PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING , PERMUTATION, COMBINATION & PROBABILITY

GENERALIZATION OF PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING 8. The numbers are odd and repetition of digits is allowed
and not allowed?
If a choice of k steps, of which the first can be made in n 1 ways,
of each of these the second can be made in n 2 ways, …, and for each 9. The numbers are even and repetition of digits is allowed
and not allowed?
of these the k th can be made n k ways, then the whole choice can be
made in n 1 n 2 … n k ways. PERMUTATION
Permutation is an arrangement of a group of things in a definite
SITUATION. How many license plate can be made if, the plate is order, that is, there is a first element, a second, a third, etc
composed of 4 letters and 3 numbers if: The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken n at a
time is n!, i.e.
1. no restriction is imposed.
n Pn = P(n, n) = n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2) … (3)(2)(1)
2. repetition of letters is not allowed.
Arrangement of n Objects Taken r at a Time
The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is
SITUATION. A student has five different mathematics books, n!
four different history books, and eight different fiction books. Pr = .
(n − r )!
n

3. In how many ways can all of them be arranged on a shelf 10. If there are 15 horses in a horse of race, how many
without any restriction? possibilities are there for the win, place, and show
4. In how many different ways can they be arranged on a shelf (first, second, and third) positions if all orders of finish
if books in the same category are kept next to one another? are possible?
5. In how many ways can they be arranged if books of the same 11. An organization has 26 members. How many ways are
category are kept next to one another and the mathematics there to choose a chairman, vice chairman, secretary,
books are indistinguishable. and treasurer of the organization, where no person can
SITUATION. How many 4-digit numbers can be formed from hold more than one office?
the digits 0, 1, 2, 3,4,5,6 if: 12. How many 4-digit even and odd numbers can be formed
6. no digits are to be the same? from the digits 1, 2, 3,4,5,6,7,9 if no digits are to be the
7. repetition of digits is allowed? same?
13. A student has five different mathematics books, four Poopybutthole were invited to attend Birdperson and Tammy’s
different history books, and eight different fiction books. wedding in the Planet Squanch. Right after the wedding ceremony
In how many ways can all of them be arranged on a shelf they are all asked to sit around a circular table for the toast, bride
without any restriction? and groom excluded. In how many ways can they arrange
themselves such that:
Permutations of n Objects Some are Alike
The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n1 is of 17. No restriction is imposed.
one kind, n2 of a second kind, …, nk of a kth kind is
n!
N= . 18. Rick and Morty must always sit together.
n1 !n2 !n3 !... nk !
19. Mr. Meeseeks and Mr. Poopybutthole must not sit together.
14. How many distinct permutations can be made from the
letters of the word POSTPONEMENT? 20. In how many ways can they be seated around the circular
table if it has only 6 available seats.
15. In how many ways can 3 oaks, 4 pines, and 2 maples be
arranged along a property line if one does not distinguish COMBINATIONS
among trees of the same kind? A combination also concerns arrangements, but without regard
to the order.
16. Nine people are going on a skiing trip in 3 cars that hold 2, Combinatorial Formula
4, and 5 passengers, respectively. In how many ways is it
possible to transport the 9 people to the ski lodge, using all The number of ways of selecting r objects taken from n at a time
is C(n, r) where
cars?
n!
A. 1140 B. 4410 C. 7440 D. 4170 C(n, r ) = .
Circular Permutations r! (n − r )!
Permutations that occur by arranging objects in a circle are called 21. In a group of 16, a committee consisting of 7 individuals
circular permutations. must be formed. In how many ways can this be done?
N= ( n-1)!
SITUATION. In the episode “The Wedding Squanchers”, Rick, SITUATION. A box contains 5 red, 4 blue, and 3 white balls. In how
many ways can we select 3 balls such that
Morty, Jerry, Summer, Beth, Noob, Mr. Meeseeks, and Mr.
22. they are of different colors?
23. they are all red? PROBABILITY
24. two are blue and one is white?
Probability of Events
25. exactly 2 are blue?
26. none is white? Number of outcomes in event E
27. at least one white? P( E ) =
Total number of outcomes for the experiment
n( E ) f
If out of these 16 people, 9 of them are Chinese and 7 are = =
Filipinos, in how many can a committee composing of 4 Chinese n( S ) N
and 3 Filipinos be 35. What is the probability that the birthday of a person chosen
formed such that, at random will fall between September 18 and November
8, inclusive?
28. There is no other restriction imposed. A. 0.125 B. 0.1425 C. 0.215 D.
29. One particular Filipino must be on the committee. 0.365
36. A group of 4 people entered an opera house after the
30. A certain Chinese and a Filipino are lovers and must be on lights head dimmed. They are shown to the correct
the committee together. group of 4 seats by the usher. Each person holds a
number stub. What is the probability that each is in the
31. Two Filipinos are ex-lovers and must NOT be on the correct seat according to the numbers on seat and
committee together. stub?
37. A card is drawn at random from an ordinary deck of 52
32. A student is to answer 10 out of 13 questions on an exam, playing cards. Find the probability that it is a six of clubs
how many choices are available to him if he must answer at
38. An experiment consists of observing the sum of the dice
least 3 of the first 5 questions.
when two fair dice are thrown. Find the probability that the
sum is greater than 7?
33. A man has 6 friends. In how many ways can he invite one
39. A circle is inscribed in an equilateral triangle. What is the
or more of them for dinner?
probability that a point chosen at random in the triangle will
34. Kendrick flipped a coin 10 times. Each flip comes up
be inside the circle?
either heads or tails. How many possible outcomes
Odds
contain at most three tails?
40. Find the odds in favor of getting exactly 1 head in tossing a The probability that events A and B can happen together is called
fair coin three times. the joint probability of A and B and is written as P(A and B).
41. The odds against an event are 5:3 and the odds in favor of The probability of the intersection of two events is called their
another independent event are 7:5. Find the probability that joint probability. It is written as P(A and B).
at least one of the two events will occur. The probability of the intersection of two events A and B is
a. 52/96 b. 69/96 c. 71/96 d. 13/96 P(A and B) = P(A) P(B/A)
Conditional Probability The joint probability of events A and B can also be denoted by
P(A  B) or P(AB).
Conditional probability is the probability that an event will occur
given that another event has already occurred. If A and B are two events, Conditional Probability
then the conditional probability of A is written as P(A/B) and read as P(B and A)
“the probability of A given that B has already occurred.” If A and B are two events, then, P(A/B) = and
P(B)
Independent and Dependent Events
P(A and B)
Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence of one P(B/A) = , where P(A)  0 and P(B)  0. Notice that
does not affect the probability of the occurrence of the other. In other P( A)
words, A and B are independent events if either P(B/A) refers to the probability of B given that A has already occurred.
P(A/B) = P(A) or P(B/A) = P(B). Multiplication Rule for Independent Events
An example of independent events E 1 and E 2 is when drawing The foregoing discussion of the multiplication rule was based on
a ball ( E 1 ) from an urn and after replacing the first, a second ball is drawn the assumption that the two events are dependent, i.e. two events A and
B are dependent if
( E 2 ).
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B/A)
An example of dependent events E 1 and E 2 is when drawing The probability of the intersection of two independent events A
the first ball ( E 1 ), a second ball is drawn ( E 2 ) without replacement of and B is
the first. P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)
If the occurrence of one event affects the probability of the 42. Three balls are drawn from an urn containing 5 black, 6 white,
occurrence of the other event , then the two event are said to be dependent and 7 red balls. Determine the probability that they are in the
events. Using probability notation, the two events will be dependent if order black, white, and red if each ball is (a) replaced and (b) not
either replaced.
P(A/B)  P(A) or P(B/A)  P(B). 43. One bag contains 4 red and 3 blue balls; a second bag has 5 red
and 4 blue balls. If one ball is drawn from each bag, find the
Multiplication Rule
probability that (a) both are red; (b) both are blue, and (c) one is Let A and B be two events defined in a sample space. The union
red and one is blue. of events A and B is a collection of all outcomes that belong either to A
44. A fair die is tossed and a fair coin is flipped. What is the or B, or to both A and B and is denoted by A or B.
probability of obtaining a tail and a “4”? The union of events A and B is also denoted by “A  B.”
A. 1/12 B. 5/12 C. 1/4 D. 1/3
45. An experiment consists of observing the sum of the dice Addition Rule
when two fair dice are thrown. If the two fair dice are
The method used to calculate the probability of the union of
thrown behind you, and then you are informed that the sum events is called the addition rule. It is defined as follows
is not greater than 3, find the probability of the event that
two faces are the same. The probability of the union of two events A and B is
46. The probability of raining on Sunday is 0.07. If today is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
Sunday the find the probability of rain today. 51. An experiment consists of observing the sum of the dice
when two fair dice are thrown. Find the probability of
SITUATION. John Bogart says that he has a 55% chance of getting a total of 7 or 11.
going to the class picnic if it does not rain but only a 30% chance SITUATION. A card is drawn at random from an ordinary deck
of going if it does rain. The weatherman says there is a 40% of 52 playing cards. Find the probability that it is
chance of rain for the day of the picnic. 52. a six of clubs or a nine of diamonds?
47. What is the probability that John will go to the picnic? 53. A ten or a spade?
48. Given that John went to the picnic, what is the probability Of 300 students, 100 are currently enrolled in mathematics and 80
that it rained on the day of the picnic? are currently enrolled in Physics. These enrolment figures include
SITUATION. In a certain town, 40% of the people have brown 30 students whose are enrolled in both subjects. What is the
hair, 26% have brown eyes, and 16% have both brown hair and probability that a randomly chosen student will be enrolled in
brown eyes. A person is selected at random from the town. either Mathematics or Physics?
49. If she has brown hair, what is the probability that she also a. 0.45 b. 0.50 c. 0.55 d. 0.60
has brown eyes? 54. On a TV quiz show, a contestant is asked to pick an integer
50. If she has brown eyes, what is the probability that she does at random from the first 100 consecutive positive integers,
not have brown hair? which are the integers from 1 to 100. IF the number picked
is divisible by 9 or 12, the contestant will win a free trip to
Union of Events Boracay. What is the probability that the contestant will
win the trip?
a. 11/100 b. 13/100 c. 17/100 d. NEGATIVE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
19/100 66. Suppose the probability that any given person will believe a
tale about the transgressions of a famous actress is 0.8. What
Binomial Distribution Formula is the probability that the sixth person to hear this tale is the
Consider a binomial that has two possible outcome, success or fourth one to believe it?
failure. Let P(success) = p and P(failure) = q.
If this experiment is performed n times, then the probability of 67. Determine the probability of obtaining 5th head on 7th toss
getting x successes out of the n trials is. of a fair coin.
 n  x n−x n!
P( x successes)= n C x p x q n − x =  p q = pxqn −x
 x  x! ( n − x )!
GEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION
SITUATION. A student randomly guesses at 50 multiple choice
question. Each equation has 4 choices. Find the probability that the 68. At a “busy time,” a telephone exchange is very near
student gets capacity, so callers have difficulty placing their calls. It may
55. exactly 25 correct.
be of interest to know the number of attempts necessary to
56. At least 35 correct
make a connection. Suppose that we let p = 0.05 be the
SITUATION. Find the probability that in tossing a fair coin four times
there will appear probability of a connection during a busy time. What is the
57. Exactly 3 heads probability that 5 attempts are necessary for a successful
58. At least one head call?
59. At least 3 heads
60. At most 3heads. 69. The probability that a student pilot passes the written test
61. No head for a private pilot’s license is 0.7. Find the probability that
SITUATION. In testing a certain kind of truck tire over rugged a given student will pass the test on the third try.
terrain, it is found that 25% of the trucks fail to complete the test
run without a blowout. Of the next 15 trucks tested, find the 70. Suppose the probability that any given person will believe a
probability that tale about the transgressions of a famous actress is 0.8. What
62. exactly 5 have blowouts. is the probability that the third person to hear this tale is the
63. from 3 to 6 have blowouts. first one to believe it?
64. fewer than 4 have blowouts.
65. more than 5 have blowouts.
MULTINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION 74. In a certain intersection, it is observed that 60 cars turn left
every hour. Determine the probability of exactly 10 cars will
Multinomial Distribution Formula turn left every 10 min?
n!
P= p1n1 p2 n2 ... p nk SITUATION. Suppose there is an average of 2 suicides per year
n1 !n2 !n3 !... nk ! per 50,000 population. In a city of 100,000 find the probability
71. The probabilities are 0.4, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.1, respectively, that that each year there are:
a delegate to a certain convention arrived by air, bus, 75. 0
automobile, or train. What is the probability that among 9 76. 1 9
delegates randomly selected at this convention, 3 arrived by 77. 2
air, 3 arrived by bus, 1 arrived by automobile, and 2 arrived
by train? 78. 2 or more suicides.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
SITUATION. A box contains 5 red, 3 white and 2 blue marbles. 79. Suppose the diameters of bolts manufactured by a company
A sample of six marbles is drawn with replacement, i.e. each are normally distributed with mean of 0.25 inches and
marble is replaced before the next one is drawn. Find the standard deviation 0.02 inches. A bolt is considered
probability that: defective if its diameter is less than or equal to 0.20 inches
or greater than or equal to 0.28 inches. Find the percentage
72. 3 are red, 2 are white and 1 is blue. of defective bolts manufactured by the company.
73. 2 of each color appears.
80. In an electric company, the probability of passing an IQ
Poisson Distribution Formula test is 0.75. If ten applicants took test, what is this
The probability of observing exactly x number of occurrences theoretical standard deviation of the group?
per unit of measure (hour, minute, cubic, centimeter, page) can be found a. 1.57 b. 1.47 c. 1.37 d. 1.27
using the formula. SITUATION. Find the probability that 200 tosses of coin will result in
 x e − 81. between 80 and 120 heads inclusive.
P( x ) =
x! 82. less than 90 heads.
where  = the mean number of successes; e = the mathematical 83. exactly 100 heads
constant 2.7183; and P( x ) = the probability of getting exactly x number Mathematical Expectation
of occurrences.
84. If a man buys a lottery ticket, he can win first prize of P30,
000, 000 or a second prize of P20, 000 with probability of
1.9 x 10-7 and 4.1 x 10-5 respectively. What should be a fair
price to pay the ticket?
a. P5.52 b. P6.52 c. P7.52 d.
P8.52
85. If it rains, an umbrella salesman can earn P780 per day. If
it is fair, he can lose P156 per day. What is his
mathematical expectation if the probability of rain is 0.30?
a. P120.80 b. P122.80 c. P124.80 d. P126.80