosive volcanic eruptions - higher viscosity = more explosive volcanic eruptions

gas content - does not trap gas easily - traps gases more easily
of lava - allows gases to escape easily and flow more easily - results in the build up of pressure below Earth’s surface
through the vent before reaching the surface - high level of gas content
- low level of gas content

nature of - effusive (calm) eruption - plinian (violent eruption)

eruption (A) Lava Flow - as the magma rises towards the Earth’s surface, the gases are
- low silica lava flows easily and spreads out over a able to expand, causing an outward explosion, ejecting…
large area before solidifying (A) Pyroclastic Flow
- once on the Earth’s surface, the outer layer of - when pyroclasts such as ash, hot rock fragments and volcanic
cooling lava forms a thin crust bombs ejected during an explosion mix with superheated
(B) Ash Flow gases
- may reach speeds up to 200m/s
(B) Lahars (fast flowing mudflows)
- pyroclasts mix with water from melted ice or lakes
- reaching speeds of 40m/s
(C) Lava Flow
(D) Ash Flow

formation

formation - formed where low silica lava has been ejected - developed from successive eruptions of lava (which usually
- no caldera solidifies near the top) and pyroclasts
- secondary cones may develop as magma from the vent seeps
into the sides of the cone and erupts
- caldera

location - common near divergent plate boundaries (i.e: rift - common at subduction zones
zones), where magma can rise directly from the - at O-O and O-C convergent plate boundaries
mantle through the gap
- hotspots (e.g: Hawaiian Islands)

examples - Mount Washington, USA - Mount Mayon, Philippines

- Mount Loa, Hawaii - Mount Merapi, Indonesia

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- Eyjafjallajokull Volcano in Iceland - Mount St Helens, USA
- Mount Vesuvius, Italy
- Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
- erupted in 1991
- emitted 10 million tonnes of lava, 20 million tonnes of SO2,
millions of tonnes of ash
- 2nd largest land volcanic eruption in 20th century

shape/structure

shape - dome-shaped - conical shaped

height - lower in height - higher in height

slope - gently sloping slides - steep sides

- broad base - narrow base
- broad summit - sharp summit
- with successive eruptions, the base of the volcano - after an initial eruption of pyroclasts, the subsequent eruption
increases in size as lava accumulates ejects lava which covers the pyroclasts and prevents it from
being eroded away

profile - over time, successive eruptions build a convex - over time, successive eruptions build concave profile volcano
profile volcano - steeper at the top, gentler at the base
- gentler at base, steepens with elevation before
flattening near the top

composition - comprise of accumulated layers of ash and lava - comprise of alternate layers of ash, rock fragments, volcanic
bombs, lava, other fragmented material

diagrams

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Distribution of Volcanoes
- the Pacific Ring of Fire is a region along the margins of several converging plate boundaries around the Pacific Ocean where the most
volcanic activity occurs
- found along Pacific, Nazca, Philippine, Australian, Eurasian Plate
- marks the area of greatest volcanic seismic activity in the world
- a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur
- volcanoes not just limited to PROF, also found at divergent plates like Atlantic Ocean where magma rises and volcanoes are formed

Volcanic Eruptions
- result from tectonic activity and can occur on land or on the seafloor
- Active Volcanoes: currently erupting or are expected to erupt in the near future
- Dormant Volcanoes: currently inactive but may erupt in the near future
- Extinct Volcanoes: w/o current seismic activity (no more magma), no geological evidence of eruptions for the past thousands of years

RISKS of Living Near Volcanic Areas

1. Massive Destruction by Volcanic Materials
- volcanic materials produced by volcanic eruptions include lava and pyroclasts that consists of ash, rock fragments and volcanic bombs,
which can lead to widespread damage of property
- lava has high temperatures of 500-1400 and burns the areas it flows through
- low-silica lava moves rapidly and flows over long distances, causing damage to larger areas
- a pyroclastic flow can destroy everything in its path with hot rock fragments ranging from ash to boulders travelling at high speeds (>200m/s)
- inhaling the hot ash and gases can cause serious injury or death
- volcanic bombs of heated rocks can range in length from several cm to the size of cars, falling in areas surrounding the volcano, causing
damage to property
- e.g: ongoing eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii since 1983 has destroyed many homes and highways

2. Landslides
- landslides can occur due to the structural collapse of a volcanic cone during a volcanic eruption
- the landslide can range from a few rock fragments falling from the volcano to landslides of several hundreds of cubic kilometres
- landslides have the potential to obstruct the flow of rivers causing floods, block roads and bury villages and farmlands
- e.g: eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in the Andes Mountains of S America in 1985 released a pyroclastic flow and also triggered lahars due to
the mixing of glacial ice and pyroclasts
- lahar engulfed the town of Armero and killed >20,000 people

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3. Pollution
- ash particles ejected during a volcanic eruption can disrupt human activities over large distances from the volcano
- thick plumes of ash may eventually settle on the ground and block sunlight, suffocate crops, cause severe respiratory problems for people
and animals
- volcanic eruptions can also release gases such as CO2, SO2, H2 and CO which may be harmful to people
- fine ash particles of >0.001mm can be carried by wind over thousands of km. and impact areas further away from the eruption source
- e,g: eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland in 2010 produced extensive volcanic ash clouds containing tiny particles of abrasive glass, sand
and rock, posing a serious danger to aircraft engines and structures
- resulted in closure of airspace over much of Europe
- connecting flights worldwide cancelled, delays to 1.2 million passengers daily, US$1.8 billion cost for airline industry

4. Effects on Weather
- SO2 released from volcanic eruptions has impacts on environment
- reacts with water vapour and other chemicals in the atmosphere to form sulphur-based particles, which reflect Sun’s energy back into space,
temporarily cooling Earth for periods of time

BENEFITS of Living Near Volcanic Areas

1. Fertile Volcanic Soil
- lava and ash from volcanic eruptions break down to form fertile volcanic soil
- richest soils on Earth, very favourable to agriculture
- although volcanic soils are rich in minerals, the minerals are not available to plants when the rocks are newly formed
- only available after the rocks have been weathered and broken down for thousands of years
- e.g: volcanic soils of Java and Bali in Indonesia supports the cultivation of crops such as tea, coffee and rice
- more fertile than most non-volcanic areas of Indonesia although continuously using

2. Precious Stones, Minerals, Building Materials

- volcanic rocks can be rich in precious stones and minerals
- these resources can only be extracted from volcanic areas after millions of years
- when the upper layers of volcanic rocks are eroded, the precious stones and minerals can be extracted
- e.g: old volcanic rocks at Kimberley in S Africa are one of the world’s richest sources of diamond
- diamonds are heated and pressurised carbon that are cooled in magma pipes beneath Earth’s surface, when refined, useful as industrial
tools/ scientific research/ make jewellery

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3. Tourism
- volcanic areas offer a variety of activities for tourists to engage in
- many people visit volcanoes to hike and camp in the area or simply enjoy the scenery
- volcanic areas are rich in history and people visit these areas to learn more about them
- e.g: ruins of Pompeii, Italy, where almost 3 million visit yearly
- Roman town to Pompeii, Italy, was buried by layers of ash from nearby Mount Vesuvius when it erupted in 79 CE
- unearthed archaeological site has revealed building, pottery and mosaics left intact

4. Geothermal Energy
- derived from the heat in the Earth’s crust
- when groundwater comes into contact with hot rocks beneath the surface, it heats up and erupts as hot water or steam, which can be
harnessed to drive turbines and produce electricity
- e.g: most of Iceland’s electricity is generated from geothermal power because of the large numbers of volcanoes in the country
- over 70% of homes heated by volcanic steam

Phenomena Found at Plate Boundaries

- earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions
Earthquakes
- an earthquake is a vibration in the Earth’s crust caused by the sudden release of stored energy in the rocks found along fault lines
- occurs when there is plate movement along plate boundaries

Formation of Earthquakes
- due to friction between the moving plates, plate movements cause the slow build-up of stress on the rocks found on either side of the fault
- when the rocks can no longer withstand the increasing stress, they can suddenly slip many metres, causing an earthquake

How?
- earthquakes releases energy in the form of seismic waves
- focus: the point of sudden energy release seismic waves radiate out (exact starting point of earthquake in layers of rocks)
- epicentre: the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus
- most of the energy released by an earthquake travels along the surface of the Earth, causing the ground to vibrate violently
- aftershocks: after an initial earthquake event, the stress from the ground within the Earth’s crust may cause many smaller earthquakes to
occur along the fault line
- a series of aftershocks may occur for several months after the initial earthquake, with some being nearly as powerful as the original
Types of Earthquakes
- the depth of an earthquake’s focus within the Earth’s crust can have a great impact on the land

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type DEEP-FOCUS earthquake SHALLOW-FOCUS earthquake

location of focus between 70 and 700 km below Earth’s surface upper 70 km of Earth’s crust

impact on land - SMALLER impact on land as vibrations or seismic - GREATER impact on land as vibration or seismic waves
waves take a LONGER time to reach the surface reach the land surface MORE QUICKLY
- would have lost most of their energy by then

Extent of Earthquakes
- earthquakes release different amounts of energy and the amount of energy released is called the magnitude of an earthquake
- The Richter Scale is used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake
- for each increasing magnitude, the impact is 10 times greater than the previous one
- strongest earthquake ever recorded: Valdivia, Chile in 1960 (9.5 magnitude)

Factors Affecting Extent of Damage of Earthquake

- apart from magnitude, the extent of damage caused by an earthquake may vary based on other factors
- 9.0 Tohoku, Japan (2011) 28,000 people died
- 7.0 Haiti (2010) >300,000 people died

1. Population Density
- refers to the number of people living in the affected area
- earthquakes in sparsely populated areas are likely to affect fewer people than in densely populated areas
- an earthquake in a city can cause more casualties and damage than an earthquake in the countryside
- increase in population density = increase in damage
- example: A magnitude 7.8 earthquake that struck Turkey in 2023 had high death tolls party due to the region’s high population density

2. Level of Preparedness
- the amount of preparation taken by the authorities and citizens makes a significant difference to the impact of an earthquake
- these preparations include having evacuation plans, trained rescue workers and a range of action plans
- the damage caused by an earthquake is more manageable when people are better prepared for it
- example: 2015 Nepal earthquake, where the people were not prepared for such a strong earthquake, country could not handle an influx of
logistics, leading to high death toll

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3. Distance from the Epicentre
- the damage caused by an earthquake is more severe when an area is closer to the epicentre of the earthquake
- example: Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 earthquake, epicentre was in a town a few km away from the city centre, causing the city to suffer
more damage than areas further away from the city

4. Time of Occurrence
- the time of the day during which an earthquake occurs determines where people are and what they are doing, affecting their chances of
survival
- if the earthquake occurs when most people are sleeping, there is a higher chance that these people will be trapped in their houses and more
deaths may occur
- example: >2400 people died when an earthquake occurred a couple of hours after midnight in the Sun Moon Lake region in Taiwan in 1999

5. Type of Soil
- in places where the sediments are loose and unconsolidated, the seismic waves are amplified and this results in greater damage when
earthquakes occur
- structures built on saturated and unconsolidated sediments can be affected by liquefaction, which is when the ground becomes unstable and
saturated soil flows like liquid
- example: Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 earthquakes, many houses and buildings had to be abandoned because of liquefaction after the
earthquake

Risks Associated with Living in Earthquake Zones

1. Threat of Tsunamis
- one of the most damaging hazards associated with an earthquake is a tsunami
- a tsunami refers to an unusually large sea wave
- may be formed by the movement of the sea floor during a large earthquake at subduction zones, an explosive underwater eruption, an
underwater landslide and a landslide above sea level due to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, causing materials to plunge into the water
- tsunamis can travel long distances and cause widespread destruction at coastal areas when it sweeps inland
- example: in 2004, a 9.2 magnitude earthquake occurred in the Indian Ocean
- triggered a tsunami with waves that spread throughout the Indian Ocean, causing damage to coastal communities in 12 countries
- low-lying coastal areas of Western Sumatra, Indonesia, including the city of Banda Aceh, experienced the most damage
- tsunami waves were between 4-39m high and went as far inland as 10km, causing houses to be swept inland or out to sea

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[formation of tsunamis]
1. tsunami waves starts to form when seismic energy from an offshore earthquake forces out a mass of seawater
2. the tsunami waves may start at a height of less than 1m, with wavelengths of 100 to 150 km at speeds of 800 km/h and may pass
undetected
3. on reaching shallower water, greater friction slows the waves and forces them to increase in height
4. at the point of impact on the coast, the tsunami waves could be travelling at 30 to 50 km/h and may reach heights of around 15m
5. sometimes, the sea recedes from the coast before advancing onshore, only doing so minutes before the tsunami reaches the shore
6. because water first rushes to fill the void caused by the movement of sea floor
7. water is then forced out again soon afterwards, resulting in a tsunami

2. Disruption of Services
- an earthquake can disrupt services such as the supply of electricity, gas and water and potentially affect a large area
- vibrations on the ground can snap pipes and break cables, causing the outbreak of fires
- communication services such as television broadcasts and telephone connections may also be affected
- example: earthquake in Kobe, Japan in 1995 damaged pipes and transmission lines, disrupting electricity, gas and water supplies to about 1
million of Kobe city’s 1.4 million residents

3. Fires
- earthquakes may rupture gas pipes and this can provide fuel to start fires
- vibrations on the ground can snap pipes and break cables, causing the outbreak of fires
- example: earthquake in Kobe, Japan in 1995 caused extensive fires

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4. Landslides
- the shaking of ground during earthquakes can weaken the slopes of hills and mountains, resulting in landslides
- landslides are rapid downslope movements of soil, rock and vegetation debris from a slope
- they can range from several metres to several kilometres in both length and width
- mudflows may also occur when there is heavy rainfall which saturates the soil, causing the mixed soil debris to flow down the slope
- example: in 1970, an earthquake off the coast of Peru destabilised the slopes of Mount Huascarda and triggered a massive landslide
- landslide travelled more than 160km/h and completely flattened the town of Ranrahirca within seconds
- >18,000 people died and only 200 people survived

5. Destruction of Properties
- earthquakes can cause widespread destruction to many homes
- people may be without homes after the disaster and reside at temporary shelters while their homes are being rebuilt
- example: earthquake in Tohoku, Japan in2011 caused a tsunami which travelled up to 10km inland
- extensive structural damage resulted in hundreds of thousands of people being forced from their homes
- there was a severe shortage of housing and concerns about the long term consequence on the health of the people

6. Destruction of Infrastructure
- earthquakes may cause cracks to form in infrastructure such as roads and bridges
- transportation can be disrupted as it is unsafe to use the damaged roads
- example: after the earthquake in Kobe, Japan in 1995, many places in the city became inaccessible or difficult to reach, sections of the Kobe
freeway collapsed

7. Loss of Lives
- earthquakes and its associated hazards often threaten the lives of those living in earthquake zones

How do people prepare for and respond to earthquakes

- fatalistic approach: accept and resist evacuation, LDCs who have limited access and knowledge
- acceptance approach: live with the risk due to potential benefits offered in the area
- adaptation approach: well prepared for earthquakes, DCs

[ESSAY] Preparedness Measures – Strategies before the earthquake strike to help prepare people
- the preparedness measures that people put in place to cope with earthquakes and its associated hazards
- these measures can reduce the extent of damage and allow populations to survive an earthquake
- **how does each strategy help in reducing the number of casualties, amount of damage**

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1. Land Use Regulation
- land use regulations are a set of rules implemented to restrict developments in certain areas that are demarcated as highly unsafe, such as
fault lines and coastal areas where tsunamis and earthquakes are likely to happen
- example: California, USA, all new building developments are not built across fault lines or areas at risk of liquefaction and they should be
built within 40 km of a known fault
- this prevents the buildings from sinking and collapsing during an earthquake, reducing the casualties
- schools and hospitals are to be built in areas of low risk
- another land use regulation is the prohibition of constructing new buildings on low-lying land which are vulnerable to tsunamis
- developments may be allowed only when protective barriers such as seawalls facing the ocean are constructed
- commonly implemented along the coasts of Japan and N America where the PROF is located
(benefits)
- preparing for the next earthquake
- following rules in order to build
(limitations)
- not long term
- costly as government acquires over unsafe land
↳ these land use regulations often need to be carried out in areas which may already be built-up or privately owned
↳ government authorities would buy land from private owners, compensate those who have to move and put in place effective protection measures
- existing owners may be reluctant to move/give up land as they often believe that another hazard would not happen
2. Infrastructure
- infrastructure needs to be developed with advanced engineering to withstand the vibration associated with an earthquake
- this includes effective building design to reduce the collapse of buildings and minimise the damage caused by an earthquake and number of
casualties
- structural reinforcements and buffers to absorb seismic energy included in building design, reduce loss of lives, faster rescue and evacuation
- example: Taipei 101 is made of steel and reinforced concrete which are able to withstand earthquakes better than more brittle materials,
such as non-reinforced concrete
- it also has a damping device installed on the 88th floor to prevent it from swaying too much and collapsing
- damping devices act as shock absorbers for some of the seismic energy released during an earthquake and also act as counterweights
which move in the opposite direction to the motion of an earthquake
- it also includes reinforcement of infrastructure, like building roads, bridges and dams to resist the shaking of the ground so that they do not
collapse, or can be easily repaired if they collapse
- example: Akashi Kaiyo Bridge in Kobe, Japan is a quake proof bridge that survived the earthquake in 1995 due to its anti-seismic building
structures such as hydraulic dampers
- homes, office buildings and factories can be fitted with trip switches that ensure all electrical points are switched off in the event of an
earthquake, preventing fire outbreaks which causes casualties
- example: in Japan, machines in many factories automatically shut down when they sense earthquake vibrations
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(benefits)
- long term
- fewer lives lost
- faster rescue and evacuations
- less money spent on recovery for affected areas
(limitations)
- expensive, people living in LDC cannot afford
- not cost effective to retrofit existing buildings (more than 1.8 million older buildings in Tokyo cannot withstand earthquake)
- untested until earthquakes occur

3. Emergency Drills
- emergency drills are a form of preparedness measure where people practice the steps to take when an earthquake occurs
- this creates awareness among the population and reduces levels of panic and irrational behaviour during an event
- by taking part in emergency drills like moving to a safe location, listening to instructions given by a trained personnel and practicing first aid,
it ensures that people know what to do in the event of an emergency
- example: every year since 1960, Japan conducts emergency drills on 1 September to commemorate Disaster Prevention Day, where an
earthquake of high magnitude is simulated
(limitations)
- not long term
- often designed based on scale and magnitude of past events and thus the emergency scenario might not be realistic, or may be inadequate
- only effective if there is enough time for people to evacuate
↳ often insufficient time as earthquakes are difficult to predict

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4. Earthquakes and Tsunamis Monitoring and Warning Systems Using Advanced Technology
- earthquakes can be monitored by studying the history of when and - tsunami monitoring devices help predict tsunamis and are
where earthquakes have occurred as it provides an estimation of often linked to warning systems which are activated to warn
the frequency and magnitude of earthquakes at particular fault people about the occurrence of a tsunami
lines - this includes a network of pressure sensors, seismographs
and deep ocean tsunamis detectors
- located in various places worldwide which are vulnerable to
tsunamis, generally near plate boundaries
- one example is located in Hawaii, USA to monitor and
forecast the path of tsunamis

- seismic risk maps are produced from such studies, showing the [how deep ocean tsunami detector works]
likelihood of locations at risk from earth movements or liquefaction 1. a surface buoy is connected to a pressure sensor anchored
to the sea floor
(limitations) 2. temperature and pressure are measured and relayed to the
- only give a general indication, do not provide precise information buoy every 15 seconds
about the time, location and magnitude of future earthquake 3. information is sent via satellite to land-based tsunami warning
stations for analysis

- installing earthquake sensors in earthquake-prone zones help [limitations]

monitor the frequency of vibrations and detect possible - prone to giving false alarms when waves are high
developments of an earthquake - little time to evacuate once an approaching tsunami is
- example: earthquake motion data is gathered from hundreds of detected
observation stations installed on bridges and roads in Japan - some of the LDCs do not have a warning system
(limitations)
- expensive to obtain, install and use
- warnings may not provide sufficient time for an evacuation as an
earthquake usually occurs seconds after a warning is sounded
- difficult to give accurate warnings when multiple earthquakes occur
closely
- noise, lightning or device failure may interfere with the
seismograph and result in false warnings being given

- advanced technology such as seismic risk maps, earthquake sensors and tsunami monitoring systems help to detect earthquakes earlier
(limitations)
- costly
- prone to false alarm, subjected to interference
- not long term
- little time for response (Miyaki-Ken Oki earthquake in 2005 — window time only 13s for Sendai, Japan — no time to evacuate)
- based on past records

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(benefits)
- detect earthquakes and tsunamis earlier
- people get warning, can move to safer places earlier

Short Term Responses (short period of time)

- occur immediately and last for weeks after the occurrence of an earthquake
- includes: providing survivors with basic necessities (food, water, shelter)

short-term response implementation successes limitations

(A) Search and people trapped under collapsed - some survivors are found - rescue workers only have a limited
Rescue buildings are quickly located and freed after being trapped for a time of 72hrs, 3 days to find
couple of weeks w/o food trapped survivors
- e.g: after the earthquake in - w/o food and water, trapped
Tohoku, Japan in 2011, sniffer people are unlikely to survive after
dogs and heat sensors were 3 days
deployed and successfully - e.g: rescue workers had a limited
rescued many who were time of 3 days to rapidly search
trapped through 2 towns after the 2011
Tohoku earthquake

(B) Emergency, - the injured are treated and - the provision of immediate air - medical supplies, food and water
Food and clean drinking water is helps survivors continue with may not be sufficient and this may
Medical provided to survivors to their lives cause social unrest
Supplies prevent dehydration and the - e.g: after the earthquake in - e.g: after the earthquake in Haiti in
spread of diseases Afyon in 2002, the Turkish 2010, looting and fighting broke
- help survivors cope with Red Crescent Society out as people fought for food and
disaster immediately responded by medical supplies
delivering 20k tents, 50k - countries may not have the means
blankets and 3k heaters to to provide extensive aid
the region

Long Term Responses (long period of time)

- can stretch over months and years and involve rebuilding an affected region
- can be costly

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long term response implementation successes limitations

(A) rebuilding of infrastructure - authorities often develop stricter - reinforced buildings which are built to
infrastructure amenities are rebuilt building codes to ensure protect against earthquakes are not
and improved upon a infrastructure is restored at a higher necessarily protected against tsunamis
disaster safety level than before - additional protection could be in the form
- e.g: after the earthquake in Kobe, of coastal protection structures such as
Japan in 1995, Japan spent billions breakwaters
developing technology to build more - e.g: although many of Chile’s buildings
earthquake-resistant buildings are earthquake resistant, the coastal
areas suffered massive damage from a
tsunami when an earthquake struck in
2010 (not fully protected from all kinds of
hazards)

(B) provision of - health options - problems can be identified and - improving health options, such as
healthcare such as addressed early restoring the resilience of people after an
long-term - e.g: a year after the earthquake in earthquake can be very challenging
counselling are Christchurch, New Zealand in 2011, - e.g: many survivors such as those in Haiti
provided significant problems of anxiety and after the earthquake in 2010, continue to
- the loss of depression were identified amongst lack access to basic necessities
loved ones, all age groups of the affected
homes or jobs population, resulting in a greater
after number of health workers being
earthquakes deployed in the area
causes
long-lasting
trauma

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