TRAFFIC SUPERVISION

This module discusses Traffic Supervision Which is the keeping order on the streets and highways within
existing regulations make their use safe and expeditious. Its objectives are preventing collisions or
congestion through proper allotment of Tre and space to move traffic speedily and safely, to use road to
Fullest extent, and to uphold that roads are primarily built move traffic and not for carnivals.

TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

Enforcement action is part of enforcement involving the arrest, issuance of Temporary Operator's Permit
(TOP) or Inspection Report Summons, or warning of any person who is believed to have violated a law,
ordinance, or regulation pertaining to the use of traffic roads.

RATIONALE

Traffic enforcement action may prevent such violation from endangering persons, property, or
inconveniencing other users of traffic users of traffic roads, prevent continued violation, or discourage
future repetition.

SCOPE OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT.

The range of action of traffic law enforcement incudes but not limited to the following:

1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to traffic laws and ordinances
regulating the movement and use of motor vehicles for the purpose of creating a deterrent to unlawful
behavior by all potential violators. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at
controlling road users, let behavior by preventive. Persuasive and punitive methods in order to affect a
safe and efficient traffic movement.

It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorize regulations relating to the use of street and
highways an operation of motor vehicles.

TWO MAJOR FUNCTION OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

for more effective traffic law enforcement and more specific enforcement, the function is divided into the
following:

1. POLICE TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT: This function indults the enforcement of traffic laws
deterrent to law violations special assistance to prosecutors and courts and incident service to highway
users. Usually these are the responsibilities of traffic enforcers like members of the PIp. MG and the LTO
Law Enforcement Service (LES).

2. COURT TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT. One part of traffic law enforcement is performed by the
court through PROSECUTION, ADJUDICATION and PENALIZATION of cases, these actions are usually
undertaken by any of the regular courts where traffic cases fall under their jurisdiction and the Traffic
Adjudication Service (TAS) of the LTO.

THREE IMPORTANT GOALS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIVITIES

for more specific actions, enforcement activities aim:

1. To increase safety level - enforcement effort should be directed towards the reduction of accidents or
minimizing their effects.

2. To increase traffic efficiency- When traffic violators are reduced particularly those related to traffic
obstruction through an effective enforcement, there will be free-ford 3. To insure harmonious and
comfortable environment a when there is an increase safety level and increase the efficiency, traveling is
more comfortable and luxurious and may reduce chaotic situations in the traffic way.
1. Enforcement System. This area consists of legislation, police and the courts. Legislation defines and
specifies correct or incorrect road User behavior. Police and the courts are charged with the responsibility
of insuring that these laws are adhered to.

2. Road Users System (Traffic Way User). This element includes pedestrians, pedal cyclist, drivers,
passengers and others.

3. Road System (Traffic System). This area is composed of the entire road and vehicle complex, as well as
all traffic rules and regulations.

FIVE (5) ESSENTIAL STEPS IN THE ENFORCEMENT PROCESS.

Enforcement of traffic laws includes the following process;

1. Detection (of violation"). A whole police responsibility that entails looking for defects in the behavior of
motorist, pedestrians, vehicle, equipment and roadway condition. Requires knowledge of law on the part
of the police.

2. Apprehension. It is also a whole police function which involves the actual taking of enforcement
actions.

3. Prosecution. This area is handled by the prosecution and partly the court where the police also provide
corresponding influences through preparation and introduction of evidence or close contact with the
prosecuting officer.

4. Adjudication. While this is obviously a court and prosecutions' function, the police provide influence on
this step by acting as witness to the prosecution or supplying additional evidence. This step determines
the guilt or innocence of the accused.

5. Penalization. The court after due process imposes the Penalty upon the accused if found guilty. The
penalty upon the accused if found guilty. The penalty is greatly influenced by previous records of
conviction as provided by police. penalty involved is either fine o Imprisonment or both fine and
imprisonment or may resift imp "suspension or revocation of the driver’s license of the accused.

REASONS FOR VIOLATION OF TRAFFIC LAWS.

Road users violate traffic laws and ordinances due to varying reasons. The following are the common
reasons why road users violate trail. Laws, rules and regulations and other traffic statutes:

1. physical disabilities or infirmities

2. ignorance of traffic

3. lack of training and experience

4. wrong attitude towards driving

5. PUV drivers for increased compensation

6. driver's apathy towards signs, signals and markings

7. influential person violate because they feel they are

exempted from punishment

Considerations that act as deterrents to motorist and pedestrians.

Some road users are hesitant in violating any traffic law or ordinance because of varying reasons which
are enumerated as follows:

1. fear of fine or punishment

2. loss of driving privilege

3. possibility of being involved in accident

4. positive area of good citizenship doing what is right and setting an example.

KINDS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTION.

When traffic enforcers detected violation of traffic laws, an enforcement action may be taken against the
individual which is either arrest, or citation, warning alone.

1. TRAFFIC ARREST- It is an enforcement action which consist of taking a person into custody for
the purpose of holding a detaining him to answer a charge of law violation before a court

a. When a traffic violator can be arrested?

(1) offense committed is serious

(2) detention is necessary to avoid continued violation

(3) there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not

appear in court.

b. How is arrest made? In general, arrest is made by any of the following:

(1) by an actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or

(2) by his submission to the custody of the person making the arrest.

c. Use of force in arresting. No violation or unnecessary force shall be used in making an arrest and the
person arrested shall not be subjected to any greater restraint than is necessary for his detention.

d. Arrest in Traffic. In arresting a traffic violator, the traffic officer must consider the following:

(1) An arrest can be affected even without warrant if the offense is committed in the presence of an
arresting officer.

(2) The officer making an arrest must intend to take the violator into custody for the purpose of bringing
him before a court.

(3) Detention of the arrested person may take place.

(4) Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the arrested person into custody.

(5) The person being arrested must understand that he is being arrested.

(6) The purpose of arrest is to bring a suspended violator before a court to answer a charge of violation.

c. Recording the Data of Arrest. Whichever action is used by the officer or Agency, the following
information are necessary:

(1) Date/time of Arrest.

(2) Place of Arrest.

(3) The common name of the offense for which the person is arrested.
(A) The full name of the attested a person, his home Mansion tour him number. gadders, his business
address and his telephone

(5) Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth, nationality and marital status.

(6) Name of witnesses to the arrest.

7) Name and badge number of arresting officers. When taking person into custody. The arresting officer
When taking à person into custody must consider the following: of

1) the possibility that the person you are arresting may attempt to injure or kill you or escape in your
custody.

(2) inform him that you are placing him under arrest.

(3) explain to him why you are placing him under arrest.

(4) reasonable search may be carried out in connection with the lawful arrest.

G. When transporting arrested person. The arresting officer should observe the following guidelines
transporting arrested person:

(1) If your unit is equipped with radio, request for transportation unit and maintain custody of your
prisoner until it arrives.

(2) Give instructions to the transporting officer about the place where the arrestee is to be delivered.

(3) Have the necessary information and instructions Written out so that the transporting officer will not
let in the delivery.

(4) In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to drive his own vehicle to your Headquarters and
follow him with your police mobile.

(5) However, if the driver is not in good condition, the vehicle is in bad shape, it someone drive the vehicle
to the Headquarters Arrest.

H. Warrantless Citizen's/Civilian anti Oftentimes, arrest in traffic is made right after the commission of
the traffic violation. Hence, traffic enforcers should know the following rules to be observed in arresting a
person Without warrant of arrest as ‘stipulated by paragraphs ac, Sec. 6, rule 113, Rules of Court:

(1) When in the presence of the arresting officer, the person to be arrested has committed, is actually
committing, or is about to commit an offense.

(2) When an offense has in fact been committed, and

the arresting officer has personal reasons to believe

that the person to be arrested has committed it.

2. TRAFFIC CITATION

This is a means of having violators appear in court without physical arrest. To ensure that an apprehended
traffic violator will appear to the court or to the proper authority, the traffic officer should confiscate the
violator's driver's license and issue Traffic Citation Ticket (CT), TOP, or Traffic Violator's Receipt (TVR).

L. Road check- This is another enforcement activity which involve the conducting of actual inspection of
vehicle, and motorists on the road.

1. Objectives of road check- The objective of the road check is to detect and inspect the following.
a. faulty vehicle equipment

b. registration and licensing violations

c. intoxicated drivers

d. the load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight.

2. Consideration to be taken

Minimum delay to motorist

Thorough checking procedure

Protection/ safety of motorist and officers

Timing, location and frequency

In case thorough checking of vehicle will be conducted, take note of the legalities of searches or
instances that validates be search, i,e., search incidental to lawful arrest consented search, search of
moving vessel, and search by “tips”.

3. TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL

concept:

The movement of people, goods, vehicle, train, ships, and airplanes from one place to another is called
traffic and controlling traffic involves attempts to make these movement as fast, safe, and efficient as
possible. Aside from signal system, one important aspect of traffic control is the congestions are common
problem.

Assigning of traffic officer on strategic place does not only ensure the obedience to traffic laws, rules
and regulations but it also serves as emergency solution when traffic lights suddenly fail or when the
traffic signal light could not control the flow of traffic.

Intersection Defined- As applied to a street or highway, it means the space occupied by two street at the
point where they cross each other. Usually, this is the place where traffic direction and traffic control are
needed.

Police Traffic Direction- It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how and where they may or
may not move or stand at particular place, especially during emergencies or period of congestion.

Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic? In the Philippines, traffic officers are usually deputized by the
land transportation office who normally comes from the PNP-TMG, Police auxiliaries, MMDA Traffic
Management Section.

B. Directing and Guiding Traffic- The following are the basic concept for an effective directing and guiding
traffic

When you are assigned to direct traffic, you are expected to indicate or show to the drives and pedestrian
how, when and where they may move

In order to do this, use a type of sign language which shall be clearly understandable to all person you will
be directing.
However, if your signal is different from those used by other officers, motorists would probably fail to
understand them and ignore you altogether

Hence, it is important for the efficient direction of traffic that the officers use uniform gestures and
signals.

5. Moreover, the signals should be able to be seen over a fairly long distance. When directing traffic, you
first want drivers and pedestrians to recognize that you are the officer who will tell them what to do. But
you must also know how to tell them when to stop, go or turn by using gesture alone.

6. Normally, this is in the center of the intersection. Stand straight with your weigh equally distributed to
each foot.

7. When you are not signaling, let your hand fall at your sides. When you authorize vehicles to move, do
not face them. Stand so that your side is toward the oncoming vehicle.

C. Suggested Method of Directing and Guiding Traffic

Use hand signal to designated decisions to motorists and pedestrians

Supplement the arm/ hand signal with a whistle:

One long blow to STOP

Two short snappy blasts for Go

Three blasts to be used for assistance.

If two or more officers are assigned in one intersection, only one make the decision, while the other take
theirs from him.

To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the driver the opportunity to stop

The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm facing the person or vehicle to be
stopped.

D. Night Control of Traffic- There are instances when traffic officers are needed to direct and guide traffic
during night time, not only during light out where traffic light are not functioning but also during some
instances where an accident occurs and traffic officers are needed to guide the motorist. Whichever case,
the following are the suggested methods to be use while directing and guiding traffic night time.

When light is sufficient, work as in day time

If light is no sufficient, use flashlight:

a. To STOP, direct the flashlight in line of the vision and move back and forth.

b. To START, use the same motion as in day light except with flashlight

c. Supplement the action with whistle.

E. Hand Signal- Figure 42 to 46 are some of the standard hand signal when directing traffic.

Note:

The signals may be modified also by the traffic direction officer as it deemed necessary so that motorist
may clearly understand the decision of the traffic officer especially during night time. In addition to the
hand signals and blowing of the whistle, flag with varying colors (usually red and green) are used to
supplement the signaling.

Figure 42
hand signal for stop

Figure 43
Directing traffic where to stop

Figure 44
directing traffic where to go

Figure 45
hand signals with whistle

Figure 46
directing traffic with flashlight

TRAFFIC PATROL

It is referring to the observation of road condition, the behavior of the drivers and other uses of vehicles
for the purpose of traffic supervision and law enforcement and providing authorized traffic-connected
services to the public.

LINE PATROL

This involve either moving or stationary observation at a certain route or point of major street in the city,
Usually, this is done by foot patrol officers.

AREA PATROL

This involves the conduct of observation either by moving patrol or observation of a certain area which
included a number of streets, road or section of highways. Area patrolling is usually the job of mobile
police officer as well as motorcycle cops.

Types of stationary observation

CONSPICIOUS OBERVATION

-Stationary observation in which observer remains in full view of the traffic condition.

VISIBLE OBSERVATION

-Stationary observation in which the observer is in full view but not so located, for example at side street,
so as to require effort on the part of traffic users to discover the observer.

CONCEALED OBSERVATION

-Stationary observation in which the observer is not visible to the person using ordinary power of
observation from the roadway being observe.
Purpose of traffic patrol

Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving

Detecting and apprehending violators

Observing and reporting traffic conditions

Observing and reporting road conditions, including view obstruction which needs attention

Providing certain services to the public

Handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly

Deter violator for unsafe driving

This kind of drivers may not have enough driving experience; he may be under the influence of liquor or
narcotic that may later contribute to an accident if no action is taken against him at once.

EXAMPLES OF ACTIONS AND CONDITIONS WHICH MAY NEED CLOSED WATCHING FOR
FURTHER INVESTIGATION

 Excessive maneuvering such as barking up four or five times to get a parking space
 Driving extremely at low speed
 Slow moving vehicles in left or ‘high speed’ lanes.
 Racing motor sliding stops and jumping starts.
 Pulling curb lane at traffic signal
 Having turn signals on when attempting to turn
 Waving in road
 Failing to slow for an intersection with obstructed view
 Passing or attempting to pass several cars in bunch
 Suddenly turning off at approach of police vehicle
 Teen-age groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicle
 Damage or dressed up vehicles
 Faulty or obscured license plates
 Unlighted parked cars with motor running

Detecting and apprehending violators- these are the main jobs or duties of traffic patrol officers

Observing traffic condition -the traffic patrol officers are the eyes and ears of the department they must
supply information about what is happening on the street.

Road intelligence -may observe the amount of delay at a certain intersection each morning and when
learn that it is due to loading or unloading of passenger on a ‘NO LOADING ZONE’; be sure to report the
situation at once to your superior officer.

Patrol assignment -must be assigned to either area or line patrol, or you may have instruction to use
combination.

Patrol Tactics and Techniques - Occasionally, you may have assignment in which you work with another
patrol unit.
STEPS TO TAKE IN CASES OF SPECIAL AND UNUSUAL SITUATIONS

What to do in case of abandoned motor vehicles?

A motor vehicle is said to be abandoned when it was left unattended in an area not provided for parking.
Abandoned vehicles are classified in to two categories a} unattended due to mechanical defects. b}
abandoned by car nappers or hold=up men

a. In the case of the first category:

> verify and check on the ownership of the vehicles

> and if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to much safer place.

In case of the second category

Get the plate number and other data of the vehicles

Make a report on the presence of the abandoned vehicles to the nearest TRAFCOM or traffic police unit

Make a possible step to inform the owner

Bring the vehicles to the TRAFCOM impounding area to conduct a Technical Inspection Report in the
presence of the alleged owner.

Advice the owner to present all the pertinent papers of the vehicles for the identification of the ownership

If the vehicles found to have violated any provision of RA6539, note its violation and other together with
the Technical Inspection Report, submit it for investigation and

Finally, submit a duly accomplishment spot report

. What to do on stalled or bogged down motor?

Check the defect or condition of the vehicles

Ensure safety of vehicles and persons involved by conducting traffic direction in the vicinity

If practicable, push the road shoulder. You may request assistance of other motorists to do this, otherwise
avail a wrecker or heavy-duty truck to move it

Advise the owner of the vehicle to avail of the services of the repairmen, and

Provide early warning devices or any lantern to deter the accident occurrence and provide appropriate
precautions for the safety and conveniences of the repairmen and the other motorists.

How to handle traffic jam?

Determine the cause of the traffic jam

If traffic jam is caused by vehicular accident due to engine trouble, conduct a fast, immediate but
complete investigation and remove vehicles involved at the scene of accident

If traffic jam is caused by mechanical trouble, assist motorist to push the vehicles to place where it will not
obstruct the flow of traffic,

Established yourself and conduct systemic flow of traffic.

Observe if the flow of traffic became smooth, if not refer back to letter A above, and

Implement proper traffic regulation to avoid traffic jam.

In case of vehicles cannibalization

Determine the vehicles parts that were stolen

Take down the name of the owner of the vehicles, the description of the vehicle, and the location or where
the incident took place,

Look for immediate possible clues that might lead to the identification of the perpetrators or their modus
operandi

Interview the witnesses and the owner to get general picture of the situation prior to the incident,

Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest TRAFCOM Unit, and

If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for safekeeping.

HIT - AND - RUN INVESTIGATION CONCEPT

Rationale.

The objective of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the participants
is twofold: First, responsibility for the Ellison must be determined and second, identity of driver of the
vehicle who fled the scene must be established.

A. Hit - and - Run Cases defined - Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic accident
in which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by sec. 55 of RA 4136

B. Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit - and - Run Drivers- Hit - and -run drivers must be
apprehended.

1. Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had promptly sought help instead of
leaving the accident scene;

2. Streets would not be safe if motorists could flee accident scenes without accepting responsibility. Unless
the negligent driver is found, accident victims cannot get compensation for injuries and property damage;

3. Public knowledge that the police usually apprehend and convict hit - and - run drivers deters other
drivers who might otherwise be inclined to evade by committing this serious offense; and

4. Since leaving the scene of an accident is not socially acceptable, the police secure increased public
support for the entire traffic control program by prompt apprehension and successful prosecution of these
offenders.

C. Two important Considerations. In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic considerations
must be kept in mind. These are:

1. The driver who flees the scene of an accident is not necessarily the driver responsible for the accident.
His reasons for flight are often more important that the simple evasion of responsibility. He may be
wanted for another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid license, etc.

2. The hit - and - run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle as having been the result of
another hit - and - run accident in which some " other mysterious driver " fled without identifying himself.
Similarly, it is not unusual for the hit - and - run driver to abandon his vehicle and then report it stolen as
a means of covering up his involvement in the accident.

The basic objective of these investigation is the identification of the driver who fled the scene. The
discovery and arrest of the driver.

D. Elements of hit - and - run. To attain the objective of identifying and apprehending the hit - and - run
driver, as the investigator:

1. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of the accident. Even if you have witnesses to
prove this, get evidence to disprove his alibi.

2. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or damage to property.

3. Suspect failed to stop, give aid of information as to his identity to other person's involved, to police or to
anyone at the accident scene; or failed to take reasonable steps to notify the owner of damaged property
other than vehicle.

4. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.

a. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.

b. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude allegation of lack of
knowledge. If suspect refrained from using his vehicle for several days since the accident, this would also
indicate the guilt.

c. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.

E. The hit - and - run Operator. The personality of the hit - and - run driver one of the following:

1. Three categories based upon possible psychological explanations for their motivation of flight:

a. Apprehensive - panic - drive, fearful driver: intoxicated drivers; without license; no insurance; his
companion in the car is not his / her mate; stolen car; stolen goods in car; leaving scene of another crime;
and fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime.

b. Projectionist - projects guilt. This type of drivers sits as judge and jury, tries the case himself, finds the
other driver at fault refuses to be a party to the accident and drives off as the offended person.

c. The sneak operator. This type involves minor property - damage - only accidents like one that smashes
a fender and smashes grillwork in his daily occupational activities and chalks up his action as the
calculated risk shared by all vehicle owners who place their vehicles on the roadway.

2. Classes of hit - and - run drivers. They could be: Drunk drivers; criminals fleeing from the scene of the
crime; improperly licensed driver or drivers with no license or with revoked or expired license; drivers
who fear publicity and prosecution; ignorance of the accident; driver who flees in the panic; drug addicts;
insurance or financial reasons; and or juveniles.

F. Preliminary steps in hit - and - run Investigation. The following usually serve as the guideline for hit-
and - run cases investigators:

1. Refer to checklist on accident investigation.

2. Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.

a. A good description may be obtained from the partial descriptions given by witness.

b. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.

c. Concentrate on the car’s description first.

d. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the headquarters and to police agencies
that may assist in spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle.

e. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and driver to all police units and offices.

f. Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.

3. Appeal for information though local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.

4. Carefully search the hit - and - run scene for physical evidence.

a. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from hit - and - run car,
other evidence such as dirt from subject car, radiator, ornament, etc.

b. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.

c. Request laboratory study of evidence.

d. Watch out for the possible return of the hit and run driver to the scene of accident. This have been
known to happen.

5. The victim

a. Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tire masks, grease, paint chips, fragments, and such things
that might have been left on him by the suspect car.

b. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood from him at the morgue and samples of
hair, skin, etc.

c. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other items he was wearing at
the time of the accident.

G. Follow - up Investigation. During follow - up investigation, the investigator should:

1. Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit and run driver; also, operators of filling
stations and garages.

2. Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.

3. Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and on the same day of the following
weeks to obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men operating on scheduled routes.

4. Follow up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.

5. Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.

H. Search for Suspect. If it is located and recovered:

1. Look physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks, damaged parts, hair
blood, etc. Which will identify the car as that involved in the hit and run accident.

2. Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is indication of disturbance in the
grease or adhering to it.

3. Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.

I. Interview of suspect. When the suspect is apprehended:

1. Obtain a signed statement if you can.

2. Get a full account of suspect's whereabouts and write it down just in case he refutes in later.

3. Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect case as soon as his identity and whereabouts are
ascertained.

4. Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions upon approach.

Skid mark as a tool in traffic accident investigation

SKID MARKS

The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition places great pressure
between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at this point become greater than the
frictional force between the tire and the road surface.

Skid marks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation.

The following are the principles underlying on skid marks: as a tool investigation.

Measurement of skid marks gives idea on how fast the car which life these marks was going prior to the
accident.

2. Estimates of speed based on skid marks may lead to conviction; or knowing how to estimate speed
correctly may help to keep an innocent person from being convicted.

For example, skid marks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test skid made 20 miles per
hour showed 20 feet long skid marks. It was argued in court that with skid marks 20 feet long from a
speed of 20 miles per hour, the car must be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80 feet skid marks. The
driver was unjustly convicted. His actual speed was more nearly half of that, or 40 miles per hour.

B. Other Tire marks.

The investigators’ first job is to find out if the mark on the pavement is a skid mark or another type of tire
mark.

Centrifugal skid mark

A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel of a speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed
of the vehicle is above the critical speed of the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or partially
overcomes the friction between the mass of the vehicle and its tire surface of the roadway.

2. Impeding skid marks

marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheel being slower than the forward movement of the
vehicle.

3. Yawn mark

A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the road by the rotating tire which is
slipping in a direction parallel
to the axle of the wheel.

4. Skip mark

A braking skip mark interrupted at frequent regular interval

5. Slide Skid Mark (Scuff mark)

it is a roadway marking left by the tire and the wheel of a vehicle sliding sideways as a result of force other
than centrifugal force.

6. Gap skid

A braking skid mark which is interrupt by release and reapplication of brakes or which terminates by
release of brakes before collision.

Illustration

C. Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the Road Surface or on the Other Motor
Vehicle.

when a motor vehicle overturned or collided with another object like another motor vehicle, it sometimes
impresses or leaves marks that they be used to identify the motor vehicle, if it fled the accident scene.

1. Ruts

A sunken track worn by a wheel, as road; hence, a groove forming a path for anything.

2. Gouge

A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car after side sweeping each other or it may be
left on a road surface by a motor vehicle which overturned then slid on the road surface.

3. Paint Strips- When a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes transfers its paint to the other
object.

D. Skid marks as Evidence in Accident Cases- Aid in determining the speed prior to the accident or
collision; show if the vehicle was traveling in the wrong side of the road.

E. Skid marks Do Not Show All of the Speed - skid marks never show all of the speed of the car before the
accident happened.

EVIDENCE OF ADDITIONAL SPEED

A car somewhat going faster and often faster is calculated from skid marks because in additional to losing
speed is sliding the distance shown by the skid marks, the car losses some of its speed on one or more of
the following ways:

1 Sliding with one or more wheels before any skid marks begin to appear.

2. Braking without skidding.

3. Dragging the car as it hits some object.

4. Damaging other cars or objects.

5. Sliding other cars or objects along the way.

6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.

F. How to Estimate the Approximate Speed of Motor Vehicle in Case Skid Mark is Not Present?

In many accidents of course, other evidence of terrific is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF

DAMAGE), but there are no skid marks at all because brakes were not put in hard enough to lock the
wheels.

THE FOLLOWING GUIDES THE INVESTIGATOR:

When brakes are put on just before contract of vehicles, the skid marks maybe only two or three feet long
and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour.

2. In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from skid marks may
come close to showing how fast the car was actually going.

3. In any accident in which great damage was done will skid marks show more than small part of the
speed, often very minor part of it.

G. Things that Determine Skidding Distance

How far a car will take to skid or slide to stop when all four wheels are locked depends on many
things.

H. Other Factors that Affect the Skidding

Every driver knows, of course, that it takes much longer to stop on pavements that are slippery,
and that he can stop more quickly on an upgrade than downgrade road.

Brake Pedal Pressure

When wheels are actually sliding, additional brake pedal pressure will not make the stop any quicker.
Once the wheels have been locked and the car is sliding, the brakes have done all they can showing the car
and the crab of the pavement on the tires is what determines how fast the car will slow down.

2. Weight of the Car

Makes a great difference in stopping distance before the wheels lock, but once they have locked, it makes a
very little difference. However, when the wheels are once locked, a greater weight of the vehicle, which
gives it greater momentum, also cause it to press harder on the road surface and therefore, give it a
corresponding greater drag from the pavement.

3. Tire Thread

On the most ordinary surface, a smooth tire and one with a deep tread will stop the car in about the same
distance.

4. Air Pressure

Makes a very slight difference in stopping distance.

5. Tire Material

There is a slight between tires made of synthetic and those made of natural rubber.

6. Road Surface
Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires equipped with chains have a better road-gripping
capacity.

7. Direction of Slides

Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will lengthwise except in material so soft that it plows or
sinks.

8. Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface

In generally, on ordinary pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping pavement. This is not
necessarily on ice and snow.

9. Against Head Wind

A car will slide a little farther from given speed with a tall than against a head wind, but this is not a
matter of great importance.

I. Speed Estimates.

For most ordinary purposes, you do not have to consider those

minor factors in establishing speeds from skid marks. Because the minor factors are neglected, we cannot
calculate speed precisely.

J. Facts Needed

Good estimate of speed is based on certain facts that come from observation and measurements at the
scene of the accident.

1. Length of Skid mark

a. Be sure they are skid marks – not just tire marks.

b. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? it makes difference if tire is sliding forward or
sidewise

c. are there any gaps in the skid marks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a release of brake
pedal pressure and not skids caused by bounced.

d. What is the length of each skid marks around any curves? It may not make straight from
beginning to the end in the shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths for each skid
mark. One of these is based on the part of the skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you speed
which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The other is a possible skid mark which will give you a
more likely speed. The first is all you can use in court, the second is second is often useful in figuring out
just what did happen in the accident.

e. Use the length that the wheels skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which leave two marks are
considered as one wheel, and the skid marks length is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this mark.

f. there are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind of pavement. These are:

1.Straigth line

a slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skid marks do not go off to one side of the front wheel skid
marks.

a. uses the length of the longest skid marks left by any wheel minus gaps in it. This method is
possible because all wheels slide about the same distance. We know that the brakes definitely have been
applied throughout the entire distance of the longest skid mark.
b. is one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to slide when the other began.
The drag on the pavement by this wheel is about the same just before it begins to slide as when it is
actually sliding. It may even be greater.

c. Therefore, we are usually safe is saying that all wheels are dragging as much as if there were
sliding wheel skid applies to motorcycle, trucks, truck and trailer combinations, and buses as well as
ordinary motor vehicles.

2. Spin

A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheels skid marks do get off to one side of the front
wheels skid marks.

a. Take the length of each skid marks minus gaps. Add the skid mark length for all wheels and
divide the numbers of wheels.

b. This method is necessary in the case of the spins because of some of the wheels slid much
farther than others; one end of the car may practically stand still while the other sweeps around it.

c. Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear wheels; that is
usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with trailer or heavy loaded trucks having duel
tires on the rear wheels.

uneven weight with a spin requires special calculations.

d. This method gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is not necessary to
compute it more accurately than the nearest foot. For this length you may have two figures, one a positive
distance and one a possible distance.

g. Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example, investigators may:

1. Fail to show whether all wheel slid.

2. Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by shadow as well as that more clearly shown by the
smear of the hot hire.

3. Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the skid marks.

(4) Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each wheel.

(5) Fail to note whether the skid marks are straight or a spin.

(6) Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve skid marks rather than around its length.

h. If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about the distance the car slid. For
legal purpose, you may assume only what may be true beyond reasonable doubt.

I. nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more definitely observed in

investigations may be very helpful in coming to a conclusion about what probably happened.

2. Coefficient of friction or drag factor

It is the measurement of the maximum frictional resistance of pavements. It is equal to the force exerted
when the wheels are skidding divided by the weight of the car.

Principle of computation. For example, the drag of the pavement on the sliding tires of an automobile is
3,000 lbs. The automobile weights 4,000 lbs. the number representing the slipperiness of the pavement,
or its friction drag, is then 3,000 divided by 4,000 or 0.75
(1) This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT OF
FRICTION”.

(2) The drag factor or coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a formula. If we let “S” stand for
the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made and “D” the distance in feet that car slides in
coming to stop, then the drag factor, which we call “F”, the formula will be:

F=��𝑆�2��30(𝐷)�

(3) The “30” is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance in feet. It is called a
constant because it stayed the same in all problems for which the formula is used.

(4) Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then divided by 30 times the
stopping distance.

b. Applying the principle of computation. On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped
in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.

(1) Substituting these numbers for the letters representing them in the formula, and doing the arithmetic
involved, we have:

F=��𝑆�2��30𝐷�=��30�2��30(40) =�900�1,200�=0.75

(2) It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be correctly made. You are
unlikely to do it right without special experience.

(3) At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for each. Unless these are within
0.05 each other friction calculated from any of several test skids made on the same paving. This is
necessary if you want to be sure beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.

(4) Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best. They thus take care of some of the
minor factor such as the weight of the car, the tire material, the tread pattern, tire pressure and therefore,
make the estimate more reliable.

3. Grade or slope (Gradient). This is the degree of inclination or declination of the road.

Grade is measured by a number usually less than 1.00. The measurement is the number of the feet that
the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.

To find: divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance.it is not necessary to carry these division
more than two places to the right of the decimal.

use this formula: 𝐹=�ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒�𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙�

possible ranges of pavement drag factors for rubber tires. The drag factor or coefficient of friction of a
pavement of a given description may vary considerately because quite a variety of road surfaces maybe
described in the same way.

4. Reaction time. This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes. It is computed by:

Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5,280) =1,467.

To determine distance, you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467(1.47 or 1.50) times the speed at
which you are traveling.

Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is ¾ of a second on the average.

X speed=length in feet covered before brake works.

5. Brake tests. The brakes of the car can be tested when the test skids are made.
In most states (U.S), a vehicle traveling at 20 mph must stop within the following minimum distances:
Two-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 30 ft; and hand brakes: vehicle should stop
within 75 ft.

Brake tests should not be conducted when the road surface is wet. Tests on wet surfaces may result in
personal injuries to bystanders or others concerned in the tests.

Use of Decelerometers. These are devices which hold their readings and indicate on a clocklike face
braking efficiency of the car being tested.

K. Procedure followed by the Philippine National Police (PNP). Members of the PNP when considering
skid mark as evidence observe the following:

The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skid marks and the court interprets the
facts in the light of other evidence: some courts require the assistance of an expert; measurements should
be accomplished by two men; and sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be
made soon after the accident.

some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal speed limit, if this can
be done safely, and compare the skid marks with those in the accident.

3. Some would draw conclusions from tests based on physical calculation.

4. Measurements of skid marks should meet legal standards.

evidence should be presented to show that the skid marks were made by the suspect car.

Witnesses should testify in court.

L. Basic Principles in calculating speeds from skid marks.

1. Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the speed of the
vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed also increases as the square of the ratio of the increase in
speed. examples: 20kph=40 30kph=90 40kph=160

2. Stopping a motor vehicle. Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy which it possesses at that
time must be expended or spent.

3. Test runs. In making calculations for speeds from skid marks, it is often necessary to conduct one or
more test runs, using the vehicle involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of
similar characteristics may be used.

Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred.

conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.

vehicles speedometer should be checked, and any difference from accurate calibrations should be noted.

d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected for the test run.

e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible when the car is moving at the selected test
speed.

f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.

g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately determined using such
equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.

h. It is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed.

I. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by the driver, it is advisable to have the driver
of the accident’s vehicle drive the car in the test runs.

M. Speed calculation. If vehicle stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate the speed of the
vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using the formula based on the principle that riding or braking
distances vary as the square of the speed.

Formulas Used in finding speed Estimates. The following are some of the formulas being used in
estimating speed (mph)

S=5.5��𝐷𝐹�= (Speed on a level road)

S=5.5��𝐷𝐹+/−𝑓�= (up or downhill)

D=���𝑆�2��30𝐹 ��=Skid marks

D=���𝑆�2��30𝐷 ��=Drag factor

2.Where: S= Speed (mph); F= coefficient of friction (drag factor); F= grade (1,2,4) or super elevation; and
D =distance(feet).

when accident vehicle cannot be driven: when the vehicle is damaged that it cannot be driven, part of the
vehicle’s energy is expended in damaging the car and the object struck.

A calculation of speed from skid marks left under these circumstances gives a speed based only on the
amount of energy expended in the skidding.

Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the actual pre-accident speed,
since it is not possible to determine how much farther the vehicle would have skidded had there been no
collision.

N. Sample Problem. A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing down along Marcos Highway
suddenly steps on the brake when a young boy ran across the vehicle's path. In the process, the vehicle
skidded before hitting the boy. When the skid mark was measured, it yields 55 ft. long markings. Applying
the formulas for speed calculations, find for the approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw FX before it
skidded if: 1) the skid mark of the motor vehicle when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and 2) the vertical fall of
the highway is 1.5 ft. the solution will be:

Compute first for the drag factor. Use the figures used during the test skid:

F=��𝑆�2��30(𝐷)�=��30�2��30(35𝑓𝑡) =�900�1050�=.86

2. Calculate for the gradient because the highway is downhill:

f=�ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒�𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙�=�1 𝑓𝑡.�1.5 𝑓𝑡.�=.67

3. Then, compute the speed by using the formula since the highway is downhill add the computed ‘f’:

S= 5.5 ��𝐷𝐹 (+𝑓 �

4. Then substitute the figures:

S=5.5���55 𝑓𝑡𝑥.86�+.67�

S=5.5��47.3+.67�

S=5.5��47.97 �

S= 5.5 (6.93)
S= 38.12 mph