1

TOPIC 7: COMPLEX NUMBERS

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
 express complex numbers in polar and exponential form,
 carry out operations of complex numbers expressed in
polar form,
 derive and prove the de Moivre’s Theorem,
 prove trigonometrical identities using deMoivre’s
Theorem,
 solve equations using the deMoivre’s Theorem,
 solve problems involving complex numbers.
 solve polynomial equations with at least one pair of non-
real roots,
 illustrate equations and inequalities involving complex
numbers by means of loci in an Argand diagram,

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“I tell you, with complex numbers you can do anything” - John Derbyshire

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2

7.2.1 Polar Form of a complex number

Consider the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. We can express 𝑧 in the form

𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), where 𝑟 > 0 and −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, with 𝑟 ∈ 𝐼𝑅. This is known as the polar form.

Let the point P (𝑥; 𝑦) represent the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝜃 be the angle OP makes
with the positive 𝑥-axis direction as shown in the diagram.

𝑥
cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 => 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑦
sin 𝜃 = => 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑟

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

We can now write 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 as

𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃
that is 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
Note that 𝜃, the argument, is not unique. The argument of 𝑧 could also be 𝜃 ± 2𝜋, 𝜃 ± 4𝜋 etc.
To avoid duplication of 𝜃, we usually quote 𝜃 in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and refer to it as the
principal argument, 𝑎𝑟𝑔 𝑧.

Example 1
Express the following complex numbers in the form
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + isin 𝜃), where
𝑟 > 0 and −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
(i) 𝑧 = 1+𝑖 (ii) 𝑧 = 3−𝑖

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Solution
(i) 𝑧 = 1+𝑖
|𝑧| = 12 + 12 = 2
𝜋
arg 𝑧 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 = 4
𝜋 𝜋
Hence 𝑧 = 2(cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 )

(ii) 𝑧 = 3−𝑖
2
|𝑧| = √ 3 + (−1)2 = 2
1 𝜋
arg 𝑧 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = −6
3
𝜋 𝜋
Hence 𝑧 = 2 (cos (− 6 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 6 ))
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 (cos 6 − 𝑖 sin 6 )

7.2.3 Complex Exponentials

It is often very useful to write a complex number as an exponential with a complex argument.

The complex number 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) in exponential form is written as 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 where 𝑟

is the modulus of 𝑧 and 𝜃 is the argument.

In the same way, the conjugate of z, 𝑧̅ = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 −𝜃𝑖 .

Example

Express the following in the form 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 , where −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

2𝜋 2𝜋
(a) 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖 (b) 𝑧 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 3 ) − 𝑖 sin ( 3 ) )

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Solution

(a) 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖

3
𝑟 = 22 + 32 = 13 𝜃 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2) = −0.98

∴ 𝑧 = 13𝑒 −0.98𝑖 .

2𝜋 2𝜋
(b) 𝑧 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 3 ) − 𝑖 sin ( 3 ) )

2𝜋 2𝜋
Re-write as 𝑧 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− ) + 𝑖 sin (− ))
3 3

2𝜋
So 𝑟 = 2 and 𝜃 = − 3

2𝜋
∴ 𝑧 = 2𝑒 − 3 𝑖

Exercise

1 Express the following in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝜋
(a) 𝑒 4𝑖 (b) 𝑒𝑖 (c) 𝑒 𝜋𝑖

2 Express the following complex numbers in exponential form

(a) 𝑧 =1−𝑖 (b) 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 (c) 𝑧 = −6

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7.2.3 Multiplication of a complex number by 𝒊

Example 1

Express the following in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖

(1−𝑖)4 (7+8𝑖)10
(a) (1+𝑖)3
(b) (−8+7𝑖)11

Solution

(1−𝑖)4
(a) (1+𝑖)3

Observe that 1 − 𝑖 = −𝑖(1 + 𝑖)

(1−𝑖)4 (−𝑖)4 (1+𝑖)4

Hence (1+𝑖)3 = (1+𝑖)3

(1+𝑖)4
= (1+𝑖)3

=1+𝑖

(7+8𝑖)10
(b) (−8+7𝑖)11

(7+8𝑖)10 (8𝑖+7)10
(−8+7𝑖)11
= (−8+7𝑖)11

Observe that −8 + 7𝑖 = 𝑖(8𝑖 + 7)

(8𝑖+7)10 (8𝑖+7)10
Hence (−8+7𝑖)11 = 𝑖 11 (8𝑖+7)11

(8𝑖+7)10
= −𝑖(8𝑖+7)11

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1
=
−𝑖(7+8𝑖)

1
= (8−7𝑖)

1 8+7𝑖
= (8−7𝑖) x (8+7𝑖)

8 7
= 113 + 113 𝑖

Exercise

Express the following in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖

(1+𝑖)5 (1+𝑖)4 (−2−5𝑖)9

1 (1−𝑖)7
2 (2−2𝑖)3
3 (5+2𝑖)7

(7−3𝑖)6 (2+3𝑖)2
4 (3+7𝑖)4
5 (−3+2𝑖)4

7.2.4 Product and quotient of two complex numbers in polar form

Let
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ); 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ).
Then
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )(cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 {(cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 )}
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )}

i.e. To find the product of two complex numbers, multiply their moduli, and add their arguments

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Taking the case of the quotient,

𝑧1 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 +𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 +𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) (cos 𝜃2 −𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

= =
𝑧2 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 +𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 +𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) (cos 𝜃2 −𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )
𝑟 (cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 +sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )+𝑖(sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 −cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )
= 𝑟1
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2
𝑟
= 𝑟1 {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )}
2

i.e. to find the quotient of two complex numbers. Divide their moduli and subtract their
arguments.

And so we have established that:

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )} It is important to
remember this
𝑧1 𝑟1
= {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )} result
𝑧2 𝑟2

Example 2
Simplify

cos 3𝜃+𝑖 sin 3𝜃

(a) 3(cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)x5(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) (b) cos 2𝜃−𝑖 sin 2𝜃

Solution
(a) 3(cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)x5(cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)
= 3(cos(−2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−2𝜃))x5(cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)
= 15(cos(−2𝜃 + 3𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−2𝜃 + 3𝜃))
= 15(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

cos 3𝜃+𝑖 sin 3𝜃 cos 3𝜃+𝑖 sin 3𝜃

(b) = cos(−2𝜃)+𝑖 sin(−2𝜃)
cos 2𝜃−𝑖 sin 2𝜃

= cos(3𝜃 − −2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(3𝜃 − −2𝜃)

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= cos(5𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(5𝜃)

Exercise
1 Express the following complex numbers in the form 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃),
where 𝑟 > 0 and −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
(a) 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑖 (b) 𝑧 = −1 + 3𝑖
1 3 1 1
(c) 𝑧 = − 𝑖 (d) 𝑧 = − + 𝑖
2 2 2 2

(e) 𝑧 = −5 (f) 𝑧 = 3𝑖
2 Express each of the following in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖
5𝜋 5𝜋
(a) 𝑧 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
2𝜋 2𝜋
(b) 𝑧 = 6 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 𝑧 = 2 (cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 )
−3𝜋 −3𝜋
(d) 𝑧 = 2 (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ))
4 4

3 Simplify the following

1 cos 4𝜃−𝑖 sin 4𝜃

(a) (b)
cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃 cos 2𝜃+𝑖 sin 2𝜃

𝜋 𝜋
3(cos +𝑖 sin )
3 3
4 Express 5𝜋 5𝜋 in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
4(cos +𝑖 sin )
6 6

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7.2.5 The de Moivre’s Theorem and its applications

Let 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

𝑧 2 = 𝑧 x 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) x 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= 𝑟 2 (cos(𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃 + 𝜃)) 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )}

= 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)

𝑧 3 = 𝑧 2 x 𝑧 = 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃) x 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= 𝑟 3 (cos(2𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(2𝜃 + 𝜃)) 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )}

= 𝑟 3 (cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)

𝑧 4 = 𝑧 2 x 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃) x 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)

= 𝑟 4 (cos(2𝜃 + 2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(2𝜃 + 2𝜃)) 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )}

= 𝑟 4 (cos 4𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜃)

And so, in general This is the de Moivre’s

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 (cos
𝑧 = (𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)) = 𝑟 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃) theorem

The de Moivre’s theorem states that, for a positive integer 𝑛,

𝑧 𝑛 = [𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

It is possible to prove the de Moivre’s theorem by Mathematical induction for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 + .

Proof
We want to prove that for any positive integer 𝑛

[𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

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For 𝑛 = 1 LHS = [𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]1 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

RHS = 𝑟 1 (cos 1𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 1𝜃) = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
LHS = RHS, hence true for 𝑛 = 1.

Assume that the theorem is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 + that is we assume that
[𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑘 (cos 𝑘𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃)

If the theorem is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, we show that it is also true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, that is we will show
that
[𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑘+1 = 𝑟 𝑘+1 (cos(𝑘 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 + 1)𝜃)

Taking the LHS

[𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑘+1 = [𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]𝑘 x 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) By Laws of indices

= 𝑟 𝑘 (cos 𝑘𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃) x 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) By assumption

= 𝑟 𝑘+1 (cos 𝑘𝜃 x cos 𝜃 − sin 𝑘𝜃 x sin 𝜃 + 𝑖(sin 𝑘𝜃 x cos 𝜃 + cos 𝑘𝜃 x sin 𝜃 ) )

= 𝑟 𝑘+1 [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃))] By addition formulae for trigs
= 𝑟 𝑘+1 (cos(𝑘 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 + 1)𝜃)
Which is what we intended to show
Since the theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1, and if true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 implies it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, it
follows from the Principle of Mathematical Induction that it is true for any positive integer 𝑛.

The de Moivre’s theorem also holds when 𝑛 is a negative integer or a fraction.

𝑛
In exponential form, if 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 , the de Moivre’s theorem is 𝑧 𝑛 = (𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑛𝜃𝑖

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Example 1

Use the de Moivre’s theorem to simplify

𝜋 𝜋 6
(a) (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)7 (b) (cos 4 − 𝑖 sin 4 )

10
(c) (1 + 3𝑖)

Solution

(a) (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)7 = cos 7𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 7𝜃

𝜋 𝜋 6
(b) (cos (4 ) − 𝑖 sin ( 4 ))

𝜋 𝜋 6
= (cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )) Using cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 and sin(−𝜃) = −sin 𝜃
−6𝜋 −6𝜋
= cos ( 4
) + 𝑖 sin ( 4
) By the De Moivre’s theorem

−3𝜋 −3𝜋
= cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
= cos ( 2 ) + 𝑖 sin (2 ) 2𝜋 added to express in polar form

=𝑖

Note that it is apparent from this example that (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃. It is very
important to realise that this is a deduction from the de Moivre’s theorem and it must not be
quoted as the theorem.

10
(c) (1 + 3𝑖)

Let 𝑢 = 1 + 3𝑖

2
=> |𝑢| = √12 + 3 = 2

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𝜋
arg(𝑢) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3 =
3

Hence in polar form

10 𝜋 𝜋 10
(1 + 3𝑖) = [2 (cos 3 + 𝑖 sin 3 )]

10𝜋 10𝜋
= 210 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) By the De Moivre’s theorem
3 3

4𝜋 4𝜋
= 210 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) 2𝜋 subtracted to express in polar form
3 3

1 3
= 210 (− − 𝑖)
2 2

= 512(−1 + 3𝑖)

Example 2

Simplify

7𝜋 7𝜋 4
(cos 3𝜃+𝑖 sin 3𝜃)9 [2(cos +𝑖 sin )] 1
3 3
(a) (cos 2𝜃+𝑖 sin 2𝜃)7
(b) 4𝜋 4𝜋 6
(c) 5
[5(cos −𝑖 sin )] (1+ 3𝑖)
3 3

Solution

(cos 3𝜃+𝑖 sin 3𝜃)9

(a) (cos 2𝜃+𝑖 sin 2𝜃)7

cos 27𝜃+𝑖 sin 27𝜃

= cos 14𝜃+𝑖 sin 14𝜃 By the De Moivre’s theorem

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𝑧1 𝑟1
= cos(27𝜃 − 14𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(27𝜃 − 14𝜃) = {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )}
𝑧2 𝑟2

= cos 13𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 13𝜃

7𝜋 7𝜋 4
[2(cos +𝑖 sin )]
3 3
(b) 4𝜋 4𝜋 5
[3(cos −𝑖 sin )]
3 3

7𝜋 7𝜋 4
[2(cos
+𝑖 sin )]
3 3
= 4𝜋 4𝜋 5 Since cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 and sin(−𝜃) = −sin 𝜃
[3(cos(− )+𝑖 sin(− ))]
3 3

28𝜋 28𝜋
16(cos +𝑖 sin )
= 3
20𝜋
3
20𝜋 By the De Moivre’s theorem
243(cos(− )+𝑖 sin(− ))
3 3

16 28𝜋 20𝜋 28𝜋 20𝜋 𝑧1 𝑟1

= 243 [cos ( − ) + 𝑖 sin ( − )] = {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )}
3 3 3 3 𝑧2 𝑟2
16 8𝜋 8𝜋
= 243 [cos ( 3 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 3 )]

16 2𝜋 2𝜋
= 243 [cos ( 3 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 3 )] 2𝜋 subtracted to express in polar form

16 1 3
= 243 (− 2 + 𝑖)
2

8
= 243 (−1 + 3𝑖)

1 −5
(c) 5 = (1 + 3𝑖)
(1+ 3𝑖)

𝜋 𝜋 −5
= [2 (cos 3 + 𝑖 sin 3 )] Polar form

−5𝜋 −5𝜋
= 2−5 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) By the De Moivre’s theorem
3 3

𝜋 𝜋
= 2−5 (cos 3 + 𝑖 sin 3 ) 2𝜋 added to express in polar form

1 1 3
= 32 (2 + 𝑖)
2

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1
= (1 + 3𝑖)
64

Example 3

(i) Use the De Moivre’s theorem to show that

cos 6𝜃 = 32𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 − 48𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 + 18 cos 2 𝜃 − 1.

𝜋
(ii) Deduce that cos 12 is a root of the equation 32𝑥 6 − 48𝑥 4 + 18𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 and

write down the other four roots in a similar form.

Solution

(i) cos 6𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 6𝜃 = (cos θ + i sin θ)6

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃(𝑖 sin 𝜃) + 15𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃(𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 + 20𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃(𝑖 sin 𝜃)3 + 15 cos2 𝜃(𝑖 sin 𝜃)4 +
+6 cos 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)5 + (𝑖 sin 𝜃)6 . Pascal’s triangle used to expand RHS

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 + 6𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 15𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 20𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 + 15 cos2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃

+ 6𝑖 cos 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃

∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 − 15𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 15 cos 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛6 𝜃 After equating real parts

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 − 15𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) + 15 cos2 𝜃 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)2 − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)3

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 − 15𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 + 15𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 + 15 cos2 𝜃 − 30 cos 4 𝜃 + 15 cos6 𝜃 − 1 +

3 cos 2 𝜃 − 3 cos4 𝜃 + cos 6 𝜃

= 32𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 − 48𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 + 18 cos 2 𝜃 − 1

Notice that by equating imaginary parts of the equation, we will obtain an expression for sin 6𝜃.

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
(ii) When 𝜃 = , cos (6x ) = cos = 0 hence cos is a root.
12 12 2 12

3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋
The other roots of cos 6𝜃 = 0 are ± 12 , ± 12 , ± 12 , ± 12 etc..

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So the other roots of the equation 32𝑥 6 − 48𝑥 4 + 18𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 are

3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋 9𝜋 11𝜋
cos 12 , cos 12 , cos 12 , cos 12, cos .
12

Example 4

5 tan 𝜃−10𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃+𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃

Using the de Moivre’s theorem, show that tan 5𝜃 = .
1−10𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃+5𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃

Solution

Consider cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 = (cos θ + i sin θ)5

We will expand in the same way we did in example 3. We will let cos 𝜃 be 𝑐 and sin 𝜃 be
𝑠 to avoid too much writing.

cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 = (c + is)5 = 𝑐 5 + 5𝑖𝑐 4 𝑠 − 10𝑐 3 𝑠 2 − 10𝑖𝑐 2 𝑠 3 + 5𝑐𝑠 4 + 𝑖𝑠 5 .

Equating the real parts in the equation cos 5𝜃 = 𝑐 5 − 10𝑐 3 𝑠 2 + 5𝑐𝑠 4 .

Equating the imaginary parts in the equation sin 5𝜃 = 5𝑐 4 𝑠 − 10𝑐 2 𝑠 3 + 𝑠 5

sin 5𝜃 5𝑐 4 𝑠−10𝑐 2 𝑠3 +𝑠5

Now, tan 5𝜃 = cos 5𝜃 = 𝑐 5 −10𝑐 3𝑠2 +5𝑐𝑠4

Dividing numerator and denominator of RHS by 𝑐 5 we have

5 tan 𝜃−𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝜃+𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃

tan 5𝜃 = 1−10𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃+5 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃

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Exercise

sin 6𝜃
1 Express 4 sin 𝜃 in terms of cos 𝜃.

2 Use the de Moivre’s theorem to show that

cos 7𝜃 = 64𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝜃 − 112𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 + 56𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 7𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Hence obtain the roots of the equation 128𝑥 7 − 224𝑥 5 + 112𝑥 3 − 14𝑥 + 1 = 0
in the form cos 𝑞𝜋 where 𝑞 is a rational number.

7.2.6 More Applications of the de-Moivre’s theorem

If 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

1
= 𝑧 −1 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−1
𝑧

= (cos(−𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝜃) ) By the De Moivre’s theorem

= cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 Since cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 and sin(−𝜃) = −sin 𝜃

1
Now, 𝑧 + 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃

= 2 cos 𝜃

1
𝑧 − 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 − (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= 2𝑖 sin 𝜃

Notice also that

If 𝑧 𝑛 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛

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= cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 By the De Moivre’s theorem

1
= 𝑧 −𝑛 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−𝑛
𝑧𝑛

= (cos(−𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(−𝑛𝜃) ) By the De Moivre’s theorem

= cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 Since cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 and sin(−𝜃) = −sin 𝜃

1
Now, 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 + cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃

1
𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 − (cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

= 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

And so we have established that:

1 1
𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2 cos 𝜃 and 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃

1 1
𝑧 − 𝑧 = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃 and 𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑧 𝑛 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

Example 1

Express 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 in terms of multiple angles of cos 𝜃.

Solution

1 4 1
(2 cos 𝜃)4 = (𝑧 + ) since 2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑧 + 𝑧
𝑧

1 1 1 1
 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 = 𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 3 . 𝑧 + 6𝑧 2 . 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧. 𝑧 3 + 𝑧 4 Expansion of RHS using Pascal’s ∆
1 1
 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 = 𝑧 4 + 𝑧 4 + 4 (𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 ) + 6

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1
 16𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 = 2cos 4𝜃 + 4(2 cos 2𝜃) + 6 Using 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑧 𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃

Dividing both sides by 2 gives

8𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 = cos 4𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 + 3.

Exercise

1 Using applications of the de Moivre’s theorem prove that

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 = (cos 5𝜃 + 5 cos 3𝜃 + 10 cos 𝜃), and hence find ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝜃 𝑑𝜃.
16

2 Show that 32𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 = cos 6𝜃 + 6 cos 4𝜃 + 15 cos 2𝜃 + 10

𝜋⁄
Hence find ∫0 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 in the form 𝑎𝜋 + 𝑏 3 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants

1 3
3 (a) Express (𝑧 2 + 𝑧 2 ) in terms of cos 6𝜃 and cos 2𝜃.

(b) Hence or otherwise show that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝜃 = 𝑎cos 6𝜃 + 𝑏 cos 2𝜃,

where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants

𝜋⁄
(c) Hence or otherwise show that ∫0 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑘 3, where 𝑘 is

a constant.

4 Simplify the following in terms of multiples of 𝜃

2 5
(a) 2𝑧 3 + 5𝑧 4 + 𝑧 3 − 𝑧 4 + 6
7 35 21 1
(b) 𝑧 7 − 7𝑧 5 + 𝑧 5 − 35𝑧 + − 𝑧 3 +21𝑧 3 − 𝑧 7
𝑧

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7.2.7 Solution of Complex numbers using the de Moivre’s Theorem

Recall the forms in which the complex number z may

be written:

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

where r is a real number with r > 0, and θ is an angle such that – 𝜋< θ ≤ π.

We need to add multiples of 2π to obtain other angles that are co-terminal to θ and therefore have
the same cosine and sine. In other words we obtain the same complex number.

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝑘𝜋) = 𝑟[cos(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋)] for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛 − 1.

Also recall the de Moivre's theorem which states

𝑧 𝑛 = {𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)}𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

This follows immediately from the properties of complex exponentials:

𝑛
𝑧 𝑛 = (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃

Example 1
Find all the complex solutions of the equation 𝑧 4 = −256 and illustrate your solutions on
an argand diagram.

Solution

𝑧 4 = −256 + 0𝑖 ==> |𝑧 4 | = 256 and arg(𝑧 4 ) = 𝜋

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𝑧 4 = 256𝑒 (𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖
𝑧 = [256𝑒 (𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖 ] 1⁄4

𝜋+2𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑘 =
4
256𝑒 ( 4
)𝑖 By the De Moivre’s theorem

4 𝜋 𝑘𝜋 𝜋 𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑘 = 256 (cos ( 4 + ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 + )) Polar form
2 2
𝜋 𝑘𝜋 𝜋 𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑘 = 4 (cos (4 + ) + 𝑖 sin (4 + )) for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3.
2 2

For
𝜋 𝜋
𝑘 = 0: 𝑧0 = 4 (cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 ) = 2 2 + 2 2𝑖

3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑘 = 1: 𝑧1 = 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = −2 2 + 2 2𝑖
4 4

5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑘 = 2: 𝑧2 = 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = −2 2 − 2 2𝑖
4 4

7𝜋 7𝜋
𝑘 = 3: 𝑧3 = 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = 2 2 − 2 2𝑖
4 4

Notice that the pairs (𝑧0 , 𝑧3 ) and (𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ) are conjugates having the form 𝑥 ± 𝑖𝑦 .

When a polynomial equation has real coefficients, then it is always the case that the complex
solutions occur in conjugate pairs.

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Example 2

Find all cubic roots of 𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖 and illustrate your solutions on an Argand diagram

Solution

We want to solve 𝑧 3 = −1 + 𝑖
3
Let 𝑢 = −1 + 𝑖 ==> |𝑢| = 2 and arg(𝑢) = 4 𝜋
3
𝑢 = 2𝑒 (4𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖
1⁄
𝑧=𝑢 3
3
𝜋+2𝑘𝜋
(4 )𝑖
3 3
𝑧𝑘 = 2𝑒
3 𝜋 2𝑘𝜋 𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑘 = 2 (cos ( 4 + ) + 𝑖 sin (4 + ))
3 3
1
𝜋 2𝑘𝜋 𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑘 = 26 (cos ( 4 + ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 + )) for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2.
3 3

1
𝜋 𝜋
𝑘 = 0: 𝑧0 = 26 (cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4 )

1
11𝜋 11𝜋
𝑘 = 1: 𝑧1 = 26 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
12 12

1
19𝜋 19𝜋
𝑘 = 2: 𝑧2 = 26 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
12 12

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Example 3

Find the fourth root of −16𝑖 and illustrate your solutions on an Argand diagram

Solution

We want to solve 𝑧 4 = −16𝑖

3
Let 𝑧 4 = 0 − 16𝑖 ==> |𝑧 4 | = 16 and arg(𝑧 4 ) = 2 𝜋

3
𝑧 4 = 16𝑒 (2𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖

1 1 3
𝑧𝑘 = 164 𝑒 4(2𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖
3 1
𝑧𝑘 = 2𝑒 (8𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖 for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3.

3 3
𝑧0 = 2 (cos 8 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 8 𝜋)

7 7
𝑧1 = 2 (cos 8 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 8 𝜋)

11 11
𝑧2 = 2 (cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
8 8

15 15
𝑧3 = 2 (cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
8 8

Example 4

Using the substitution 𝑤 = 𝑧 4 , solve the equation 𝑧 8 − 𝑧 4 − 6 = 0 where 𝑧 is a complex

number.

Solution
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𝑤2 − 𝑤 − 6 = 0

(𝑤 − 3)(𝑤 + 2) = 0

𝑤 = 3 or −2

𝑧4 = 3

Taking 𝑤 = 3 + 0𝑖 ==> |𝑤| = 3 and arg(𝑤) = 0

1
4 (2𝑘𝜋) 𝑖
𝑧𝑘 = 3𝑒 4

𝑘𝜋
3𝑒 2 𝑖 for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4
𝑧𝑘 =

4 𝑘𝜋 𝑘𝜋 4
𝑧0 = 3 (cos + 𝑖 sin )= 3
2 2

4 𝜋 𝜋 4
𝑧1 = 3 (cos 2 + 𝑖 sin 2 ) = 3𝑖

4 4
𝑧2 = 3(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋) = − 3

4 3𝜋 3𝜋 4
𝑧3 = 3 (cos + 𝑖 sin ) = − 3𝑖
2 2

Considering 𝑧 4 = −2

Taking also 𝑤 = −2 + 0𝑖 ==> |𝑤| = 2 and arg(𝑤) = 𝜋

1
4 (𝜋+2𝑘𝜋)𝑖
𝑧𝑘 = 2𝑒 4
1 1
4 ( 𝜋+ 𝑘𝜋)𝑖
𝑧𝑘 = 2𝑒 4 2 for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3.

4 2 2 23⁄4
𝑧0 = 2( + 𝑖) = (1 + 𝑖)
2 2 2

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4 2 2 23⁄4
𝑧1 = 2( 2 + 𝑖) = (−1 + 𝑖)
2 2

4 2 2 23⁄4
𝑧2 = 2 (− − 𝑖) = − (1 + 𝑖)
2 2 2

4 2 2 23⁄4
𝑧3 = 2( 2 + 𝑖) = (1 − 𝑖)
2 2

Exercise

1 Solve the equation 𝑧 3 = 2 + 2𝑖 leaving your answers in exponential form.

2 Express 3 3 − 3𝑖 in the form 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 . Hence find the fourth root of 3 3 − 3𝑖 giving your
answers correct to 2 decimal places

3 Solve the equation 𝑧 4 + 9𝑖 = 0, giving your answers in the form 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 , where 𝑟 > 0 and

−𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

4 Leaving your answers in the form 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), find all the cube roots of 𝑧 =
−1 + 𝑖 .

5 Leaving your answers in the form 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), solve the equation 𝑧 4 + 8 +
𝑖8 3 = 0

6 Solve the following equation giving your answers in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 correct to 2dp.

(a) 𝑧 5 + 32 = 0 (b) 𝑧 4 = 8 − 8 3𝑖

7 Solve the following equations, expressing your answers for 𝑧 in the form
𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), 𝑟 > 0 and −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

(a) 𝑧 3 = −16 3 − 16𝑖 (b) 𝑧 4 + 2 3𝑖 = 2 (c) 𝑧 7 − 8 − 8𝑖 = 0

8 Leaving your answers in exact form in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, solve the following equation

𝑧 3 = 1. Show your solutions on an Argand diagram.

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7.2.8 nth Roots of unity

The solutions of the equation 𝑧 𝑛 = 1 are called the nth roots of unity.

Notice that the modulus of 𝑧 𝑛 is always 1, and the argument of 𝑧 𝑛 is always zero.

Therefore nth roots of unity can be expressed in the form.

2𝑘𝜋
𝑖 2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑧𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑛 Or 𝑧𝑘 = cos + 𝑖 sin for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … . , 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛

Example 1

Find the fifth roots of unity and show your solutions on an Argand diagram.

Solution

We want to solve 𝑧 5 = 1.

2𝑘𝜋
𝑖
We consider 𝑧𝑘 = 𝑒 5 for 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.

𝑧0 = 𝑒 0 = 1
2𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑧1 = 𝑒 5 𝑖 = cos + 𝑖 sin
5 5

4𝜋
4𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧2 = 𝑒 5 𝑖 = cos + 𝑖 sin
5 5

6𝜋
6𝜋 6𝜋
𝑧3 = 𝑒 5 𝑖 = cos + 𝑖 sin
5 5

8𝜋
8𝜋 8𝜋
𝑧4 = 𝑒 5 𝑖 = cos + 𝑖 sin
5 5

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7.2.9 Roots of complex numbers

When a polynomial equation has real coefficients, then it is always the case that the complex
solutions occur in conjugate pairs.

Example 1

(a) Show that 2 − 3𝑖 is a root of the equation 2𝑧 3 − 9𝑧 2 + 30𝑧 − 13 = 0.

(b) Hence find the other roots.

Solution

(a) Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 2𝑧 3 − 9𝑧 2 + 30𝑧 − 13

𝑓(2 − 3𝑖) = 2(2 − 3𝑖)3 − 9(2 − 3𝑖)2 + 30(2 − 3𝑖) − 13

= 2[8 + 3x4(−3𝑖) + 3x2(−3𝑖)2 + (−3𝑖)3 ] − 9(4 − 12𝑖 − 9) + 60 − 90𝑖 − 13

= 2(8 − 36𝑖 − 54 + 27𝑖) − 36 + 108𝑖 + 81 + 60 − 90𝑖 − 13

= 16 − 72𝑖 − 108 + 54𝑖 − 36 + 108𝑖 + 81 + 60 − 90𝑖 − 13

=0

Since 𝑓(2 − 3𝑖) = 0, it means 2 − 3𝑖 is a root of the equation.

(b) If 2 − 3𝑖 is a root then its conjugate 2 + 3𝑖 is another root.

So 𝑧 − 2 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧 − 2 − 3𝑖 are factors of the complex number.

Hence a quadratic factor is (𝑧 − 2 + 3𝑖 )(𝑧 − 2 − 3𝑖 ) = 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13

Using long division to find the third factor we get

2𝑧 − 1 as the third factor

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1
Taking 2𝑧 − 1 = 0 means is the third root.
2

Example 2

Given that 𝑢 = 1 + 2𝑖 is a root of the equation 𝑧 4 + 𝑝𝑧 3 + 𝑞𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 65 = 0 find the

values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Solution

Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 4 + 𝑝𝑧 3 + 𝑞𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 65

If 𝑢 = 1 + 2𝑖 is a root then 𝑓(𝑢) = 0, that is

(1 + 2𝑖)4 + 𝑝(1 + 2𝑖)3 + 𝑞(1 + 2𝑖)2 − 6(1 + 2𝑖) + 65 = 0

Now, (1 + 2𝑖)4 = 1 + 4x2𝑖 + 6x(2𝑖)2 + 4x(2𝑖)3 + (2𝑖)4 = −7 − 24𝑖

(1 + 2𝑖)3 = 1 + 3x2𝑖 + 3x(2𝑖)2 + (2𝑖)3 = −11 − 2𝑖

(1 + 2𝑖)2 = −3 + 4𝑖

Thus, −7 − 24𝑖 + 𝑝(−11 − 2𝑖) + 𝑞(−3 + 4𝑖) − 6(1 + 2𝑖) + 65 = 0

−7 − 24𝑖 − 11𝑝 − 2𝑝𝑖 − 3𝑞 + 4𝑞𝑖 − 6 − 12𝑖 + 65 = 0

(−7 − 11𝑝 − 3𝑞 − 6 + 65) + (−24 − 2𝑝 + 4𝑞 − 12)𝑖 = 0

Equating the real parts we have

52 − 11𝑝 − 3𝑞 = 0…………. (1)

Equating the imaginary parts we have

−36 − 2𝑝 + 4𝑞 = 0………… (2)

From (2), 𝑝 = −18 + 2𝑞

∴ Substituting into (1) => 52 − 11(−18 + 2𝑞) − 3𝑞 = 0

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52 + 198 − 22𝑞 − 3𝑞 = 0

𝑞 = 10 and 𝑝 = 2

Exercise

1 (a) The equation 3𝑧 3 − 10𝑧 2 + 20𝑧 − 16 = 0 has 1 − 3𝑖 as one of its roots.

(i) Find the other roots.

(ii) Sketch the roots in an Argand diagram.

2 Show that −2 + 𝑖 is one root of the quartic equation

𝑧 4 + 2𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2 + 10𝑧 + 25 = 0, and find the other roots.

3 Verify that 𝑧 = 𝑖 satisfies the equation 𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 3 + 6𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 5 = 0. Find the other

roots.

4 𝑘𝑖 is a root of the equation 2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 18𝑧 − 9 = 0, where 𝑘 is a real number.

Find the values of 𝑘 and the three roots of the equation 2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 18𝑧 − 9 = 0.

5 Given that 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the equation 𝑧 3 + 𝑝𝑧 2 + 𝑞𝑧 + 6 = 0 where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are

constants, find

(a) the other two roots,

(b) the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

6 (a) Factorise 𝑧 2 − 4 and, hence or otherwise, solve the equation 𝑧 2 − 4 = 0.

(b) Show that 𝑧 2 − 4 is a factor of 𝑧 3 + (3 + 𝑖)𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 − 4(3 + 𝑖).

(c) Find the three roots of the equation 𝑧 3 + (3 + 𝑖)𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 − 4(3 + 𝑖) = 0.

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7.2.10 Loci

A locus is a path traced out by a point subjected to certain restrictions.

CASE 1: |𝑧 − 𝑧1 | = 𝑘

This is a circle centre 𝒛𝟏 and radius 𝒌.

Example 1

Describe and sketch on an Argand diagram the

locus of

(i) |𝑧| = 2
(ii) |𝑧 − 1| = 1

(iii) |𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖|2 = 9

Solution

(i) |𝑧| = 2

Re-write as |𝑧 − (0 + 0𝑖)| = 2

It is a circle centre (𝟎, 𝟎) radius 2.

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(ii) |𝑧 − 1| = 1

Re-write as |𝑧 − (1 + 0𝑖)| = 1

It is a circle centre (𝟏, 𝟎) and radius 1

Notice that the vertical axis is a tangent to the circle

(iii) |𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖|2 = 9

Taking square roots of both sides we get

|𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖| = 3

Re-write as |𝑧 − (1 + 𝑖)| = 3

It is a circle centre (𝟏, 𝟏) and radius 3

Example 1

Describe and sketch on an Argand diagram the

locus of

(i) |𝑧| ≤ 2
(ii) 2 < |𝑧| ≤ 3

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Solution

(i) |𝑧| ≤ 2

Re-Write as |𝑧 − (0 + 0𝑖)| ≤ 2

This is the circumference and inside of a

circle centre (𝟎; 𝟎) and radius 2

(ii) 2 < |𝑧| ≤ 3

Re-write as 2 < |𝑧 − (0 + 0𝑖)| ≤ 3

This is the region between the two circles,

one with centre (0;0) and radius 2 and the
other with centre (0;0) and radius 3.

Notice that the circumference of the

smaller circle is a broken line.

CASE 2: |𝑧 − 𝑧1 | = |𝑧 − 𝑧2 |

Perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining complex numbers 𝒛𝟏 and 𝒛𝟐 .

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Example 1

Sketch on an Argand diagram the locus of

|𝑧 + 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 1|

Solution

|𝑧 + 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 1|

Re-write as |𝑧 − (0 − 𝑖)| = |𝑧 − (1 + 0𝑖)|

Perpendicular bisector of the line joining (𝟎, −𝟏)

and (𝟏, 𝟎)

Example 2

Sketch on an Argand diagram and describe the

locus represented by

|𝑧 + 𝑖| ≥ |𝑧 − 1|

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Solution

It is a half plane to the right of the perpendicular bisector

joining (𝟎, −𝟏) and (𝟏, 𝟎).

Notice that this locus consists of points closer to (1; 0) than

(0, −1).

CASE 3: Arg(𝑧−𝑧1 ) = 𝛼

This is a half line having one end at 𝒛𝟏 and making an angle 𝜶 with the (positive) horizontal
direction.

Example

On an Argand diagram, represent the following loci

𝜋
(i) Arg(𝑧) = 6

2𝜋
(ii) Arg(𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖) = 3

𝜋
(iii) Arg(𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖) = − 4

𝜋 𝜋
(iv) ≤ arg(𝑧 − 2) ≤
3 2

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Solution
𝜋
(i) Arg(𝑧) = 6

𝜋
Re-write as Arg(𝑧 − (0 + 0𝑖)) = 6

This is a half line having one end at O and

𝝅
making an angle 𝟔 with the (positive)

horizontal direction.

2𝜋
(ii) Arg(𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖) = 3

This is a half line having one end at (−𝟏, 𝟏)

𝟐𝝅
and making an angle with the (positive)
𝟑

horizontal direction.

𝜋
(iii) Arg(𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖) = − 4

𝜋
Re-write as Arg(𝑧 − (2 + 𝑖)) = − 4

This is a half line having one end at (𝟐, 𝟏)

𝝅
and making an angle 𝟒 below the (positive)

horizontal direction.

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𝜋 𝜋
(iv) ≤ arg(𝑧 − 2) ≤
3 2

It is the region bounded by the half lines

𝝅 𝝅
𝐚𝐫𝐠(𝒛 − 𝟐) = and 𝐚𝐫𝐠(𝒛 − 𝟐) =
𝟑 𝟐

𝑧−𝑧
CASE 4: 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧−𝑧1 ) = 𝜃
2

This locus is an arc of a circle in which the chord made by joining points 𝒛𝟏 and 𝒛𝟐
subtends an angle of 𝜽 on the arc.

Example
𝑧−2−2𝑖 𝜋
Sketch the locus defined by 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( )=
𝑧−6𝑖 4

Solution
𝑧−2−2𝑖 𝜋
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( )=
𝑧−6𝑖 4
𝜋
Re write as arg(𝑧 − 2 − 2𝑖) − arg(𝑧 − 6𝑖) = 4

Let 𝑙1 be the half line satisfying arg(𝑧 − 2 − 2𝑖) = 𝜃

and 𝑙2 be the half line satisfying arg(𝑧 − 6𝑖) =∝
𝜋
This implies that 𝜃−∝= 4

All points on 𝑙1 satify the locus arg(𝑧 − 2 − 2𝑖) = 𝜃

All points on 𝑙2 satify the locus arg(𝑧 − 6𝑖) =∝
Point P is at the intersection of 𝑙1 and 𝑙2
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Notice that QŜR = θ is an exterior angle for ∆QPS

̂S = θ−∝= 𝜋
Hence QP 4

The locus is an arc of a circle in which the chord made

𝝅
by joining (𝟐; 𝟐) and (𝟎; 𝟔) subtends an angle of 𝟒 on
the arc.

7.2.11 Cartesian Equations

Example 1
Using algebraic methods find the Cartesian equations represented by the following loci
(i) |𝑧 − 2| = |𝑧 + 2𝑖|
(ii) |𝑍 − 3 + 𝑖| = 5
𝜋
(iii) Arg(𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖) = − 4

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Solution

(i) |𝑧 − 2| = |𝑧 + 2𝑖|

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 2𝑖|

|(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑖(𝑦 + 0)| = |(𝑥 + 0) + 𝑖(𝑦 + 2)| Grouping real and imaginary parts

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 0)2 = (𝑥 + 0)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 By property of modulus

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 4

𝑦 = −𝑥
So the locus is a straight line with equation 𝑦 = −𝑥.

(ii) |𝑍 − 3 + 𝑖| = 5

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 3 + 𝑖| = 5

|(𝑥 − 3) + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖| = 5 Grouping real and imaginary parts

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 5 By property of modulus

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𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5 = 0

This is a circle centre (3; −1) and radius 5

𝜋
(iii) Arg(𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖) = − 4

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝜋
Arg(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2 − 𝑖) = − 4

𝜋
Arg((𝑥 − 2) + (𝑦 − 1)𝑖) = − 4

𝑦−1 𝜋
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− 4 ) By property of argument
𝑥−2

𝑦−1
= −1
𝑥−2

𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3

The locus is a straight line with equation 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3

Example 2
Show that the locus represented by |𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖| = 3|𝑧 + 6 + 3𝑖| is a circle and find its
centre and radius.

Solution
|𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖| = 3|𝑧 + 6 + 3𝑖|
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Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|(𝑥 − 2) + (𝑦 − 1)𝑖| = 3|(𝑥 + 6) + (𝑦 + 3)𝑖|

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 32 [(𝑥 + 6)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 ]

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5 = 9(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 45)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5 = 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 + 108𝑥 + 54𝑦 + 405

8𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 + 112𝑥 + 56𝑦 + 400 = 0

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 14𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 50 = 0

7 45
(𝑥 + 7)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = By completing the square
4

7 45
This is a circle centre (−7; − 2) and radius √ 4

Example 2
𝑧+2
Given that the complex number is completely imaginary, show that the locus
𝑧−2
representing 𝑧 in the Argand plane is a circle centre (0; 0) and radius 2.

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Solution
𝑧+2
𝑧−2

Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑥+𝑖𝑦+2
𝑥+𝑖𝑦−2

(𝑥+2)+𝑖𝑦
(𝑥−2)+𝑖𝑦

(𝑥+2)+𝑖𝑦 (𝑥−2)−𝑖𝑦
x (𝑥−2)−𝑖𝑦 Multiplying numerator and denominator by conjugate of denominator
(𝑥−2)+𝑖𝑦

(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4)−4𝑦𝑖
(𝑥−2)2 +𝑦2

(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4) 4𝑦
− ((𝑥−2)2 +𝑦 2) 𝑖
(𝑥−2)2 +𝑦 2

Now, since the the complex number is completely imaginary it means the real part is zero.
That is
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −4)
=0
(𝑥−2)2 +𝑦 2

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 4 = 0

(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 22

This is a circle centre (0; 0) and radius 2.

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Exercise

1 Sketch on an Argand diagram the locus of Z, where

|𝑧 + 4| = |𝑧 − 4𝑖| [2]

Hence or otherwise state the Cartesian equation of the locus. [1]

2 (i) Sketch an argand diagram of the locus of 𝑧 where

|𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖| = |𝑧 + 2 + 3𝑖|

(ii) Hence or otherwise state the Cartesian equation of the locus. [5]

3 Sketch in an argand diagram the set of points representing all complex

numbers z satisfying both the inequalities
𝜋 𝜋
|𝑧 − 3 − 𝑖| ≤ 4 and ≤ arg(𝑧 − 4 − 2𝑖) ≤ 2 . [3]
3

4 Indicate by shading on a single Argand diagram the region in which

both of the following inequalities are satisfied:

𝜋 𝜋
< arg(𝑧) < |𝑧 − 3𝑖| ≤ 3 [3]
4 2

5 Illustrate on an Argand diagram the set of points representing the

complex number 𝑧 satisfying both:

3𝜋
|𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖| ≤ 3 and arg(𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖) = [3]
4

𝜋
6 If arg(𝑧 − 2) = 3 , sketch the locus of P(𝑥, 𝑦) which is represented by

z on an Argand diagram. Find the Cartesian equation of this locus.

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7 Describe the locus represented by |2 − 5𝑖 − 𝑧| = 3.

8 On the same axes, draw a diagram showing the locus of z in each of the
following
𝜋 𝜋
1. |𝑧| < 2 2. < arg(𝑧) <
6 3

Shade the region which is common to both loci above. [3]

9 Sketch in an Argand diagram the set of points representing all complex

numbers z satisfying both the inequalities

|𝑧 − 2𝑖| ≤ 2 and |𝑧 − 2𝑖| ≤ |𝑧| [3]

10 The complex number z is such that

2𝜋 𝜋
0 ≤ arg(𝑧 + 1) ≤ and ≤ arg(𝑧 + 3) ≤ 𝜋
3 6

(i) Sketch on an Argand diagram the region R in which z must lie.

(ii) Mark on this diagram the point A belonging to R at which z has
its least possible value.

11 (a) Shade in, on separate Argand diagrams the region represented by

(i) |𝑧 − 4 − 2𝑖| ≤ 2, (ii) |𝑧 − 4| < |𝑧 − 6|,
𝜋
(iii) 0 ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 − 2 − 2𝑖) ≤ 4 .
(b) Hence on one Argand diagram shade in the region which satisfies
|𝑧 − 4 − 2𝑖| ≤ 2, |𝑧 − 4| < |𝑧 − 6| and
𝜋
0 ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 − 2 − 2𝑖) ≤ 4 .

12 If |𝑧 − 6| = 2|𝑧 + 6 − 9𝑖|,
(a) use algebra to show that the locus of z is a circle, stating its centre and
its radius.
(b) sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagram.

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13 Sketch the following locus on an Argand diagram:

𝑧−1 𝜋
(a) Arg(𝑧−4𝑖) = [4]
3

𝑧−2−2𝑖 𝜋
(b) 𝐴𝑟𝑔 ( )= [4]
𝑧−6 6

𝑧 𝜋
(c) Arg (𝑧−2) = [4]
4

𝑧+2𝑖 𝜋
(d) Arg( )= [4]
𝑧−2𝑖 4

𝑧−1 𝜋
(e) Arg(𝑧−3) = [4]
3

𝑧 𝜋
(f) Arg(𝑧+4𝑖) = [4]
6

𝜋
14 If arg(𝑧 − 2) = 3 , sketch the locus of P(𝑥, 𝑦) which is represented by z on an
Argand diagram. Find the Cartesian equation of this locus.

𝑧−8𝑖
15 Given that is completely imaginary and 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑥 and 𝑦
𝑧−6
are real, show that the locus of the point representing 𝑧 in the Argand
diagram is a circle. [3]
Hence by first finding its centre and radius, sketch the circle on an Argand
diagram. [4]

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Miscellaneous Exercises 2

1 Describe geometrically and sketch the region on the complex plane for which
−𝜋 𝜋
(a) ≤ arg(𝑧 − 2𝑖) ≤
4 3

𝑧−5+7𝑖 𝜋
(b) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( 𝑧+1+𝑖 ) = 2

(c) 2 < |𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖| ≤ 5
𝜋
(d) arg(𝑧 + 2) − arg(𝑧 − 3) =
3

(e) |𝑧 − 2| + |𝑧 − 3 + 𝑖| = 0

𝑧−5+7𝑖 𝜋
(f) 𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( 𝑧+1+𝑖 ) = 2

𝜋
(g) 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 − 3)2 = 2

2 (a) Sketch on one Argand diagram:

(i) the locus of points satisfying |𝑧 – 𝑖| = |𝑧 – 2|;

1
(ii) the locus of points satisfying 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 – 𝑖) = 𝜋
4

(b) Shade on your diagram the region in which

𝜋 𝜋
|𝑧 – 𝑖| ≤ |𝑧 – 2| and − 2 ≤ 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑖) ≤ 4

2 Simplify (1 + 𝑖)10 − (1 − 𝑖)10.

Given that 𝑛 is a positive integer show that (1 + 𝑖)4𝑛 − (1 − 𝑖)4𝑛 = 0.
𝑛 𝑛
3 Find all values of 𝑛 such that (− 3 + 𝑖) + (− 3 − 𝑖) = 0

______________________________________________________________________________
“I tell you, with complex numbers you can do anything” - John Derbyshire

[email protected] /+263773975592_
45

4 The complex number 𝑧 satisfies the equation |𝑧 + 1| = 2|𝑧 − 1|. The point P
represents 𝑧 on an Argand diagram. Show that the locus of P is a circle and find its
centre and radius.

5 Use the method of Mathematical induction to prove that

(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 when 𝑛 is a positive integer.
Deduce that the result is also true when 𝑛 is a negative integer.

6 (i) Use the de Moivre’s theorem to show that

𝑛 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
( 3 − 𝑖) = 2𝑛 (cos − 𝑖 sin )
6 6
𝑚
(ii) Find the least positive integer 𝑚 for which ( 3 − 𝑖) is real and positive.

(iii) Given that ( 3 − 𝑖) is a root of the equation

𝑧 9 + 16(1 + 𝑖)𝑧 3 + 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = 0,
find the values of the real constants 𝑎 and 𝑏.
7 Find all the solutions for each of the following, giving your answers in both polar
and cartesian form.
` (a) 𝑧4 − 4 = 0 (b) 𝑧 4 + 8 + 8 3𝑖 = 0 (c) 𝑧 6 = 64.
8 Solve for 𝑧 if
(a) 𝑧 4 + 16𝑧 2 − 225 = 0 (b) 𝑧 4 − 18𝑧 2 − 243 = 0
9 Given that 𝑥1 = 1 + 2𝑖 is a root of the equation 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 − 75 = 0,
find the other three roots.
10 Given that 2 + 3𝑖 is a solution of the equation 2𝑧 4 − 3𝑧 3 + 3𝑧 2 + 77𝑧 − 39 = 0,
find the other solutions.

______________________________________________________________________________
“I tell you, with complex numbers you can do anything” - John Derbyshire

[email protected] /+263773975592_