Earth science reviewer Core - has both liquid and solid components, is

made mainly of iron, nickel, and oxygen.

Endogenic and Exogenic processes - Meteorites contain much more iron than
Geological processes - Dynamic actions or events typical surface rocks.
that occur at the Earth's surface due to the Physical layers
application of natural forces resulting from Lithosphere - ‘litho’ meaning rock, is the
gravity, temperature changes, freezing and outermost physical layer of the Earth.
thawing, chemical reactions, seismic shaking, - not continuous but broken into several
and the agencies of wind and moving water, ice segments called plates.
and snow. Where and when a force exceeds the - A plate boundary is where two plates meet
strength of the earth’s material, the material is and move relative to each other.
changed by deformation, translocation, or Oceanic lithosphere, ranging from a thickness
chemical reactions. of zero
Layers of the earth Continental lithosphere is more plastic &
thicker
Asthenosphere - ‘astheno’ meaning weak, its the
layer below the lithosphere.
- driven by the convection of intense interior
heat, movement allows the lithospheric plates
to move.
Mesosphere - or lower mantle, is more rigid &
immobile than the asthenosphere but still hot.
Structure of Earth’s crust
Chemical layers - As the tectonic plates float on a mobile layer
Crust – the outermost layer, humans currently beneath called the asthenosphere, they collide,
reside on. slide past each other, and split apart. As a result,
- the Mohorovičić Discontinuity, or Moho for significant landforms are created at these plate
short, discovered by Andrija Mohorovičić is boundaries, and rocks making up the tectonic
the boundary between the Earth's crust and plates move through the rock cycle.
the mantle.
Continents
Crust has 2 types:
- Constructive forces cause physical features on
Continental crust - low density
Earth’s surface known as landforms to grow.
Oceanic crust – high density
- Crustal deformation – when crust compresses,
Mantle - the layer below the crust and above the
core. the most substantial layer by volume,
pulls apart, or slides past other crust
extending from the base of the crust to a depth
- Sediments are deposited to form landforms,
of about 2900 km.
such as deltas. Volcanic eruptions can also be
- the mantle comes from seismic waves, though
destructive forces that blow landforms apart.
The destructive forces of weathering and
some direct information can be gathered from
erosion modify landforms.
parts of the ocean floor brought to the surface,
- Water, wind, ice, and gravity are fundamental
known as ophiolites.
forces of erosion.
- carried within magma are xenoliths, small
chunks of lower rock carried to the surface by
eruptions.
Oceanic Basins
- Water, wind, ice, and gravity are fundamental

forces of erosion.
- The ocean trenches are the deepest places of
the ocean, many of which are found around the

edge of the Pacific Ocean.

- Chains of volcanoes are also found in the
center of the oceans. Finally, flat plains are
located on the ocean floor with their features
covered by mud.
Magma
- defined as molten rock found below the
earth's surface. It's a Greek word meaning
'thick ointment.' Different types of exogenic processes:
- magma on the earth's surface changes names Weathering: is the breaking down or dissolving
and is called lava. of rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface
- Magma temperatures usually fall somewhere Mass wasting: is the movement of rock and soil
in the range of 700-1300 degrees Celsius, downslope under the influence of gravity.
which is about 1200-2400 degrees Fahrenheit. Erosion: The geological process in which earthen
- the geothermal gradient causes rocks to melt materials are worn away and transported by
and become magma natural forces such as wind or water.
- if water is present, rocks will melt at a lower Transportation: Transportation is the movement
temperature than they otherwise would. of material across the Earth’s surface by water,
- the deeper rocks are in the earth, the hotter it wind, ice or gravity.

has to be to melt them because greater Continental Drift

pressure keeps them in a solid state longer. the theory was developed in the early 20th
- Magmas have varying proportions of century by Alfred Wegener; continents move
elements: hydrogen, carbon, and Sulphur around on Earth’s surface and that they were
- Decompression melting occurs if there are once joined together as a single supercontinent
the formation and movement of magma under called Pangea meaning ‘all earth’ in ancient greek
the earth's crust.
Decompression melting
- The mantle rock of the Earth moves upwards
towards a region of lower pressure, due to
convection at lower pressure, the melting
point decreases.
- Due to this lowering of pressure, or
decompression, the mantle melts easily to
form magma. This type of formation occurs at
divergent boundaries of tectonic plates, hot
spots (weak spots; magma is hotter than
surrounding magma)
Evidence for continental drift
Besides the way that, continents fit together
1. Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are
found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
2. Mountain ranges with the same rock types,
structures, and ages are now on opposite sides of
the Atlantic Ocean.
3. Wegener proposed that the organisms had
lived side by side, but that the lands had moved
apart after they were dead and fossilized.
- Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too
heavy to be carried so far by the wind.
- Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but
could only swim in fresh water.
from the stress of compression. Rock is forced
Plate tectonics upward as it squeezed
Plates - The Earth’s crust and upper mantle Three types of convergent boundaries:
(Lithosphere) are broken into sections 1. Oceanic-continental convergence
- A section of the lithosphere that slowly moves 2. Oceanic-oceanic convergence
over the asthenosphere, carrying pieces of 3. Continental-continental convergence
continental and oceanic crust. - Rock goes crunches up to make folded
The theory that pieces of Earth’s lithosphere are mountains.
in constant motion, driven by convection - Rock goes down “under” at subduction zone.
currents in the mantle. 3. Transform boundaries - move past each other
- Plates move slowly in different directions in opposite direction. This stress is called
- Cause different geologic events (like ‘shearing’. May cause Earthquakes when the rock
earthquake, volcano, etc.) snaps from the pressure. San Andreas Fault in
- Convection Currents in the mantle move the California.
plates as the core heats the slowly-flowing
asthenosphere
Plate boundaries - The edges of Earth’s plates
meet at plate boundaries.
- Extended deep into the lithosphere
- Breaks in Earth’s crust where rocks have
slipped past each other is called fault
Three types of plate boundaries
1. Divergent boundaries - two plates move away
from each other. Rock gets thin in the middle as
it is pulled apart, this stress is called ‘tension’
- May form rift valleys on continents
- Mid-ocean ridges, rift valley, fissure volcanoes
2. Convergent boundaries - two plates move
towards each other (colliding). Places where
plates crash (or crunch) together or subduct
(one sinks under) stress is called ‘compression’
- Reverse fault is when the rock is squeezed